EALS_1STSEM_MIDTERMS_REVIEWER.pdf

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE MIDTERMS | 1ST SEMESTER REVIEWER 3.8 BILLION YEARS AGO..HOW THE LIFE BEGAN ON EARTH... ✩ Molten rocks from the mantle burst 5 BILLION YEARS AGO out into the crust, r...

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE MIDTERMS | 1ST SEMESTER REVIEWER 3.8 BILLION YEARS AGO..HOW THE LIFE BEGAN ON EARTH... ✩ Molten rocks from the mantle burst 5 BILLION YEARS AGO out into the crust, rising above the ✩ The sun, a newly formed star, is surface, forming the first continents surrounded by dusts. as lava cooled down over time. ✩ These dusts were pulled by gravity ✩ Meteors carrying amino acids hit the into tiny rocks. Earth to the bottom of the ocean. ✩ Gravity then pulled the rocks ✩ These amino acids carry the primary together, creating the ‘old Earth’. need to form life, the DNA/RNA. 4.5 BILLION YEARS AGO ✩ Underwater chimneys released ✩ The Earth looked like hell because of chemicals, combining with the amino the magma ocean on its surface. acids, creating life. ✩ Another planet, named Theia, about ✩ Single-celled bacteria are created. the same size as Mars, collided with They are the first form of life in Earth, Earth. called cyanobacteria. ✩ The collision resulted in the 3.5 BILLION YEARS AGO formation of the 'new' Earth. ✩ The bacteria used a process called ✩ It also resulted in forming a ring of photosynthesis to produce glucose dust outside our planet, leading to & oxygen (O2). the formation of our moon. ✩ a day = 6 hrs. …...THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE….... 3.9 BILLION YEARS AGO THE UNIVERSE ✩ Meteors containing salt-like ✩ It includes all of space and all the crystals, composed of tiny amounts matter and energy that space of water, hit the Earth. contains. ✩ As time passed, Earth cooled down ✩ It includes time itself and you. It is due to the continuous meteor fall. everything. ✩ The water from the meteors cooled EXPANSION the magma on the surface. Hence, ✩ The action of becoming larger and the ocean and thin crust formation. extensive. ✩ The moon’s gravity created huge CONTRACTION tides, but as time passed, the moon ✩ The action of becoming smaller and drifted away from the Earth, causing less extensive. the tides to calm down. CONSTANT ✩ staying the same and does not change JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA BIG BANG THEORY ✩ It also includes the satellites of the ✩ Proposed by Georges Lemaitre planets, comets, meteors, asteroids, (1927). and the interplanetary medium. ✩ The currently accepted model on ✩ It is located in the Milky Way galaxy. the formation of the universe. ✩ The universe is expanding, having ★ 51 galaxies have been discovered in originated from an infinitely tiny, our universe. dense point around 13 or 14 billion ★ There are an estimated number of years ago. 100-200 billion galaxies overall. ✩ According to this theory, the universe is 13.6 billion years old. COSMOLOGY PULSATING THEORY ✩ The branch of science that studies ✩ Also known as the Oscillating the origin, evolution, and fate of the Universe Theory. universe. ✩ Proposed by Albert Einstein in 1930. ROTATION ✩ The universe will bounce back to an ✩ The spinning motion of an object on expanding one. its axis. ✩ An expansion (Big Bang) following a REVOLUTION collapse (Big Crunch) such as this is ✩ The orbital motion around another aptly called a Big Bounce. object. ✩ It marks the end of the previous GEOCENTRIC MODEL universe and the beginning of the ✩ The Earth is the center of our solar next. system. STEADY-STATE THEORY ✩ Proposed by Claudius Ptolemy. ✩ Proposed by astronomers, Fred HELIOCENTRIC MODEL Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and Hermann ✩ The sun is the center of our solar Bondi. system. ✩ As the universe expands, matter is ✩ Proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus. continuously created to form new NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS stars and galaxies at the same rate ✩ Proposed by Immanuel Kant and of expansion. Pierre-Simon Laplace. DEMOCRITUS & LEUCIPPUS ✩ Also known as the Kant-Laplace ✩ Everything, including the universe, is Hypothesis made up of atoms. ✩ The solar system began as a cloud of EDWIN HUBBLE dispersed interstellar gas called ✩ The universe was not static. nebula. PLANETESIMAL THEORY …..ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM….. ✩ Proposed by Thomas Chrowder SOLAR SYSTEM Chamberlin and Forest Ray Moulton. ✩ It consists of an average star we call the Sun and planets. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA  ✩ A star passed close enough to the ✩ It is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% sun which created huge tides and oxygen, and 1% other gases. caused materials to be ejected. ✧ Exosphere ✩ These smaller masses quickly cooled ✧ Thermosphere and became numerous smaller ✧ Mesosphere bodies called planetesimal. ✧ Stratosphere TIDAL THEORY ✧ Troposphere ✩ Proposed by James Hopwood Jeans. BIOSPHERE ✩ A star collided with the sun which ✩ Layer where all forms of life exist. created a huge tidal wave. ✩ The ecosystem of all living and ✩ A long filament was drawn out and non-living organisms. detached from its principal mass. GEOSPHERE ✩ As the gaseous materials condensed, ✩ The solid part of the Earth that they separated to form the planets. consists of the entire planet. PROTOPLANET THEORY CRUST ✩ Proposed by Gerald Kuiper and Carl ✩ The outermost layer that is Von Weizsacker. made up of solid rocks. ✩ The dense area of the nebula and the OCEANIC CRUST gaseous matter surrounding it ✩ denser, thinner, basaltic ceased to rotate uniformly. CONTINENTAL CRUST ✩ Under turbulence and tidal action, ✩ less dense, thicker, the nebula broke into whirlpools of granitic gas within a rotating mass called MANTLE protoplanet. ✩ The layer below the crust. TERRESTRIAL PLANETS ✩ 2900 km thick ✩ The planets with rocky surfaces. ✩ Primarily made up of iron and ✧ Mercury magnesium-rich rocks. ✧ Venus CORE ✧ Earth ✩ Located at the center of the ✧ Mars Earth. JOVIAN PLANETS ✧ Inner Core ✩ The planets with gaseous surfaces. ✧ Outer Core ✧ Jupiter HYDROSPHERE ✧ Saturn ✩ The water part of the Earth. ✧ Uranus ✩ Oceans cover 71% of the Earth and ✧ Neptune 97.5% of the Earth’s water...THE SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH.. …THE UNIQUENESS OF THE EARTH… ATMOSPHERE MAGNETIC FIELD ✩ The gaseous layer above the Earth’s ✩ The region around a magnetic surface. material or a moving electric charge JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA  within which the force of magnetism MINERALOGY acts. ✩ A branch of science concerned with LANDFORM the mineral constituents of rocks. ✩ The features on the surface of the MINERALOGIST Earth that make up the terrain. ✩ The person who studies mineralogy. CONVECTION HOMOGENEOUS SOLID ✩ The process of heat transfer by the ✩ Rocks that cannot be separated bulk movement of molecules within physically into simpler chemical fluids. compounds. INSULATION ✩ Composed of a single solid ✩ The act of protecting something substance. from harmful experiences. MOHS HARDNESS SCALE WHAT MAKES THE EARTH HABITABLE? ✩ The scale that is used to measure 1. It has the right distance from the the hardness of a mineral. sun. ✩ Talc is the softest mineral while 2. It is protected by its magnetic field diamond is the hardest based on from harmful solar radiation. this scale. 3. It is kept warm by an insulating PHYSICAL PROPERTIES atmosphere. 1. COLOR 4. It has the right amount of water and ✩ The clear or white color of a carbon. mineral is considered to be EARTH’S UNIQUENESS pure and rare in nature. ✩ It has liquid water on its surface. 2. STREAK ✩ It has a lithosphere which is made ✩ The color of a mineral’s fine up of the crust and upper mantle. powder. ✩ It has an atmosphere that shelters it ✩ It does not vary. from sun rays. ✩ Quartz do not have streak. 3. HARDNESS ★ Earth is commonly compared to ✩ Determined by scratching a Venus and Mars as they almost have mineral with another mineral the same size and structure. with known hardness. ★ All of them also have an atmosphere ✩ Mohs Hardness Scale is used. but they differ in composition and ✩ Scratch or be scratched by thickness. another mineral. 4. CLEAVAGE ….…..……ROCKS AND MINERALS…..