DRAFT NOTES FOR LEVEL 400 AGRIC PROJECT - COLLINZ PDF

**LESSON 1** **THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL ACTION RESEARCH** Educational action research is a systematic and reflective inquiry approach that aims to improve educational practices and address specific challenges or problems in educational settings. It involves educators or researchers actively engaging in a cyclical process of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting to positively change teaching, learning, and educational outcomes. Action research focuses on solving practitioners' local problems. It is generally conducted by the practitioners after they have learned about the methods of research and research concepts that are discussed in textbooks. Action research is a collaborative research approach that provides people with the means to take systematic action to resolve specific problems. This approach endorses consensual, democratic and participating strategies to encourage people to examine reflectively their problems or particular issues affecting them or their community. Furthermore, it encourages people to formulate accounts and explanations for their situation and to develop plans that may resolve these problems. Its purpose effectiveness of what they are doing. Action research is known by many other names, including *participatory research, collaborative inquiry, emancipatory research, action learning,* and *contextual action* research, but all are variations on a theme. Put simply, action research is \"learning by doing\" - a group of people identify a problem, do something to resolve it, see how successful their efforts were, and if not satisfied, try again. While this is the essence of the approach, other key attributes of action research differentiate it from common problem-solving activities that we all engage in every day. A more succinct definition is: Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to further the goals of social science simultaneously. Thus, there is a dual commitment in action research to study a system and concurrently to collaborate with members of the system in changing it in what is together regarded as a desirable direction. Accomplishing this twin goal requires the active collaboration of researcher and client, and thus it stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of the research process **Here are some key concepts related to educational action research:** **Collaborative Inquiry:** Educational action research emphasizes collaboration and active involvement of educators, researchers, and other stakeholders in the research process. It encourages collective problem-solving and knowledge generation through shared experiences, perspectives, and expertise. **Reflective Practice:** Action research promotes reflective practice by encouraging educators to critically examine their own teaching methods, strategies, and beliefs. Through systematic reflection, educators gain insights into the effectiveness of their practices and identify areas for improvement. **Participatory Approach**: Action research values the participation and involvement of all stakeholders, including teachers, students, parents, and administrators. Their perspectives and voices are considered essential for understanding the educational context and generating meaningful insights and solutions. **Cyclical Process:** Action research typically follows a cyclical process, often referred to as the action research spiral or cycle. It involves multiple stages, including identifying an issue or problem, planning and implementing interventions or actions, collecting and analyzing data, reflecting on the findings, and making informed adjustments or changes to improve practices. **Contextualized and Practical Focus**: Action research emphasizes addressing real-life issues and challenges within specific educational contexts. It aims to generate practical knowledge and solutions that can be directly applied to improve teaching and learning experiences in the specific setting. **Evidence-Based Decision-Making:** Action research promotes the use of empirical evidence and data to inform decision-making and drive changes in educational practices. Data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or student assessments, are used to gather evidence and measure the impact of interventions. **Continuous Improvement:** The ultimate goal of educational action research is to bring about continuous improvement and positive change in educational practices. It encourages ongoing reflection, learning, and adaptation based on the findings and outcomes of the research process. **Ethical Considerations:** Action research emphasizes ethical principles, such as ensuring informed consent, protecting participants\' rights and confidentiality, and maintaining integrity in data collection and analysis. Ethical considerations are crucial to maintain trust and respect among all stakeholders involved in the research process. **TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL ACTION RESEARCH** Part of **the confusion we** find when we hear the term \"action research\" is that there are **different types of** action research depending upon the participants involved. A **plan of research** can involve a single teacher investigating an issue **in his or her classroom,** a group of teachers working on a common problem, **or a team of** teachers and others focusing on a school- or district-wide **issue.** **Individual Teacher Research** usually focuses on a single issue in the classroom. **The teacher may** be seeking solutions to problems of classroom **management, instructional** strategies, use of materials, or student learning. Teachers **may have the support of** their supervisor or principal, an instructor for a course **they are Wring or** parents. The problem is one that the teacher believes **is evidcot in his or** her classroom and one that can be addressed on an **individual basis, The** research may then be such that the teacher collects data or **may involve looking at** student participation. One of the drawbacks of individual **research is that it** may not be shared with others unless the teacher chooses **to present findings at a** faculty meeting, make a formal presentation at a conference, or submit written material to a listserv, journal, or newsletter. It is possible for several teachers to be working concurrently on the same problem with no knowledge of the work of others. **Collaborative Action Research**: Collaborative action research involves a group of educators or researchers working together to investigate and address a shared educational issue. For example, a group of teachers in a school may collaborate to explore effective strategies for improving students\' reading comprehension skills. They conduct research, share their findings, and collectively develop interventions to enhance teaching practices in this area. **School-Wide Research** focuses on issues common to all. For example, a school may have a concern about the lack of parental involvement in activities and is looking for a way to reach more parents to involve them in meaningful ways. Or, the school may be looking to address its organizational and decision-making structures. Teams of staff from the school work together to narrow the question, gather and analyze the data, and decide on a plan of action. An example of action research for a school could be to examine their state test scores to identify areas that need improvement, and then determine a plan of action to improve student performance. Teamwork and individual contributions to the whole are very important, and it may be that problem points arise as the team strives to develop a process and make commitments to each other. When these obstacles are overcome, there will be a sense of ownership and accomplishment in the results that come from this school-wide effort. **Teacher-Led Action Research:** Teacher-led action research empowers individual teachers to investigate and improve their teaching practices. For instance, a teacher may conduct action research to explore the impact of incorporating technology in mathematics instruction. They gather data on student engagement and performance, reflect on the findings, and modify their teaching strategies accordingly. **Participatory Action Research:** Participatory action research involves the active involvement of stakeholders, such as students, parents, or community members, in the research process. For example, a researcher might collaborate with parents and educators to investigate ways to enhance parental involvement in a school. They engage in dialogue, gather perspectives, and jointly design interventions to promote meaningful parent-teacher partnerships. **Case Study Action Research:** Case study action research entails the in-depth examination of a specific case or situation within an educational context. For instance, a researcher may conduct a case study to investigate the implementation and impact of a project-based learning approach in a particular school. They collect qualitative data through observations, interviews, and document analysis to gain insights into the strengths and challenges of the approach. **Experimental Action Research:** Experimental action research employs experimental methods to test the effectiveness of interventions or instructional strategies. For example, a researcher might design an experiment to examine the impact of a new teaching method on student achievement. They randomly assign participants to control and experimental groups, administer pre-and post-tests, and compare the outcomes to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. **Reflective Action Research:** Reflective action research focuses on the role of reflection in improving educational practices. For instance, a teacher may engage in reflective action research to explore the impact of different assessment strategies on student motivation. They reflect on their teaching experiences, collect qualitative data through student interviews and reflections, and use the insights to adapt their assessment practices. **Participatory Action Learning and Action Research (PALAR):** PALAR combines action research with experiential learning. For example, a group of educators might engage in PALAR to address the challenges faced by students with special needs in an inclusive classroom. They collaboratively learn about inclusive practices, conduct research to identify barriers, develop action plans, implement changes, and reflect on the outcomes to continuously improve their practices. **Classroom-Based Action Research:** Classroom-based action research focuses on addressing specific issues within the classroom environment. For example, a teacher may conduct action research to explore the impact of implementing cooperative learning strategies on student collaboration and academic performance. They collect data through observations, student assessments, and feedback, and use the findings to refine their instructional practices. **RELEVANCE OF EDUCATIONAL ACTION RESEARCH** Educational action research holds significant relevance in the field of education for several reasons: **Improving Educational Practices:** Action research provides a systematic approach for educators to examine and improve their teaching practices. It allows them to identify challenges, explore innovative strategies, and make informed decisions to enhance student learning outcomes. **Addressing Local Context and Needs**: Educational action research is context-specific, allowing educators to address specific challenges and needs within their educational settings. It promotes tailored solutions that consider the unique characteristics, culture, and resources of a particular school or classroom. **Empowering Educators:** Action research empowers educators by giving them an active role in generating knowledge and contributing to the field of education. It encourages teachers to become reflective practitioners, continuously examining their practices and adapting them based on evidence and insights gained from the research