Concepts in Semantics PDF

📘 Concepts in Semantics Definition of Semantics Semantics: The study of the meanings of words and sentences. Goal of a semanticist: Describe semantic knowledge which enables understanding of various situations. Ferdinand de Saussure (1974) - "Signification" Signifier (...

📘 Concepts in Semantics Definition of Semantics Semantics: The study of the meanings of words and sentences. Goal of a semanticist: Describe semantic knowledge which enables understanding of various situations. Ferdinand de Saussure (1974) - "Signification" Signifier (Sign) vs Signified o Icon: Similarity between a sign and what it represents. o Index: A sign closely associated with its signified, often in a causal relationship. o Symbol: Only a conventional link between the sign and its signified. Lexicon Definition: The mental store of thousands of words known in a language. Features: o Large but finite body of knowledge. o Includes semantic information. o Dynamic, as we constantly learn and forget words. 🧠 Critical Questions Word Creation: Is it possible and frequent to create new words? Sentence Creation: Is sentence creation more frequent compared to word creation? Note the recursive rules in sentence formation. Compositionality Sentence Meaning: Determined by the meaning of component parts and their combination. Lexical Meaning: Not always compositional (e.g., kindergarten vs. childrengarden). 🔗 Reference and Sense Reference: The relationship by which language hooks onto the world. Sense: Semantic links between elements within the vocabulary system. Examples by Ferdinand de Saussure (1974): "sheep" vs. "mouton" English: DiIerentiates between sheep (animal) and mutton (meat). French: Uses mouton for both the animal and the meat. 🗣 Utterances, Sentences, and Propositions Utterance: Real pieces created by speaking or writing. Sentences: Abstract grammatical elements obtained from utterances. Propositions: Capturing the meaning of sentences. Concept Definition Utterance Real pieces created by speaking or writing Sentence Abstract grammatical elements Proposition Captures the meaning of sentences 🎨 Literal and Non-literal Meaning Non-literal uses of language: Terms like metaphor, irony, metonymy, hyperbole. 📚 Semantics vs Pragmatics Sentence Meaning: Independent of any particular use (semantics). Speaker Meaning: Based on the particular meaning intended by the speaker (pragmatics). 📎 Lecture 2: Lexical Semantics - Word Meanings ☑ "Take another shot" Ambiguity: The word "shot" can refer to: o 📸 Taking a photograph o 🍷 Drinking alcohol o 🔫 Firing a gun o 🎯 Making another attempt at something Contextual Dependence: The meaning changes based on situational factors: o Location (e.g., a bar, a sports field, a photography session) o Tone of the speaker o Prior conversations Importance of Context: Without contextual clues, understanding the intended meaning becomes diIicult, risking misinterpretation. Examples: In a bar: "Take another shot" likely means drinking alcohol. In sports: It might mean attempting to score again. 📏 "Isabelle is tall" Relativity of "Tall": The term "tall" is relative and context-dependent: o Isabelle might be tall among friends but average on a basketball team. Contextual Clarification: Additional context like "Isabel is tall for her age" provides clearer understanding and reduces ambiguity. Cultural and Situational Factors:  Cultural perspectives and situational contexts also influence the interpretation. o DiIerent cultures have varying standards for what is considered "tall". Literal vs. Figurative Interpretation: Can be interpreted literally (physical height) or figuratively (presence or confidence). o Context determines if it is a compliment, criticism, or sarcasm. 🗡 "Sabre" General Definition: A type of sword characterized by a curved, single-edged blade. Fencing Context: In fencing, a sabre is a light, pointed sword with a single sharp edge. Symbolic and Historical Significance: Symbolizes military force and has significant historical usage in warfare. Physical Characteristics: Described as a heavy weapon with a wide, curved blade, designed for slashing. Noted for its hand guard and grip. 🗡 Comparison: Sabre and Rapier Feature Sabre Rapier Blade Curved, single-edged Straight, often double-edged Shape Design Optimized for slashing Primarily designed for thrusting Purpose Gained prominence in 18th-19th Popular during the Renaissance, Historical centuries, associated with military associated with civilian dueling and Use use fencing 🧪 "Copper" Description: Reddish-brown metal, chemical element (symbol: Cu, atomic number: 29).  Known for high electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, and ductility. Used in electrical wiring, plumbing, and production of coins. 🔄 Comparison: Copper and Bronze Feature Copper Bronze Composition Pure metal Alloy Properties Malleable and ductile Harder Color Reddish-brown Yellowish-brown or gold Electrical wiring, plumbing, Sculptures, medals, musical instruments, Uses cookware marine hardware 🐑 Last Lecture: "Lamb" and "mouton" 🖐 Sentences in Sign Language Sentence Boundaries: Indicated by pauses, changes in facial expressions, or specific signs denoting the end of a thought. DiZerences: Sentence in sign language: Structured sequence of signs following grammatical rules, conveying a complete thought (e.g., subject, verb, object). Utterance in sign language: Any unit of signed communication, regardless of grammatical completeness. 