………. ✩ The tendency of a mineral to MINERALS break to make smooth ✩ They are naturally occurring, surfaces. inorganic, homogeneous solids, with ✩ It is described by the number a definite chemical composition and direction of the and crystalline structure. cleavage plane. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA  5. CRYSTALLINE PETROLOGY ✩ The shape of a mineral that ✩ The study of rocks and their is determined by the processes. arrangement of its atoms. PETROLOGIST ✩ How they are joined is called ✩ The person who studies petrology. the Crystal lattice. THE ROCK CYCLE 6. DIAPHANEITY ✩ A series of processes that create and ✩ The transparency of a transform the types of rocks in mineral. Earth’s crust. ✩ It may depend on the CRYSTALLIZATION thickness of the mineral. ✩ As the magma cools different 7. LUSTER crystals form at different ✩ The appearance of its temperatures. surface and how it reflects EROSION & DEPOSITION light. ✩ Weathering wears down rocks ✩ Can be classified whether on Earth's surface into smaller the mineral is metallic or pieces. non-metallic. METAMORPHISM 8. TENACITY ✩ A rock that is exposed to ✩ It refers to how the particles extreme heat and pressure of a mineral hold together but does not melt becomes a and resist separation. metamorphic rock. 9. SPECIFIC GRAVITY TYPES OF ROCK ✩ The relative density. 1. IGNEOUS ROCK ✩ The ratio of the weight of a ✩ Derived from the Latin word substance and the weight of ignis which means fire. an equal volume of water. ✩ Formed when molten hot CHEMICAL PROPERTIES materials cool down and 1. SOLUBILITY solidify. ✩ The ability of a substance to INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK dissolve in a solvent at a ✩ Rocks that form inside specific temperature. of the Earth. 2. MELTING POINT ✩ Composed of large ✩ The temperature at which a crystal grains. solid turns into a liquid. ✩ Slow cooling down ✩ Gold’s melting point is at process. 1064oC. EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK ROCK ✩ Rocks that form outside ✩ The solid aggregate of one or more or at the surface of the minerals. Earth. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA  ✩ Composed of small PHYSICAL WEATHERING crystal grains. ✩ Mechanical weathering ✩ Fast cooling down ✩ Happens whenever rocks are broken process. up without changes in their 2. SEDIMENTARY ROCK chemical composition. ✩ “to settle at the bottom” ✩ Depends on the factor that acts on ✩ Formed through the process of the rock. erosion, deposition, ✩ Factors: pressure, warm temperature, compaction, and/or water, and ice. contraction. 1. BLOCK DISINTERGRATION ✩ Fragments are removed from ✩ Caused by successive their source and transported heating and cooling by a biological activity to a that cause the new location. expansion and ✩ Once the sediment settles contraction of rocks. somewhere, and enough of it ✩ Creates stress along collects, it becomes joints, breaking down compacted so tightly, forming rocks, block by block. a solid rock. 2. EXFOLIATION 3. METAMORPHIC ROCK ✩ Stripping of the outer ✩ The rocks that have been layers of rocks due to changed from their original intense heating. form (may it be igneous or ✩ The successive sedimentary) by immense expansion and heat or pressure. contraction of the outer ✩ It undergoes a process called layer of the rock peels metamorphism. off in the form of concentric shells. ….……….….….……EXOGENIC AND……….…………… 3. FROST WEATHERING..…………ENDOGENIC PROCESSES…….……. ✩ The alternate freezing WEATHERING and thawing of water ✩ The process of degradation or inside the joints of the breaking down of rocks into smaller rocks, causing them to fragments known as sediments. split into fragments. ✩ An important process in the ✩ It enables minerals to formation of soil. be distributed. ✩ Soil is a mixture of grains, organic CHEMICAL WEATHERING matter, H2O, and gas. ✩ The weakening or disintegration of rocks and the formation of new compounds caused by chemical reactions. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA  1. OXIDATION BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING ✩ The process in which ✩ Biotic weathering oxygen reacts with the ✩ The disintegration of rocks caused by rock. living organisms. ✩ Usually observed in 1. MASS WASTING ferrous minerals, which ✩ The downslope contain iron. movement of rocks ✩ The oxygen in the air because of gravity. reacts with the iron in ✩ A natural process that the rocks to form rust. occurs after weathering. 