process. **Fostering Collaboration:** Action research often involves collaborative efforts, fostering a culture of shared learning and problem-solving among educators, administrators, students, and other stakeholders. Collaboration enhances professional development, promotes a sense of collective responsibility, and strengthens the educational community. **Bridging Research and Practice:** Educational action research bridges the gap between theory and practice by integrating research activities directly into educational settings. It encourages educators to apply research findings and theories to their practice, ensuring a more meaningful and relevant connection between research and the classroom. **Promoting Evidence-Based Decision-Making:** Action research emphasizes the use of empirical evidence and data in decision-making processes. It encourages educators to collect and analyze data to inform their instructional strategies, interventions, and policy decisions, leading to more effective and evidence-based practices. **Encouraging Continuous Improvement:** Educational action research promotes a culture of continuous improvement in educational settings. Through the iterative research process, educators engage in ongoing reflection, evaluation, and adjustment, allowing for the identification of areas for growth and the implementation of targeted improvements. **Supporting Professional Development:** Action research serves as a professional development tool for educators. It enhances their research and inquiry skills, encourages critical thinking, and fosters a deep understanding of educational practices. Engaging in action research can lead to personal and professional growth for educators. **How to Set Out an Action Research Proposal** *Action Research Project Title:* *Research Question:* - *Research Rationale/Background:* - *Key Readings:* - Readings that have informed the research proposal; at this stage, it need not be a full-blown literature review. *Research Methodology:* - - - - data analysis methods - validity and reliability checks (i.e. how will you ensure that your data is valid and reliable?) *Reporting* - If you intend to publish your findings, a report of 3000 - 5000 words (excluding the Reference List) is appropriate. *Key Project Activities with Timeline:* - - time involved for participants - anonymity considerations (surveys, reporting, etc) - permissions (to participate, interview, take photos, video) - ***Budget:*** Costs involved (travel, stationery, help with data collection) **LESSON 2** **IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM** A research process starts by identifying the topic of your choice and becoming knowledgeable about it. This chapter helps you select an area of interest and articulate a problem statement that will guide your research by providing a clear purpose for your investigation. We present the process of locating and organizing literature related to your research around themes, followed by suggestions on how to write the literature review. With the knowledge gained through developing the literature review, you will be able to formulate a specific research question that will guide your study. The first step in the teacher research process is to identify a meaningful area of interest. Your classroom and school are the best sources for your questions, puzzles, and problems. Reflect on your daily practice: Is there anything you want to change, improve, or validate? For example, are you considering changing the way you assess students' knowledge? Do you want to better understand the problematic behavior of a particular student? Are you wondering how a specific educational policy will affect your own educational setting? **Characteristics of a Good Research Problem** Although selecting a research problem is often one of the most difficult steps in the research process, it is unfortunate that this step is the one that least guidance can be given. No rules have been established for making a final selection of a research problem. Problem selection is not subject to some degree of technical rules or requirements as are research designs, measurement or statistics. Fortunately, however, some guidelines could be offered. 1. **It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables** A good problem statement of any simple study must name the variables and how they may be related in a single sentence. For example, the problem "how many students in cape coast Municipality JSSs can perform above average in mathematics' make no attempt to deal with relation between variables? If however the problem is worded," Are boys more likely than girls to perform better in mathematics in cape coast Municipality JSSs? Then it would involve the relationship between the variables of "gender and mathematics ability". Give another example of a problem that deals with no relationship between two or more variables. Reword the problem to make it ask about a relationship between two or more variables. 2. **It should be clear and unambiguously stated** The importance of a clear concise research problem cannot be overemphasized. Can you offer any one reason why the research problem should be clear and stated in unambiguous from? Now read on. One purpose of the research problem is to communicate the purpose of the study. This can occur only when the reader's understanding of the purpose is consistent with the researcher. The terms in the problem must not be ambiguous. When do we say a term/statement is ambiguous? Compare your response to this. According to Amedahe (2002) ambiguity is seen when different people reading the same thing derive different meanings from what is read. Thus, if a term or phrase can mean several things to different readers, it is ambiguous. These terms are too general and should be defined specifically so that their meaning will come clear. The terms can be given operational definitions or qualified to make them clear researcher as well as other researchers and readers must know precisely the problem being investigated. For instance, terms like "students and methods" could be made clearer by adding gender or course say female / male students or English / history students whiles "method" could be clarified by stating the type of methodology, say, English as a second language (ESL) methodology. 3. **It should be stated in a question form** The problem statement should preferably be in a question form. Alternatively, it should be in the form of an implicit question such as "the purpose of this study was to determine whether......." Let us consider the following example of statement of a problem in a question form: i. What is the relationship between socio-economic background and school dropout rate? ii. Can students who have had pre-training be taught learning task more quickly than those who have not had pre- training? ***Problems stated or given in the form of implicit questions include:*** i. The purpose of the study is to find the effect of socio-economic background on academic achievement ii. The study investigated whether the ability to discriminate among parts of speech increased with chronological age and education level. Give an example each of a problem stated in a question form and implicit question form. 4. **It should be researchable** A problem is said to be researchable when it is possible to collect data to answer the questions asked. A researchable problem is one that can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data. In other words, it should be possible to construct a potential solution to the problem that can be verified by the collection of certain evidence or disconfirmed by the collection of other evidence. Problems that are concerned with value questions or philosophical ideas are not researchable in the sense that a specific question has a correct answer. Many interesting questions in education concern ethical issues that do not lend themselves to easy scientific study. To be able to conduct research, the question must lend itself to the systematic process of gathering and analyzing data. Research can assess how people feel about such issues but cannot resolve them. Consider the following examples: a. Charity begin at home b. The evil that men do lives after them Are these two statements researchable? Give reasons for your response. 5. **The problem should not represent a moral or ethical position** The research problem must not involve physical and psychological harm or damage to human beings or to the natural social setting or environment of which they are part. Questions about ideals or value are often more difficult to study than questions about attitudes or performances. Examples of such problems that would be difficult to study or answer clearly include "should children be seen and not heard?" Problems such as "should people avoid cheating /lying under all circumstances?", and "Are all teachers/ chiefs equally inspiring?" represent moral and ethical issues and should be avoided. 6. **The problem must be significant** The solution to the problem must not be a trivial one. It should be seen as adding information to the present state of knowledge either in theory or practice. The solution of the problem should contribute to extension, refinement or revision of a theory or contribute to improvement of the educational process in terms of practice or policy. Amedehe (2002). 7. **The research problem must be feasible.** The feasibility here implies: i. The researcher should be able to get the necessary financial support or has the necessary funds available as will be required by the study. ii. The researcher would be able to complete its study in good time. It must be noted here that good time may depend on the duration of one's programme or the time available for one to submit his/ her research report. iii. The researcher has adequate knowledge of the required research design and statistical procedures for the study. To be sure of the goodness of your problem, McMillan (1996) identified six criteria that could be used to evaluate a research problem. The criteria in question form are: 1. Is the problem researchable? 2. Is the problem important in terms of contributing to understanding of the issues being investigated? 3. Does the problem indicate the type of research? 4. Does the problem specify the population (target group) of the study? 5. Does the problem specify the variables of interest? 6. Is the problem clear? **Sources of Research Problems and their Statement** i. Where, then, do ideas for research problems come from?