🧩 Lexical words Lexical Words: Have semantic relations outside of language and are also called "content words". o Examples: Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs o Open class of words Function Words: Contribute grammatical meanings and are also known as "grammatical words".  o Examples: Prepositions, articles, conjunctions o Closed class of words 📚 Lexemes A theoretical construct representing the unitary meaning and shared syntactic properties of a group of word forms. o Stripped of inflectional endings. o Examples: § play, plays, played, playing => play § cat, cats => cat Inflection creates forms of the same lexeme; derivation creates new lexemes (e.g., player /=> play). 📝 Lexical Semantics Aims: Represent the meaning of each word in a language. Show how the meanings of words are interrelated. Relationships: Words relate to other words in the same sentence and to related but absent words. o Example: "I saw my mother just now." => "I saw a woman just now." Semantic Elements: Mother: [+WOMAN] [+PARENT] 🔍 Reference and Denotation Reference: The relation between a language expression and its real-world counterpart; involves how speakers and listeners usean expression successfully. o Examples: This door, both doors, the dog, another dog Denotation: The potential of a word — understanding that enables successful use. o Examples: door, dog 🔗 Denotation and Sense Sense: An internal relationship among words or expressions within a language. o Example: "Don’t put your feet on the table!" vs. "It was finalized under the table." ☯ Denotation and Connotation Denotation: Identifies the central aspect of word meaning, agreed upon universally. Connotation: Refers to the personal aspect of meaning, including emotional associations aroused by the word. 📚 Homonymy Homonyms: Words with identical pronunciation and spelling but unrelated meanings. o Example: "bank" (financial institution) and "bank" (river edge) Homographs: DiIerent pronunciations but the same spelling. o Example: "bow" (front of a ship) and "bow" (to bend) Homophones: Same pronunciation but diIerent spelling. o Example: "steak" and "stake" 🔠 Polysemy Definition: A single word having two or more diZerent meanings. Polysemy and Homonymy: A polysemous lexeme has several related meanings. o Example: "head" (a noun) § Head of a human body § Head of a company § Head of a bed 📝 Semantics Lecture 3: Lexical Semantics 🌐 Componential Analysis In their conceptual world, words are at once containers, tools and weapons, just as in the physical world a bag is a container, a screw-driver is a tool, and a gun is a weapon. 🔍 Conceptual World of Words Words act as containers, tools, and weapons. o In the conceptual world: words have multiple functions. § Containers: Hold meanings or ideas. § Tools: Aid in communication and understanding. § Weapons: Can be used to persuade or argue. o In the physical world: analogous to objects. § Bag = Container. § Screwdriver = Tool. § Gun = Weapon. 📖 Orthographic Words Count: 34 🔍 Denotation and Connotation Denotation: o The literal and referential meaning of a word. o Example: "Denote" means to refer directly. Connotation: o Implied or suggested additional meanings. o Context-based and often subjective. o Positive or Derogatory. § Examples: § Chinese vs. English: § Ambitious: Pejorative (Chinese) vs Neutral/Positive (English).  § Individualism: Pejorative (Chinese) vs Neutral/Positive (English). § Propaganda: Neutral/Positive (Chinese) vs Pejorative (English). § Do-gooder: Pejorative (English), neutral in some contexts. Word Denotation Connotation Politician People engaged in public service Prioritizing themselves (-ve) Statesman Prioritizing the people Positive (+ve) Cautious Reluctance to take risks Careful and deliberate (+ve) Timid Avoid situations due to fear Negative (-ve) Lawyer Licensed professionals Bound by strict codes (+ve) Shyster Unlicensed practitioners Negative (-ve) Inquisitive Desire to know more Genuine interest in learning (+ve) Nosey Intrusive curiosity Negative (-ve) Bargain Amicable and fair exchange Positive (+ve) Haggle Persistent negotiation Negative (-ve) Sensitive Easily aIected by emotions Ability to respond to others (+ve) Touchy Take oIense easily Negative (-ve) 💧 Semantic Field of 'Water' Forms: Ice, steam, vapour, rain, snow, hail Bodies of Water: Ditch, well, pool, lake, river, sea, ocean, gulf, lagoon Water in Motion: Stream, river, spring, brook, creek, wave 📜 Semantic Fields Definition: Segment of reality symbolized by a set of related words. o Examples: Parts of the face, stages of life, clothing, water types, roads, personality traits, kinship, colors, vehicles. 🏷 Super-ordinate Words Examples: o Jewelry: Watch, ring, earring, pendant, bracelet, pin, anklet, crown. o People's Age Groups: Infant, baby, preteen, teenager, adolescent, youngster, adult, senior. o Money Terms: Cash, deposit, ransom, bail, fine, bonus. 