2. CARBONATION ✩ Natural hazard ✩ The process involving ✩ Classified based on the formation of various moisture and speed. types of carbonates in 2. EROSION rock. ✩ The movement of ✩ Results in the fragments of rocks from enlargement of rocks one place to another and removal of lime, that is caused by which holds the various agents. particles together. SOIL EROSION 3. HYDRATION ✩ The removal of soil at a ✩ The result of the greater rate than its absorption of water replacement by natural and a particular agencies. substance on the rock, WIND EROSION leading to a change in ✩ Occurs when winds shape. carry large amounts of ✩ The addition of water to fine soil particles, the rock increases its spread them over, and volume, which changes destroy their fertility. the shapes of the SHEET EROSION grains. ✩ The removal of thin 4. SOLUTION layers of soil because of ✩ The process in which surface runoff and rain. some of the minerals in RILL EROSION rocks are directly ✩ The removal of soil by dissolved in water. the concentration of ✩ It results in the running water. weakening, deformation, and breaking of rocks. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA  GULLY EROSION ✩ Produced by horizontal compressive ✩ The removal of soil in stresses or collisions at any water channels or convergent plate boundary. drainage lines. ANTICLINE SOURCES OF HEAT IN OUR PLANET ✩ The structures that dip downwards, PRIMORDIAL HEAT (CORE) forming a hill. ✩ The internal heat energy that SYNCLINE gradually gathered together through ✩ The structures that dip upwards, dispersion in the planet during its few forming a valley. million years of evolution. FAULTING RADIOGENIC HEAT (Uranium, Potassium, ✩ The result of the fracture or Thorium) displacement of rock layers along a ✩ Thermal energy emitted as a result of fault plane. spontaneous nuclear disintegration. ✩ A fault shows a displacement of the MAGMATISM two sides of a nonvertical fault: the ✩ The movement of magma to form hanging wall and the footwall. igneous rocks. TECTONICS ✩ The process that is responsible for ✩ The study of the processes that mountain formation. deform Earth’s crust. VOLCANISM (PLUTONISM) PLATE BOUNDARY ✩ The rocks are formed in fire by ✩ A fracture separating one plate from volcanic activity. another. ✩ Rocks gradually weather through CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY time, washed away, and then ✩ Proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. deposited on the seafloor, forming ✩ The most accepted theory that layers of sedimentary rocks through explains the movement of plates. heat and pressure. ✩ The gradual movement of the continents over time. ………………FOLDS AND FAULTING…………..… EVIDENCES DEFORMATION 1. Continental Jigsaw Puzzle ✩ Any change in the shape or size of 2. Fossils Match Across Seas a rock as a response to stress. 3. Rock Type & Structures Match JOINT 4. Climate/Coal Deposits ✩ There are no movements on either PLATE TECTONICS THEORY side of the fractures. ✩ The Earth’s outer shell consists of FOLDING individual plates that interact in ✩ Occur when rocks are pushed various ways, producing earthquakes, towards each other from opposite volcanoes, mountains, and the crust. sides. EVIDENCES 1. Paleomagnetism 2. Earthquake Patterns JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY RELATIVE DATING ✩ Proposed by Robert S. Dietz and ✩ Places events or rocks in their order Harry H. Hess in 1960 of occurrence (chronological) ✩ Also the most accepted theory. without knowing their actual age. ✩ A geologic process in which ✩ One can find out which layer was tectonic plates split apart from formed first relative to the other each other because of mantle layers. convection. ✩ Relative dating cannot tell exactly ✩ The material flows sideways how many years have passed since carrying the seafloor away from the the event happened. ridge, creating a crack in the crust. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RELATIVE DATING ✩ The discovery of the Mid-Atlantic 1. PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL ridge confirms the lateral motion of HORIZONTALITY continents and indicates the young ✩ Sedimentary rocks are age of the oceanic crust. deposited as horizontal or EVIDENCES nearly horizontal layers. 1. Rocks are much younger at ✩ Any deviation from the mid-ocean ridge. horizontality indicates that 2. Rocks far from the deformation occurs after the mid-ocean ridge are older. deposition. 3. Sediments are much thinner 2. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION at the mid-ocean ridge. ✩ In the sequence of 4. Oceanic rocks are younger sedimentary rocks, the layer at than those on the continents. the bottom of the sequence is the oldest, and the ………..……GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE….………… successively higher levels are PALEONTOLOGY successively younger. ✩ Studies the life that existed before, 3. PRINCIPLE OF CROSS-CUTTING or sometimes at the start of, the RELATIONSHIPS Holocene epoch (the current ✩ Geologic features like faults or geologic epoch). igneous intrusions are ✩ The study of fossils to determine how younger than the rocks they they have evolved and interacted cut across. with the environment. 4. PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE ✩ If rocks or rock fragments are ✩ A standardized system for included within another rock organizing the history of the Earth layer, the rock fragments into specific time intervals, based on must be older than the rock the ages of rocks, fossils, and other layer where they were geological formations. embedded. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA ABSOLUTE DATING FOSSILS ✩ Places actual ages of rocks and ✩ A remnant or trace of organisms of a events. past geologic age. ✩ The method used is based on the TYPES OF FOSSILS decay rate of certain radioactive 1. TRUE FORM FOSSILS isotopes within fossils, rocks, and ✩ The entire animals or plants artifacts. that are trapped and ✩ With the knowledge of the decay rate preserved in ice, tar, or other and ratios of parent and daughter material, such as remains of isotopes, the absolute date may be prehistoric elephants or computed. mammoths that were frozen in TYPES OF ABSOLUTE DATING the Arctic tundra of Siberia 1. THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING and Alaska. ✩ It can be used to date 2. MOLD FOSSILS materials containing ✩ Are hollow impressions of a crystalline minerals to a living thing in a rock. specific heating event. ✩ The mold reflects only the ✩ Useful for ceramics as it shape and surface marking of determines the date of firing, the organisms. as well as for lava, or even 3. CAST FOSSILS sediments that were exposed ✩ Created when mold fossils get to substantial sunlight. filled with minerals. ✩ The dating range is from 100 ✩ The minerals harden and form years or less to 200-500,000 a replica of the original fossil. years or older, at typical 4. TRACE FOSSILS or ICHNOFOSSILS precisions of 5-10%. ✩ Impressions on rocks that 2. RADIOCARBON DATING showed various activities. ✩ A method that provides ✩ Fossils can be footprints, eggs, objective age estimates for droppings, or nests of carbon-based materials that animals. originated from living PRINCIPLE OF FOSSIL SUCCESSION organisms. ✩ Fossil organisms succeed one ✩ An age could be estimated by another in a definite and measuring the amount of determinable order and, therefore, carbon-14 present in the any time can be recognized by its sample and comparing this fossil content. against an internationally used INDEX FOSSILS reference standard. ✩ Associated with a particular span of ✩ The dating range is between geologic time. 500 to 50,000 years. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA EON ✧ Oligocene Epoch ✩ Longest period in geological time ✧ Miocene Epoch scale. ✧ Pliocene Epoch ✩ Long portions of geologic time scale. ✧ Pleistocene Epoch ✧ Hadean ✧ Holocene Epoch ✧ Archaean ✧ Proterozoic ….…….……HAZARDS CAUSED BY……………. ✧ Phanerozoic.