\ How can a topic be selected? Seven sources are commonly used to begin the process of problem formation. Research problem may be obtained from any of the following sources: i. Theory ii. Experience iii. Literature iv. Ideas from external sources / experts v. Replication / previous studies **Theory:** A very common sources for a research problem is a theory that has implication for educational practice. Think about the theories you have been studying in your subject area. What is a theory? McMillan (1996) defines a theory as a set of propositions that explain the relationship among observed phenomena. Theories are, thus, general explanations of behaviour. If contains generalizations and hypothesized principles that should be subjected to thorough and exact scientific investigation. One approach to obtaining a research problem is to take a theory in a related area such as psychology, sociology and mathematics and develop a problem that is applicable to an educational setting. A theory in this case would suggest implications that can be further researched in educational settings. Another way to apply theories is to directly test, revise, or clarify an existing theory. The intention here is to develop and change the theory rather than to test its implications. Can you think of a theory that has been tested, revised or clarified in your field/ subject of study? State a theory in your subject area, you would like to test, revise or clarify. **Experience:** Every individual's everyday experience provides a rich supply of problems for investigation. Some of the best sources of ideas come from ones interest, personal and practical experiences. Recall some of the situations you met that you found puzzling or problematic. If you have ever asked such questions as "Why are things done this way?", "I wonder what would happen if..." or "What method would work better?" you may be well along the way to developing a research idea. As a teacher you encounter many problems in the classroom, the school, or community that lend themselves to investigation. These problems are perhaps more appropriate for the beginning researcher than are problems more remote from his / her own teaching experience. There may be concerns about teaching methods, grouping, classroom management, tests and continuous assessment or a multiple of everyday experiences. What problems do school administrators face in course of their duty? List any three. Administrators may face problems in scheduling, communicating to teachers / workers, providing instructional leadership, generating public/ community support, handling serious disciplinary issues. For the beginning researcher in particular, experience is often the most compelling source for reproach topics. In addition to personal experience, individuals have interest and knowledge about their profession / work that can also yield good researchable problems. **Literature:** Ideas from research projects often come from reading the relevant and related literature. What do we mean by literature? According to Amedahe (2002), by related literature, we mean all written documents inclosing scholarly textbooks, Journals, theses, dissertations related to a general issue of interest. The beginning researcher can profit from regularly reading current books and journals especially those that report the results of studies in their areas of interest. Reading publishing reports may help the neophyte researcher to find a problem amenable to scientific investigation. It may also help to familiarize the beginning researcher with the wording of the research problems and the actual conduct of research studies. Published reports may suggest problem areas indirectly by stimulating the reader's interest in a topic and directly b y specifying further areas in need of investigation. **Ideas from External Sources:** External source, here, means course lecturers, project work supervisions, and development agencies like DFID, USAID, GTZ and other NGO's. External sources can sometimes provide the impetus for a research problem. Research topics / problems may be given as a direct suggestion from an external source. For example, a course tutor / faculty member/ project work supervisor may give students a list of topics from which to choose or may actually assign a specific topic to be studied or researcher into. Entities that sponsor funded research such as NGO's, DFID, UNICEF, USAID and ODA often identify broad or specific topics on which research proposals are encouraged. For example, in recent years NGO's and Government of Ghana have requested a variety of AIDS -- related research projects as well as research into cassava and yam at the Science Faculty and the School of Agriculture at the University of Cape Coast. However, even when a research area is suggested, it is better for the researcher to identify the aspect of the problem that is of greatest interest to him / her. This is because curiosity is a critical ingredient in a successful research. **Expert:** An expert here refers to anybody knowledgeable on certain issues and can therefore guide others with regard to those issues. Consulting and or taking to such experts would be helpful in identifying a research problem. This important because such experts may have knowledge on topical and contemporary issues in their field of specialization which they can share with others. **Replication:** Have you met this word before? Look for the meaning and write it in your jotter. Compare what you wrote with the following. A type of study is one that replicates, that in repeats a completed study with relatively minor changes that will further contribute to knowledge by either confirming earlier findings or disconfirming them. A researcher may, for instance, wonder whether a study similar to one reported in journal article would gelid comparable results if applied in a different setting or with different subjects. Studies that are repeated for the purpose of verification are known as replication (Polit and Hungler, 1995). Replications are, therefore, needed to establish the validity and generalization of previous findings. It may also be needed to verity and extend the initial findings of an already published work. Borg and Gall (1989) summaries four reason for conducting replication studies; 1. To check the findings of a major or milestone study. Replication can confirm or disconfirm the validity of a study the produces new evidence or that report's findings that challenge previous research or theory. 2. To check the validity of research findings with different subjects. 3. To check trends or change overtime. Replications can be used effectively to see if vital findings hold overtime. 4. To check important findings using different methodologies. Classification of Contradictory Results: Contradictory results / findings exist on many topics in the literature. Some studies indicate one conclusion, and other studies of the same thin come to an opposite conclusion. These apparent contradictions present very good opportunities for research. Once there are contradictions on a specific issue, there is room to investigate it further for its better understanding. **LESSON 3** **DEFINITION/SPECIFICATION/INVESTIGATION OF THE PROBLEM** **Statement of the Problem** The statement of the problem directly follows the description of the background to the study. It is a concise statement of the problem the study is addressing, including its scope. The statement of the research problem is very pertinent and must be considered with all the seriousness that it deserves. A research problem can be defined as an issue in need of investigation. Thus, problems spring from puzzling experiences. However, a vague feeling that something is wrong or that some theory or policy is not adequate does not constitute a problem. Such a situation is an indication that a problem may exist. Before you proceed with your proposal you must isolate. Sharpen, and clarify the pertinent variables and relationships that give rise to the problem statement. This you can do by reviewing the related literature. This will help you put the problem in appropriate theoretical framework or context. The statement of a problem should indicate the variables of interest to the investigator and their relationships, as well as the subjects of study. A research problem can be stated in different ways. Three examples of problem statements are as follows: - The problem to be investigated in this study is secondary school teachers' attitudes toward school -- based assessment in Ghana. - The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the CHILDSCOPE Project on dropout rates in implementing districts in Ghana. - This study is to investigate the effect of kindergarten attendance on pupil's reading performance at class one. **When writing a problem statement, it\'s essential to be clear, concise, and focused. Here are some steps and guidelines to follow:** Identify the problem: Clearly understand the problem you want to address. Analyze the current situation and any associated challenges or limitations. Define the scope: Determine the boundaries of the problem. Specify what aspects will be included and excluded from your analysis or solution. Conduct research: Gather information about the problem through research, data analysis, or relevant studies. This will help you understand the context and potential causes of the problem. Be specific: State the problem in a specific and measurable way. Avoid vague or ambiguous language. For example, instead of saying \"inefficient workflow,\" specify the exact aspect that needs improvement, such as \"lengthy approval process causing delays.\" Use clear language: Write the problem statement using clear and concise language that is easily understandable by your target audience. Avoid jargon or technical terms unless necessary and provide explanations when using specialized terms. Focus on the impact: Describe the consequences or negative effects of the problem. Highlight how it affects individuals, organizations, or the broader community. Emphasize the significance of solving the problem. Provide evidence: Support your problem statement with data, facts, or examples. This helps validate the existence of the problem and adds credibility to your statement. Make it actionable: Craft a problem statement that suggests a potential solution. This encourages readers or stakeholders to consider taking action. However, be careful not to propose a solution at this stage---focus on defining the problem. Consider stakeholder perspectives: Understand the perspectives of different stakeholders affected by the problem. Incorporate their concerns and viewpoints into your problem statement to ensure a comprehensive understanding. Review and revise: Once you\'ve written the problem statement, review it for clarity, accuracy, and coherence. Revise as necessary to improve its effectiveness in communicating the problem. Remember, the problem statement sets the foundation for your subsequent analysis and solution development. By following these steps and guidelines, you can create a compelling problem statement that engages readers and lays the groundwork for effective problem-solving. **LESSON 4** **DESIGN OF AN EXPERIMENT** **EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE** **Introduction** It is rather common to have more than two samples or treatments in an experiment or study. In such situations, a different test other than the t-test is used to determine if the samples are significantly different. The same principles of testing apply here too. Thus, we start by assuming that the means of all samples are the same in a null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis stipulates that the means are significantly different. After declaring that three, four or five treatments are significantly different, there is the need to find out which samples are really different. There are a few procedures for separating sample means. It is very important that an experiment is set up appropriately following some basic principles of experimentation. **Principles of experimental design** Proper designing of the experiment to ensure collection of appropriate data and also to ensure that the assumptions required for proper interpretation of data are satisfied. Given a set of treatments which can provide information regarding the objective of an experiment, a design for the experiment defines the size and number of experimental units, the manner in which the treatments are allotted to the units and also the appropriate type and grouping of the experimental units. These requirements of a design ensure validity, interpretability and accuracy of the results from an analysis of the observations. These purposes are served by the principles of randomization, replication and error control. **Randomization** Randomization is the process of assigning treatments to the experimental units in such a way that each unit has equal chance of receiving any treatment. It prevents the introduction of a systematic bias into the experiment thereby ensuring a valid or unbiased estimate of experimental error and of treatment means and differences among them. If the assignment of treatment units is not done in a randomized manner, one cannot tell whether an observed difference is due to the systematic method used to assign the treatments to the experimental units. For instance, to avoid bias in comparisons among treatment means, it is necessary to have some way of ensuring that a particular treatment will not be consistently favoured or handicapped in successive replications by some extraneous sources of variation, known or unknown. This means that treatments should have equal chance of being assigned to an experimental unit, be it favorable or otherwise. **Replication** Replication refers to the situation where a treatment appears more than once in an experiment. Thus, replication refers to repetition of a treatment(s) in an experiment. A replication of a treatment is an independent observation of the treatment, and thus two replications of a treatment must involve two experimental units. Duplicate or split samples taken from the same subjects do not constitute replicates. The goals of replication are: 1\. To enable one estimate experimental error. Experimental error is estimated as the variation among experimental units that have been treated alike. 2\. To improve the precision involved in estimating and comparing parameters (such as means) by reducing the standard deviation of a treatment mean as well as increasing the power of statistical test as replication is increased. 3\. To increase the scope of inference of the experiment by selection and appropriate use of more variable experimental units. This is usually true for replication in time and in space. The number of replications to use in an experiment will depend on: 1\. The degree of precision needed, 2\. The inherent variability in the data, 3\. The number of treatments, 4\. The experimental design, 5\. Funds available and 6\. Time considerations. The number of replications, the number of treatments and the plot size together determine the size of an experiment. The number of replications for an experiment depends on several factors. The most important factor is probably the degree of precision required. However, researchers have in most cases used funds and time available as main considerations. Definitions of some common experimental terms An experiment is a planned or systematic enquiry to obtain new facts, to confirm or deny existing information. A block is a group of similar experimental units in an experimental set-up. A plot or experimental unit is a unit to which one application of a treatment is made. A treatment is a dosage of experimental material, whose effect is measured and compared to others. **COMMON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS** **Introduction** Experimental design refers to the structure or arrangement of experimental units. As a general rule, the researcher should choose the simplest design that would provide the desired level of precision. The choice of experimental design is influenced by the conditions at the experimental area, the nature of treatments and the number of treatments. Simple experimental designs are easier to analyze than complex ones. The three commonly used simple experimental designs in agricultural research and experimental biology are (a) Completely Randomized Design (CRD), (b) Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) and Latin Square Design. For each design, the randomization, field layout and outline of analysis of variance are presented excluding Latin square design. **Completely Randomized Design (CRD)** A completely randomized design is one where the treatments are assigned completely at random to the experimental units. Thus each experimental unit has the same chance of receiving any one treatment. This design is useful when the experimental units are essentially homogeneous, such as laboratory experiments, where environmental effects are relatively easy to control. In field experiments, where large variation among experimental units generally exists, CRD is not commonly used. In pot experiments, where a quantity of soil is thoroughly mixed and then filled into pots (experimental units) to which treatments are randomly assigned, CRD is applicable. Randomization and layout is as follows: Consider the case of treatments A, B, C and D and each replicated five times. i. Determine the total number of experimental units (plots). This is obtained as a product of the number of treatments (t) and the number of replications (r). For above example, n = (r)(t). Hence n = (5)(4) = 20. ii. Assign the numbers 1 to 20 to the experimental units in a convenient manner, for example consecutively (Figure 1). iii. Assign treatments to experimental units using a randomization scheme such +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | | | | | | | B | A | D | B | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | | | | | | | C | D | A | B | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | | | | | | | D | C | C | D | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | | | | | | | B | C | A | C | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | | | | | | | A | B | A | D | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **Layout of a completely randomized design with four treatments (A, B, C and D) each replicated five times**. In the completely randomized design, each experimental unit is identified or classified according to the treatment received. Since there is only a single criterion for classification of experimental units, the design is also known as *one-way classification*. The corresponding analysis of variance is also known as *single classification* analysis of variance. Total variation in a CRD experiment is divided into variation among treatments and within treatments (variation among experimental units treated alike or experimental error). The outline of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) table is as follows **Outline of analysis of variance (ANOVA) table for CRD** +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Source of | Degree of | Sum of | Mean | Computed | Tabular F | | Variation | Freedom | Square | Square | F | | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | Treatment | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Error | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Total | | | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ **RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK DESIGN (RCBD)** **Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)** The randomized complete block design is one of the most widely used experimental designs in agricultural research. The design is especially suited for field experiments where the number of treatments is not large and the experimental area has a predictable productivity gradient. It is used in situations where the experimental units can be meaningfully grouped. Such a group is called a block. The object of grouping is to have the experimental units in a block as uniform as possible so that observed differences would be largely due to treatments. Variation among blocks is arithmetically removed from experimental error. In field experiments, each block usually consists of a compact, nearly square group of plots. Likewise, in some animal experiments, the individual animals are placed in blocks on the basis of characteristics such as initial weight, breed, sex, age and as litter. If an experiment is too big to be taken at one time, it may have to be carried out over a period of time/season, with each time/season representing a block. An experiment may also have to be carried out in different laboratories or farms, each serving as a block. The design therefore has applications for other biological fields and laboratory experiments besides agricultural research. Even shelve positions in an oven could be used as blocks. During the course of the experiment, all units in a block must be treated as uniformly as possible in every respect other than treatment. If a field operation has to be spread over a period of time, all plots in any one block should be considered the same day. eg. harvesting of fields plots. Also, if different individuals are to make observations on the experiment and there is the likelihood of differences among individuals in their score of the same plot, then one individual should make all the observations in a block. In this design, each experimental unit is classified according to the block containing the unit and the treatment applied, giving a **two-way classification**. Each treatment usually appears once in each block and each block contains all treatments (complete block). Considered as described, the RCBD is a type of two-way classification **without replication**. **It is assumed that block and treatments effects do not interact**. Blocks are also not expected to be contiguous and hence individual farms could serve as blocks. The essential feature is similarity of experimental units within a given farm. ***Randomization and layout***: When we apply fertilizer to a small plot of land, we usually take a single value as yield of crop. Similarly, when insecticide is applied to a plot of land, a single measure of mortality of insects in the plot is taken. To test differences among five types of fertilizers or insecticides), we need at least five plots. However, the five readings would not provide an estimate of experimental error. The treatments must be replicated to obtain an estimate of experimental error. Each block therefore constitutes a replication. Let us assume we have six treatments A, B, C, D, E and F and four replications: \(i) Divide the experimental area into r blocks, where r is the number of replications. \(ii) Subdivide each block into t experimental units, where t is the number of treatments. Number the plots consecutively from 1 to t and assign the t treatments at random to the t plots using a randomization scheme (Figure 2). \(iii) Use a new randomization for each block. \(iv) Block across gradient **not** along gradient 1 C 4 E 1 B 4 F 1 C 4 B 1 D 4 A 2 D 5 B 2 A 5 D 2 F 5 D 2 E 5 C 3 F 6 A 3 C 6 E 3 A 6 E 3 B 6 F Block I Block II Block III Block IV The Completely Randomized Design (CRD) has its strengths and limitations. Here is an appraisal and evaluation of CRD: Appraisal of CRD: Simplicity: CRD is relatively easy to understand and implement. It does not require complex blocking structures or specialized knowledge of experimental design, making it accessible to researchers with limited experience. Randomization: Random assignment of treatments to experimental units in CRD helps ensure unbiased comparisons and minimizes the impact of confounding factors. It allows for the assumption that any differences observed between treatment groups are solely due to the effects of the treatments. Statistical analysis: CRD is compatible with standard statistical techniques, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), which provides a robust framework for comparing treatment means and assessing statistical significance. Flexibility: CRD can accommodate a wide range of treatment levels and can be used in experiments with multiple treatments or factors. It allows for a straightforward comparison of treatments without the need for specific blocking or factorial arrangements. Evaluation of CRD: Lack of control over confounding factors: Since CRD does not involve blocking or stratification, it may not adequately control for potential confounding factors. This could introduce additional variability and decrease the precision of treatment comparisons. If there are known or suspected factors that may influence the response variable, other experimental designs like randomized block design or factorial design may be more appropriate. Limited generalizability: CRD assumes that the experimental units are homogeneous, and the results obtained are applicable to the entire population. However, in practical situations, there may be underlying variability within the population that is not captured by CRD. This limits the generalizability of the findings beyond the specific experimental context. Inefficiency: CRD does not account for any inherent differences or variability within the experimental units. This could lead to inefficient use of resources, especially if the variability within certain subsets of units is known to be higher. Other designs that incorporate blocking or stratification can provide more efficient estimates and better precision. Lack of adaptability: Once the treatment assignments are made in CRD, it may not be possible to make any changes or adjustments during the course of the experiment. This can be a limitation if unforeseen