……….GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES………… ERA NATURAL HAZARD ✩ The second longest portion of the ✩ A naturally occurring event that has geologic time scale. negative anthropogenic and ✩ A unit of time shorter than an eon but environmental effects. longer than a period. NATURAL DISASTER ✧ Precambrian ✩ Any natural hazard that causes ✧ Paleozoic fatality or damage to property. ✧ Mesozoic PHIVOLCS ✧ Cenozoic ✩ Philippine Institute of Volcanology PERIOD and Seismology ✩ The basic unit of geologic time scale. ✩ A government agency that is ✩ A unit of time shorter than an era but responsible for the mitigation of longer than an epoch. disasters related to geotectonic ✧ Cambrian phenomena. ✧ Ordovician VOLCANIC ERUPTION ✧ Silurian ✩ The release of gases (H2O, CO2, CO, ✧ Devonian and SO2), liquids (lava), and solids ✧ Mississippian (pyroclastic, ash, and dust) from the ✧ Pennsylvanian volcano’s vent. ✧ Permian EARTHQUAKE ✧ Triassic - The sudden movement or vibration ✧ Jurassic of Earth caused by the release of ✧ Cretaceous energy in rocks. ✧ Tertiary MAGNITUDE ✧ Quaternary ✩ Measure the size of the earthquake EPOCH at its source. ✩ A subdivision of the geologic time RICHTER SCALE scale that is longer than an age and ✩ Used to rate the magnitude of an shorter than a period. earthquake, that is the amount of ✩ Unit of geological time during which energy released. a rock series is deposited. INTENSITY ✧ Paleocene Epoch ✩ Measure the amount of shaking at a ✧ Eocene Epoch particular location. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA MERCALLI SCALE ✩ It usually starts in October and ✩ Based on observable earthquake ends in December. damage. TSUNAMI TROPICAL CYCLONE ✩ Enormous waves generated by ✩ Used by most countries to describe seabed disturbances, where cyclonic storms that originate over earthquakes and tsunamis originate. tropical oceans. ✩ Locally referred to as “bagyo”. ★ Natural occurrences cannot be CYCLONES prevented by human action. But if we ✩ Are storms that form in the Indian understand why they occur and what Ocean and the Southwest Pacific. we can do to stop them or lessen TYPHOONS their impact, we can lessen their ✩ Form in the Northwestern part of the negative effects. Pacific Ocean, which includes the Philippines and neighboring Asian..DIFFERENT HAZARDS CAUSED BY.. countries. …….….HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL………. HURRICANES ……..PHENOMENA AND COASTAL…….. ✩ Form in the Central or Northeastern …………..……………PROCESSES…………..…………… part of the Pacific or in the North PROJECT NOAH Atlantic, Caribbean Sea, or Gulf of ✩ Nationwide Operational Mexico. Assessment of Hazards TORNADO ✩ A technologically based system ✩ Ipo-ipo intended to prevent and mitigate ✩ A whirling funnel-shaped cloud. disasters especially in high-risk ✩ It lasts only for a few minutes but areas throughout the country. causes massive damages and injuries. MONSOONS STORM SURGE ✩ A seasonal change in the direction of ✩ Daluyong the prevailing, or strongest, winds of ✩ A coastal flood or tsunami-like a region. phenomena of rising water SOUTHWEST MONSOON commonly associated with a ✩ Habagat tropical cyclone. ✩ Characterized by hot and humid FLOOD weather with frequent rainfall. ✩ An overflow or large accumulation of ✩ It usually starts in May and ends in water that submerges the land September. which is not normally covered by NORTHEAST MONSOON water. ✩ Amihan TYPES OF FLOOD ✩ Cold winds from the northeast that ✧ Areal bring rains over the eastern side of ✧ Riverine the country. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA  ✧ Coastal or Estuarine ✧ Urban COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HAZARDS ✩ It consists of sand beach, sand dunes, coral reefs, estuaries, delta, lagoons, mangroves, and seagrass beds, among others. COASTAL EROSION ✩ The weathering of rocks at the crust. ✩ Caused by wave action, and tidal and wave currents, which dissolve chemicals in rocks. SALT INTRUSION ✩ The movement of saltwater into freshwater aquifers. BEACH NOURISHMENT ✩ Involves adding large volumes of sand to the beach. ✩ The sand may be obtained from an inland or offshore source. COASTAL REVEGETATION ✩ Recommended to muddy coastal environments or within the tidal zone of estuaries where mangrove forests and other indigenous shrub species are commonly found. JAMES BARRIENTOS 11 - BL. JOZEF CEBULA