circumstances or experimental conditions require modifications in the treatment allocations. Limited inference about interactions: CRD is primarily focused on comparing the main effects of treatments and does not provide explicit information about interactions between treatments and other factors. If interaction effects are of interest, other designs like factorial designs would be more suitable. Overall, while CRD has its advantages in terms of simplicity and randomization, researchers should carefully consider the specific research question, potential sources of variability, and the need for controlling confounding factors before selecting CRD or opting for more advanced experimental designs. The Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) has several strengths and limitations. Here is an appraisal and evaluation of RCBD: Appraisal of RCBD: Control of confounding factors: RCBD incorporates the use of blocks to account for known or suspected sources of variability or confounding factors. This helps to reduce the impact of these factors on treatment comparisons, resulting in more precise and reliable estimates. Randomization: RCBD includes random assignment of treatments within each block, ensuring unbiased comparisons and minimizing the influence of extraneous variables. This randomization enhances the internal validity of the study by creating balanced treatment groups within each block. Efficient use of resources: By using blocking, RCBD allows for more efficient use of resources. It helps to reduce variability within blocks, making treatment comparisons more precise. This design is particularly advantageous when the number of treatments is relatively large compared to the number of experimental units. Statistical analysis: RCBD is compatible with standard statistical techniques, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), which enables the assessment of treatment effects and statistical significance. The blocked structure allows for the analysis of both the main effects of treatments and potential interaction effects between treatments and blocks. Control over variability: RCBD helps to account for and control sources of variability by creating homogeneous blocks. This makes treatment comparisons more robust and increases the ability to detect significant effects. Evaluation of RCBD: Limited flexibility: RCBD may not be suitable for all research situations, especially when the number of treatments is small or when there are no obvious blocking factors. In such cases, alternative experimental designs, such as Completely Randomized Design (CRD), may be more appropriate. Assumptions of homogeneity: RCBD assumes that the variability within blocks is similar across treatment groups. If there are significant differences in variability between blocks, the assumption of homogeneity may be violated, potentially affecting the validity of treatment comparisons. Practical considerations: The implementation of RCBD requires careful planning and consideration of the blocking factors. It may require additional resources, such as identifying and grouping experimental units into homogeneous blocks. Researchers need to ensure that the chosen blocking factors are relevant and meaningful for the research question. Limited generalizability: While RCBD provides robust estimates within the specific experimental context, its generalizability to broader populations or settings may be limited. The findings may primarily apply to the specific levels of the blocking factors used in the study. Overall, RCBD offers advantages in terms of controlling confounding factors, efficient use of resources, and enhanced precision in treatment comparisons. However, researchers should carefully assess the suitability of RCBD based on the research question, the availability of relevant blocking factors, and practical considerations. It is important to consider alternative designs if RCBD does not align with the specific requirements of the study. **LESSON 6** **EXECUTING THE EXPERIMENT** To execute a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) in research work, let\'s walk through an example: Example: Investigating the effect of different fertilizers on plant growth. Research question: Does the type of fertilizer affect the growth of plants? Treatments: Select three different types of fertilizers (A, B, and C) as your treatments. Experimental units: Choose 30 potted plants as your experimental units. Each plant represents an experimental unit. Randomly assign treatments: Randomly assign each plant to one of the three fertilizer treatments. Ensure that each treatment group has an equal number of plants. For instance: Group 1: 10 plants receive Fertilizer A Group 2: 10 plants receive Fertilizer B Group 3: 10 plants receive Fertilizer C Replication: Consider replicating the experiment by having multiple sets of experimental units (plants) for each treatment. This helps increase the reliability of the results. In this example, let\'s assume we have three replicates for each treatment, resulting in a total of 90 plants. Conduct the experiment: Apply the respective fertilizers to the plants according to the assigned treatment groups. Ensure that the plants receive the appropriate amount of fertilizer and that other conditions, such as sunlight and watering, are consistent across all plants. Measure the response variable: After a specified time period (e.g., weeks or months), measure the growth of each plant. The response variable could be plant height, number of leaves, or any other metric that represents plant growth. Analyze the data: Perform statistical analysis on the collected data to compare the effects of different fertilizers. You can use analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine if there are significant differences in plant growth among the fertilizer treatments. Interpret the results: Assess the statistical findings and interpret the differences in plant growth. Determine if there are any significant effects of the fertilizers on the plants\' growth. For example, you might find that Fertilizer B resulted in significantly taller plants compared to the other treatments. Report and communicate: Summarize your findings in a research report or paper. Include details about the CRD, the specific fertilizers used, the methods, results, and conclusions. Present your data using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to support your findings. By following these steps and using the CRD approach, you can effectively investigate the impact of different fertilizers on plant growth while minimizing bias and confounding factors. Remember to adapt the steps based on your specific research question and experimental setup. To execute a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) in research work, follow these steps with an example: Example: Investigating the effect of different fertilizers on crop yield in different soil types. Research question: Does the type of fertilizer affect crop yield differently based on soil type? Treatments: Select three different types of fertilizers (A, B, and C) as your treatments. Blocks: Identify the blocks, which are groups of experimental units that share similar characteristics or potential sources of variation. In this example, the blocks will be different soil types: sandy soil, loam soil, and clay soil. Experimental units: Select different plots or areas of land that represent your experimental units. Ensure that each soil type is represented in each block. Randomly assign treatments within blocks: Randomly assign each fertilizer treatment to the plots within each soil type block. This ensures that each fertilizer treatment is represented in each soil type block, minimizing potential confounding factors. Replication: Consider replicating the experiment by having multiple sets of plots for each fertilizer treatment within each soil type block. This helps increase the reliability of the results. Conduct the experiment: Apply the respective fertilizers to the plots according to the assigned treatment groups. Ensure that the application rates are consistent and appropriate for each fertilizer type. Measure the response variable: Collect data on the crop yield from each plot at harvest time. Measure the yield, such as weight or quantity of harvested crops, for each plot. Analyze the data: Perform statistical analysis on the collected data to compare the effects of different fertilizers on crop yield based on soil types. Use analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess the significance of the effects. Interpret the results: Assess the statistical findings and interpret the differences in crop yield among the fertilizer treatments based on soil types. Determine if there are any significant effects of the fertilizers on crop yield for different soil types. Report and communicate: Summarize your findings in a research report or paper. Include details about the RCBD, the specific fertilizers used, the methods, results, and conclusions. Present your data using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to support your findings. By following these steps and implementing an RCBD, you can effectively investigate the impact of different fertilizers on crop yield while accounting for potential confounding factors, such as soil types. Adapt the steps based on your specific research question and experimental setup. **LESSON 7** **COMPONENT OF CHAPTER ONE** In educational action research, Chapter One typically sets the stage for the study by providing an introduction and overview of the research. While the specific components may vary depending on the research design and guidelines, here are some key elements commonly found in Chapter One of an educational action research study: **Background to the Study** The introduction section of a proposal puts the study into perspective. It describes the background to the problem, states clearly what specific issue, problem or question the researcher wants to investigate, how the study relates to literature in the area of study, and the statement of the specific hypotheses or questions to be tested or answered. Proposals will vary in terms of emphasis with regard to the above mentioned aspects of the introductory part of the proposal depending on whether the problem is given or not. In cases of undergraduate projects where the individual student lacks the idea of the study, the issue of clearly stating the background to the problem and its statement is crucial. The description of the background of the background should be concise and help the reader to understand and appreciate the specific problem to be investigated and its objectives. The background description may be historical and must include relevant literature. In fact, in practice, you must review before stating the background to the study and the problem as well as the formulation of the hypotheses and/or questions. **Statement of the Problem** The statement of the problem directly follows the description of the background to the study. It is a concise statement of the problem the study is addressing, including its scope. The statement of the research problem is very pertinent and must be considered with all the seriousness that it deserves. A research problem can be defined as an issue in need of investigation. Thus, problems spring from puzzling experiences. However, a vague feeling that something is wrong or that some theory or policy is not adequate does not constitute a problem. Such a situation is an indication that a problem may exist. Before you proceed with your proposal you must isolate. Sharpen, and clarify the pertinent variables and relationships that give rise to the problem statement. This you can do by reviewing the related literature. This will help you put the problem in appropriate theoretical framework or context. The statement of a problem should indicate the variables of interest to the investigator and their relationships, as well as the subjects of study. A research problem can be stated in different ways. Three examples of problem statements are as follows: - The problem to be investigated in this study is secondary school teachers' attitudes toward school -- based assessment in Ghana. - The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the CHILDSCOPE Project on dropout rates in implementing districts in Ghana. - This study is to investigate the effect of kindergarten attendance on pupil's reading performance at class one. **Purpose of the study** **Hypotheses / Research Questions / Objectives/ Assumptions** After stating your research problem and making sure that your problem is a good one by evaluating it, you must formulate either the relevant research hypotheses or research questions. The hypotheses or questions must be directly related to the research problem under consideration. You will recall that when discussing the characteristics of research, we noted that the main problem is solved through sub -- problems. These sub -- problems are what you restate as research hypotheses r questions depending on the problem. Hypotheses are educated guesses or conjectures that are testable. Hypotheses are formulated usually in quantitative research whiles research questions are used in qualitative research and evaluations. Quantitative research, however, can involve information of both hypotheses and questions. Depending upon the problem of study, the researcher should state the specific hypotheses or questions of the study. This is in line with the fact that research deals with a main problem through sub-problems. It is expedient to divide the main problem into appropriate sub-problems and formulate hypotheses or question to cover them. Hypotheses must be stated in a research form and a null form. It is appropriate to state your hypotheses in both ways. As a researcher you may be interested in the research hypotheses (substantive hypotheses), but it is the null hypotheses that will assist you to reach a decision on whether to accept the research hypothesis or not. **Significance of the Study** Even though the problem may be clearly stated, there is the need to explain to the reader the significance of the study. That is, it should be clear as to why the problem should be investigated. You need to explain how the results of the study will be useful in terms of how it will influence practice, inform policy or contribute to theory. The review of related literature is a useful source for this. Limitations and Delimitations: This part acknowledges the limitations or constraints of the study. It identifies potential factors that may impact the research, such as sample size limitations, time constraints, or availability of resources. Delimitations, on the other hand, define the boundaries of the research by specifying what is not included or will be beyond the scope of the study. Chapter Summary: The chapter concludes with a brief summary that recaps the main points discussed. It provides a logical transition to the subsequent chapters of the research, giving the reader an overview of what to expect in terms of the research findings and analysis. **STEPS AND GUIDELINES TO FOLLOW WHEN WRITING CHAPTER ONE** When writing Chapter One of a research study, it is important to establish a strong foundation for the research and provide readers with a clear understanding of the study\'s purpose, significance, and context. Here are some steps and guidelines to follow when writing Chapter One: **Introduction:** Begin with a compelling opening that grabs the reader\'s attention and highlights the importance of the research topic. Provide a concise background and context of the research topic. Explain why it is relevant and worth studying. Clearly state the research problem or objective that the study aims to address. This sets the focus and scope of the research. **Research Questions or Objectives:** Formulate clear and specific research questions or objectives that guide the study. Ensure that the research questions or objectives align with the research problem and contribute to filling a gap in the existing knowledge. **Literature Review:** Conduct a comprehensive review of relevant literature and studies related to the research topic. Analyze and synthesize existing knowledge, theories, and findings. Identify key concepts, theories, or models that underpin the research study. Highlight the gap or research opportunity that the current study aims to address. **Theoretical Framework (if applicable):** If the research study is grounded in a specific theory or conceptual framework, explain the theoretical foundation and its relevance to the research. Describe how the theory or framework will guide the research design, data analysis, and interpretation of findings. **Methodology:** Provide a clear and detailed description of the research methodology, including the research design, approach (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed), data collection methods, and data analysis techniques. Justify the chosen methodology, explaining why it is appropriate for addressing the research questions or objectives. Discuss any ethical considerations and steps taken to ensure the protection of participants\' rights and privacy. Significance and Expected Contributions: Explain the significance of the research study in terms of its potential impact on theory, practice, or policy. Highlight the expected contributions of the study to the existing body of knowledge. Discuss the potential benefits or implications of the research findings for various stakeholders. Scope and Limitations: Clearly define the scope and boundaries of the research study, specifying the population, geographical area, time frame, or any other relevant factors. Acknowledge and discuss the limitations of the study, such as sample size, data collection constraints, or potential biases. Chapter Outline: Provide a brief overview of the subsequent chapters in the research study, outlining the main content and organization. Clarity and Organization: Ensure that the chapter is well-structured, with a logical flow of ideas. Use clear and concise language, avoiding jargon or technical terms that may confuse the reader. Provide sufficient detail to convey a comprehensive understanding of the research study but avoid excessive information that may overwhelm the reader. Revise and Edit: After completing the initial draft of Chapter One, revise and edit the content for clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Proofread for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and formatting consistency. By following these steps and guidelines, you can effectively write Chapter One and establish a solid foundation for your research study, setting the stage for the subsequent chapters. **LESSON 8** **CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE** **Definition of Literature Review** Before planning the details of a study, the researcher usually read written related material to the problem or topic in detail to find out what has been written about the topic or had been done. Opinions of experts in the field, as well as other research studies are of interest to the researcher in performing this important duty. Such reading is referred to as a review of the literature. The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analyses "digging" of documents including periodicals, abstracts, review books, and other research reports. Don't bother yourself looking for explanations an examples of the documents listed above. We shall look at all of them later in this session. **Purpose of Literature Review** Literature reviews serve a number of important functions in the research process. By examining some of their specific functions, we hope to clarify their value. 1. **Avoidance of Unintentional Replication** A thorough search through related research avoids unintentional replications of previous studies. Do you remember the term replication? Hope you do. That is nice. Let's continue. A researcher may through the review of related literature discover that a very similar study has already been made in his / her research problem. In such a case, the researcher must decide whether to deliberately replicate the previous work or to change the proposed palms and investigate a different aspect of a problem. Review of related literature, thus, helps to determine what has been done that related the problem under investigation. This leads to the avoidance of unnecessary duplication of research work. 2. **Refining / Delimiting Research problem** Reviewing related literature helps researcher to delimited the research problem which result in limiting their question and to clarify and define the concepts of their study problem or research question may be too broad to be carried out, or too vague to be into concrete operation. For example a problem likes "continuous assessment in Ghana would be too broad to be carried out. What is some of the aspects that can be carried out as means of delimiting this problem? Similarly a problem like Drop out in Ghana would be both broad and vague. Literal review also helps in clarifying the concepts involved in the study and in clearly the terms in relation to the study. For example through review, many educational behavioural constructs such as streets, creativity, frustration, aggression, motivation bright, dull, etc, could be clarified and operationally defined. 3. **Identifying Useful Methodology Techniques** By studying related research, investigators learn which instruments that have proved useful and those which have not been productive in investigating the particular problem and thus guide the researcher in the study. Many researcher projects fail because of the use of inappropriate procedures, instruments, research designs and statistical analysis. A thorough examination of the methodologies of previous studies often results in finding the reasons for the failure of past studies, as well as insight into the selection of an appropriate methodology for one's own research. Both the success and failures of past work provide insight for designing one's own study. 4. **Facilitating the Interpretation of Results of the study** The study of related literature facilitates the interpretation of results of the study. In fact the review of related, literature places researchers in a better position to interpret the significance of their own results. The researcher learns how other researchers have interpreted their results. Becoming familiar with theories of the field and with previous research, prepares researchers for fitting the findings of their research into the body of knowledge in the field. 5. **Identifying contradictory findings** A review of related literature may reveal contradictory findings that may be a fertile area in which to conduct subsequent research. 6. **Developing Research Hypotheses / Questions** Appropriate hypotheses or questions are usually based on a review of literature. The literature provides a basis for a hypothesis or research question. 7. **Desirable Replication** Review of related literature may suggest the desirability of replication to confirm previous findings. Do you remember the term Replication? Repeating a study increase the extent to which the research findings can be generalized and provides additional evidence of the validity of the findings. **THE SECONDARY SOURCE** A secondary source is a description of a study or studies prepared by someone other than the original researcher. In other words a secondary source is one that reviews, summarizes, or discusses someone else's research. Review articles those summaries the literature on a topic are secondary sources. When you have completed and written up a review of the literature on a topic, your document will be considered a secondary reference. If you go on to collect new data on the same topic, however, your description of the researcher's problem, methods, and results of the study will be a primary source reference for others doing a literature review. Some examples of secondary sources are textbooks, scholarly books devoted to a particular topic, reviews of research in books or journals, yearbooks, encyclopaedias and handbooks. These sources would be looked at in greater detail. **Importance of Secondary Sources** Secondary sources are useful in providing bibliographical information on relevant primary sources. They are good to start with because they provide an overview of the topic, often citing relevant research studies and important primary sources. A limitation of secondary sources is that they are rarely possible to achieve complete objectively in summarizing and reviewing written materials. In other words it could be possible that the researcher or author did not accurately report the research since they combine the information from other secondary sources and actual studies. **PRIMARY SOURCE** **Definition of Primary Sources** A review of literature involves identifying primary sources that investigate a problem or idea of interest. A primary source, from the point of view of the research literature, is the description of an investigation written by the person who conducted it. Primary source are, thus, original articles and reports in which researchers communicate directly to the reader the methods and results of their study. They are reported in a wide variety of journals referred and non--referred. For example most of the articles appearing in journals such as "if Psychologia, Oguaa Educator" are original research reports and therefore are primary sources. **The Role of the Primary Source** Having read the write-up on primary sources of literature review, can you think of any one importance of this source? Write at least one importance of this source in your jotter. Now read on. According to Amedahe (2002), it is important to read primary sources because they allow more informed judgment about the quality and usefulness of the information. They tend not to be distorted by being summarized or reported in another form. The primary sources of literature provide sufficient detail about research studies. It is possible to achieve complete objectivity in summarizing and reviewing written materials. **Steps to Review Related literature** A set of sequential steps will increase the quality of the research reviewed and lessen the time necessary to locate the most appropriate studies. This sequence is also appropriate for learning about recent research in the area. MacMillan (1996) identified 6 main steps in reviewing related literature. These are. 1. **Locating Existing Reviews and other Information in Secondary Sources like:** Textbooks in most major fields of education e.g. educational psychology, reading, special education, measurement and evaluation. Etc. may be located through the subject index of the appropriate catalogue in the library. Scholarly Books, which are written on many topics found in textbooks, may also be good secondary source. 2. **Identify Key Terms:** Once research of a secondary source is completed and the research problem is refined, the investigator needs to make a list of key terms that represent the problem. This step is accomplished by identifying the most important terms in the problem and then thinking of other terms that are closely related. These terms are then located in appropriate indexes to find related literature. The indexes organize the literature by subject, title, key terms and author. For example, suppose your research problem is related to teaching styles and student achievement, key terms are "teaching style" and "student achievement". 3. **Identifying the Appropriate Journal Indexes and Abstracts:** Many indexes may be used to locate research on education. The most useful and comprehensive is "Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE)" CIJE is published monthly by the Educational Resource Information Centre (ERIC) CIJE provides abstracts of articles from almost 800 journals and periodicals. 4. **Search Indexes for Primary Sources:** The ultimate objective in a review of related literature is to identify primary sources that investigate a problem or idea of interest. A useful primary source is reading a book as it was originally written by the author. 5. **Summaries and Analyze Primary Source Information**: Once you locate the primary source, the article or report that contains the original data collection and analysis, you will need to read it and summarize the information it contains. It is useful to have a strategy for recording notes on the article as you read it. Begin by reading the abstract of the article, and then proceed with the purpose of research problem. Read the results and decide if it is worthwhile to read the article more carefully and take notes on it. It is also useful to note or write down the full reference of your source (i.e. the author, year of publication, title of the article and the journal, etc.) 6. **Organizing the Review:** The review of literature can be organized in different ways. The most common approach is to group together studies that investigate similar topics and subtopics. This process is initiated by coding the studies as you read them. The articles with the same code are then put in one file, those of another code in a seconded file etc. Usually, the review chapter in the thesis or project work is chapter two. 7. The review should be thorough. Generally, the review chapter should be organized into **three main parts**. These are the introduction, body of the review and summary of the review. The introduction part explains briefly the nature of the research problem and the structure of the review chapter. It is useful to present the outline of the review in the introduction. The body of the review reports what others have found or thought about the research problem. Related studies are usually discussed together, grouped under subheadings. Major studies are discussed in detail while less important work is not emphasized. The review should not be reporting what others found but it should show how results from similar studies are similar or different. The summary of the review put together the main trends and points of the review. **The Search for Primary and Secondary Sources** How can one search for the various sources in literature? Write your response in our jotter for FTF discussion. The search for primary and secondary sources is made in one of three ways. 1. By computer 2. By mediated online search done by a librarian or library staff 3. Manually **Computer** Technological advances now allow libraries to have indexes on computers which researchers can search by themselves. This can also be done through internet connections of the library by the researcher him/herself. **By Mediated Online Search done by a Librarian or Library Staff staff typically performs these searches.** This is done to help the researcher to get additional information or sources not available to all users such as interlibrary facilities. **Manually Search** To conduct a manual search, you must select the most recent available print index. Using the subject headings in the index, which are organized alphabetically, find the key terms you have previously identified. The index will list, by title, published article are related to the key term. Read through the list of titles and determine which of the articles may be useful for the review. Important information such as the name of the author(s) and journal, volume, number, date of publication and pages is recorded. Identify as many relevant articles as possible. **Criteria for Evaluating the Review of Literature** Several criteria should be considered, when reading and revaluating the review of literature section of research studies. 1. The review of literature should adequately cover previous research on the topic. To satisfy this criteria, questions that must be answered include: Were important studies ignored or included? Do the numbers of studies in the review reflect research activities in the area? 2. The review of literature should cite actual findings from other studies. It is important for the review to be based on the empirical results of previous research, not on opinions of others about previous research or on the conclusion of previous research. 3. The review of literature should be up -- to -- date. The studies reviewed should include the most recent research on the topic. This does not mean that older studies are not relevant. 4. The review of literature should analyze as well as providing summaries of previous studies. The analysis may be a critique of methodology or inappropriate generalization, an indication of limitations of the study e.g. to certain population, instrument or procedures, or a discussion of conflicting results. 5. The review of literature should be organized logically by topic and not by author. A review that has one paragraph for each study usually fails to integrate and synthesize previous research. 6. The review of literature should briefly summarize minor studies and discuss in detail major studies. Minor studies are those that are related to one or two aspects of the study. Major studies are those directly relevant to most aspects of the study or have important implications. 7. The review of major studies should relate previous studies explicitly to the research problem or methods. The questions that one should ask here are what is the implication of the review? How can it be helpful and improve subsequent research? 8. The review of literature should provide a logical basis for the hypothesis. If there is a hypothesis, it should be based on the review. There should be a clear connection among the problem, review and hypothesis. 9. The review of literature should establish a theoretical framework for the problem. For basic and most applied research, the review should provide the theoretical context for the study, so as to enhance the significance of the findings. 10. The review of literature should help establish the significance of the research. **COMPONENTS OF CHAPTER TWO** Chapter Two of a research study typically focuses on the literature review. It is an essential chapter that provides a comprehensive overview of the existing literature and research related to the research topic. The key components of Chapter Two include: Introduction to the Literature Review: This section provides an introduction to the purpose and significance of the literature review. It explains the role of the literature review in the research process, its connection to the research objectives, and how it informs the study. Research Questions or Objectives Recap: It is common to briefly recap the research questions or objectives from Chapter One to establish a clear link between the literature review and the research focus. Scope and Inclusion Criteria: This part describes the scope and boundaries of the literature review. It defines the specific timeframe, geographical focus, or other criteria for selecting relevant literature. It may also explain any inclusion or exclusion criteria used to select the studies or sources included in the review. Search Strategy: The search strategy outlines the methods and sources used to gather relevant literature. It explains the databases, libraries, online platforms, or other resources searched, as well as the keywords, search terms, and Boolean operators used to conduct the search. Organization and Structure: This section discusses the organization and structure of the literature review. It may explain the chosen approach, such as thematic, chronological, theoretical, or methodological, and how the literature will be synthesized and presented in the chapter. Literature Review Sections: This is the main body of the chapter and typically consists of several sections, each focusing on a specific theme, concept, theory, or research area relevant to the research topic. Each section provides a comprehensive review and analysis of the literature related to that particular theme, highlighting key theories, concepts, empirical findings, and debates. Synthesis and Analysis: This part involves synthesizing and analyzing the literature reviewed. It goes beyond mere summary and identifies common trends, patterns, contradictions, or gaps in the literature. It may involve comparing and contrasting different studies, theories, or perspectives to provide a critical analysis of the existing knowledge. Conceptual Framework Development: In some cases, Chapter Two may include the development or refinement of a conceptual framework based on the reviewed literature. This involves integrating relevant theories, models, or frameworks to provide a theoretical lens for the research study. Chapter Summary: The chapter concludes with a summary that highlights the main findings, themes, and gaps identified in the literature review. It may also briefly mention how the reviewed literature informs the research design, methodology, or conceptual framework for the study. It\'s important to note that the specific structure and content of Chapter Two may vary depending on the research requirements, guidelines, and the researcher\'s preferences. The components listed above provide a general framework for organizing and presenting the literature review, but it\'s advisable to consult the specific guidelines provided by your institution or research supervisor to ensure compliance with the required format. **STEPS AND GUIDELINES TO FOLLOW WHEN WRITING CHAPTER TWO** When writing Chapter Two of a research study, the focus is primarily on the literature review. This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the existing knowledge, theories, and research related to the research topic. Here are some steps and guidelines to follow when writing Chapter Two: - Define the Scope: Clearly define the scope and boundaries of the literature review. Identify the main themes, concepts, or sub-topics that will be covered. - Determine the timeframe for the literature review, specifying the range of years or relevant publications to be included. - Conduct a Comprehensive Search: Conduct a thorough search of relevant academic databases, journals, books, and other reputable sources. - Use keywords and search terms related to the research topic to ensure a comprehensive and focused search. - Consider both seminal works and recent studies to capture the evolution of knowledge in the field. - Select and Evaluate Sources: Select sources that are directly relevant to the research topic and contribute to the research objectives. - Evaluate the credibility and quality of the selected sources. Consider factors such as the reputation of the authors, peer-review process, and relevance to the research study. - Organize the Literature: Organize the literature based on themes, theories, or concepts that emerge from the selected sources. - Identify key ideas, arguments, or debates within each theme and present them in a coherent and logical manner. - Analyze and Synthesize the Literature: Analyze the literature critically, identifying common patterns, gaps, or inconsistencies in the existing knowledge. Synthesize the literature by integrating the findings and arguments from different sources to create a cohesive narrative. - Provide a Conceptual Framework (if applicable): If a theoretical framework or conceptual model is relevant to the research study, introduce and explain it in this chapter. Show how the selected literature aligns with or contributes to the theoretical framework, providing a theoretical foundation for the research study. - Structure the Chapter: Begin the chapter with an introduction that provides an overview of the literature review and its purpose. Use headings and subheadings to organize the content and guide the reader through different themes or topics. Provide clear transitions between different sections to ensure a smooth flow of ideas. - Critical Analysis: Engage in a critical analysis of the literature, highlighting strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in the existing knowledge. Identify any conflicting findings or debates within the literature and discuss their implications for the research study. - Connect to the Research Study: Continuously relate the literature review to the research questions or objectives established in Chapter One. Highlight how the selected literature informs or supports the research study, showing its relevance and contribution. - Revise and Edit: Review and revise the chapter for clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Ensure that citations and references are properly formatted according to the required citation style. By following these steps and guidelines, you can effectively write Chapter Two, the literature review chapter, and provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of the existing knowledge on the research topic. **LESSON 9** **CHAPTER THREE. Research METHODOLOGY** Chapter Three of a research study typically focuses on the research methodology. This chapter outlines the specific methods, procedures, and techniques used to conduct the study and gather data. It provides a detailed explanation of the research design, participants or sample selection, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and ethical considerations. Here are the key components typically found in Chapter Three: **Research Design**: This section describes the overall research design chosen for the study, such as experimental, correlational, case study, ethnographic, or qualitative design. It justifies the selection based on the research questions or objectives and provides a rationale for why the chosen design is appropriate for addressing the research problem. **Population:** In a study, a researcher may be interested in a group of elements or cases, whether individuals, objects, or events, that conform to specific criteria and to which he / she intends to generalize the results of the research. The group becomes your target group. The target group is the population of study. In the methodology section of the proposal, you have to define your population (target group) of study and explain why it is relevant for the study. An example of a target group is all elementary school teachers in Cape Coast Municipality. If all members of the target group are not accessible then it will be expedient to define the accessible population in addition to the population of study. You partly take care of the population if in your problem statement the population of study is made clear. If the population is going to be studied without selecting a subset (a sample) of it then you need not think about selecting a sample for the study. On the other hand, if you are going to select a sample then you must describe the process of selecting the sample in the procedure section. For you to be able to generalize the results of your study, a representative sample is required. **Sample and Sampling Procedure:** If a study will involve a sample, then you need to determine the sample size. Appropriate sample size is needed for the credibility of the results. The sample size is also important in making sure that your study is able to detect an impact if there is any. In sampling, surveys of very large populations, one to five per cent of the population will be adequate for a study when the sample is well selected to be representative of the population. Generally the larger the sample size, the better the results of the study. For statistical analysis, a sample size of 30 or higher is consideration to be large. This brings us to the issue of sampling. A sample can be selected using a probability or non-probability method. Probability methods include simple random sampling. Examples of non-probability sampling procedures are convenience, quota, purposive and snowball sampling. The diagram below shows the sampling procedures **Sampling Procedures** Proportional Probability Simple Random Stratified Systematic Subjects Disproportional And Cluster Sampling Convenience Non-probability Purposive Quota Snowball The specific sampling procedure must be selected based on the characteristics of the population and the practically of the sampling process, bearing in mind that the selected sample should be representative of the population. **Instruments / Tools**: The instruments that you will use to collect data must be described in the proposal. By instrument, we mean research tools such as a questionnaire, interview schedule, observation guides or tests. If multiple instruments are involved in the study you must describe each. If you are going to use an available instrument you need to show evidence of its reliability and validity for your study. If no instrument is available for your study and you have to develop an instrument then you need to explain how the instrument will be developed and what it will measure. Such an instrument must be pilot tested and validated before use. The process of developing the instrument must be clearly explained in the proposal. It is necessary to state when each instrument will be used or administered and for when purpose. Any other instruments that you will use in the study must also be described. **Data Collection Procedure:** The procedure section of the methodology should concisely describe how you would collect your data step by step using the instruments. If a pretest or baseline data collection is necessary it must be indicated, including when and how and by which instrument? This applies equally to post test data collection. If some people will assist you, there may be the need to train them. That is, the assistants must be given some type of orientation that explains the nature of the study and the part they will play in it. They should understand exactly what they are going to do and how they are to do it. For instance, when the study involves interviewing participants then there is the need to train interviewers and let them take part in mock interviews until they acquire the necessary level of skills and competencies in interviewing. This must be made clear in the proposal including the number of assistants. **Data Analysis:** The last section of the methodology section of a proposal should explain to the reader how data collected would be analyzed. For quantitative studies the researcher may have to employ statistical procedures in analyzing the data. The choice of the specific type of analysis depends on (1) the scale of measurement to be used in collecting the data and (2) the characteristics of the data to be collected in terms of meeting the conditions/assumptions underlying the use of the chosen statistics. The use of inappropriate statistical procedure to analyze the data can result in a wrong conclusion. Usually, it is expected that for each hypothesis, the researcher should indicate the specific statistical analysis he/she proposes to use to test it. In your case, you may use only descriptive statistics or percentages to analyze your data. For qualitative research, content analysis and other methods can be used to analyze the data. The important issue here is that the researcher must show in his/her proposal how each hypothesis will be tested or how each specific research question must be an indication of how you intend to interpret the results and the implications of what the results say. That is, the proposal should include a summary of the anticipated conclusion and implications in light of the proposal findings and previous research. **STEPS AND GUIDELINES TO FOLLOW WHEN WRITING CHAPTER THREE** When writing Chapter Three of a research study, the focus is on describing the research methodology and procedures employed in the study. This chapter provides a clear and detailed account of how the research was conducted, including the research design, population, sample, data collection procedures, research instruments, and data analysis plan. Here are the steps and guidelines to follow when writing Chapter Three: Research Design: Begin by clearly stating the research design employed in the study (e.g., experimental, correlational, qualitative, mixed methods, etc.). Justify the chosen research design, explaining why it is appropriate for addressing the research questions or objectives. Population and Sampling: Define the target population of the study, which refers to the larger group to which the findings will be generalized. Describe the specific sample that was selected from the population and justify the sample size and sel

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