🤔 Types and Marked/Unmarked Words Unmarked Words: Common, basic, broader in meaning. o Examples: Cry. Marked Words: Restricted, subtype of unmarked. o Examples: Weep, whimper, sob, blub/blubber. 🔢 Internal Organization of a Lexical Field Hierarchical Structure: Military ranks. Part to Whole: Body parts. Sequential Order: Numbers. Cyclical Order: Days of the week, months of the year. No Discernible Order: Furniture. 🔬 Componential Analysis (CA) Words Analysis: Described via semantic components or features. o Pairs: Semantic oppositions (e.g., PLUS + and MINUS -). o Example: Man = [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [+ADULT]; Woman = [+HUMAN], [- MALE], [+ADULT]. 📊 Semantic Features of Nouns and Verbs Nouns: o [+/- COMMON] o [+/- COUNT] o [+/- CONCRETE] o [+/- ANIMATE]  o [+/- HUMAN] o [+/- MALE] o [+/- COLLECTIVE] o Example: Tree = [-ANIMATE], [+LIFE] Verbs: o [+/- STATIVE] o [+/- DURATIVE] o [+/- ACTION] o [+/- ABSTRACT] o [+/- VOLUNTARY/INTENTIONAL] 🍳 Example: Cooking Verbs Semantic Grid Verb Water Fat Immersed Oven Covered Cook ✓ Bake ✓ Boil ✓ ✓ ✓ Fry ✓ ✓ Braise √ √ ✓ Stew ✓ ✓ ✓ Grill Poach ✓ ✓ 🌊 Exercise: Semantic Components of Bodies of Water Words: Brook, well, pool, lake, pond, bay, river, sea, ocean, gulf ✅ Advantages of Componential Analysis Valuable for language learning and understanding semantic domains. Distinguishes subtle word diIerences. Predicts collocational patterns. ❌ Limitations of Componential Analysis  Discovery of semantic features lacks objective clarification. Describes only part of the vocabulary. Features may lack clear definitions. Limited focus and mechanical style. ➕ Syntagmatic Features of Words Meaning Changes: Based on grammatical environment. o Example: § Commit a crime (negative) vs commit to family (positive) 📉 Semantic Anomaly Example: Grammatically correct but semantically non-sensical constructs. o Example: "The basket ate the vegetables" 📝 Semantics Notes 🌐 General Overview Semantics studies: o Word meaning o Semantic relationships between words o Word collocations Sense: Internal meaning relation o Derived from Latin sensus (feeling and understanding) o Sense relations are also known as meaning relations, semantic relations, lexical relations 🧩 Sense Relations Sense relations: o Hold between words in the vocabulary of a language o Most common sense relations: Sameness (synonymy) and Oppositeness (antonymy) o Hierarchical semantic relations 🔠 -nym Words Words ending in -nym describe diIerent classes of words and their relationships -nym: From Greek onoma, meaning name or word 🔁 Synonymy Synonyms: Word relationships of sameness of meaning o Context-dependent o Focus on denotations (ignore connotations) 🔗 Strict Synonyms Strict synonyms: Words with very subtle diIerences in meaning, used interchangeably across contexts. o Examples: huge/enormous, present/gift, correct/right, informal/casual 🔗 Loose Synonyms Loose synonyms: Words overlapping in meaning. They cannot substitute each other in every context. o Examples: § skin/peel: "The skin/peel of the orange" vs. "operations to take the skin/peel from her legs" 📉 Word Scales Word Scales illustrate diIerent levels of meaning: Informal ↔ Formal Positive ↔ Negative Strong ↔ Weak Examples: Lexical Set 1: Slender, slim, emaciated, lean, thin, weedy, skinny, scrawny Lexical Set 2: Mean, thrifty, ungenerous, tight, stingy, parsimonious, economic Lexical Set 3: Downpour, sprinkles, showers, rain, drizzle 🆚 Distinguishing Synonyms No perfect synonyms: o DiIerent dialects: mobile phone/cellphone/hand phone (SG) o DiIerent formality/style: § die/decease, § spit/expectorate o DiIerent collocation: § mature/ripe § deep/profound 🔄 Antonymy  Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings o Always occur in pairs 🔨 Types of Antonyms Contradictory/Complementary Antonyms: Binary antagonism: Either/or relation, mutual exclusivity. Examples: o true/false, o live/die, o single/married Gradable Antonyms: More or less relation, usually adjectives/adverbs. Examples: o big/small, o hot/cold, o smart/dumb. Scalar adjectives involve comparisons. 🔃 Reverses Reverses: Movement in opposite directions. o Examples: push/pull, come/go, ascend/descend 🔁 Converses Converses: Implies a reversal relationship. o Examples: lend/borrow, buy/sell, host/guest o -er and -ee pairs: trainer/trainee 🗂 Taxonomic Sisters Taxonomic Sisters: Words on the same hierarchical level in taxonomy. o Example: red/blue (color taxonomy). 🍃 Hypernym and Hyponym  Hypernym: More generic, broader category. o Example: plant-flower-rose Hyponym: More specific instances within a category. Examples: o House, shed, building o Plate, saucer, cup 🌳 Hyponym Tree of Crockery ⚙ Meronymy Meronym: A part-to-whole relation o Examples: leg-ankle Holonym: Opposite of meronym, representing the whole. Examples: o Meronymy Tree of Bicycle 🧩 DiZerences with Hyponymy Hyponymy: Always transitive Meronymy: May or may not be transitive 🔄 Metonym Metonym: Substitution for another closely associated noun. o Example: the Crown for monarchy, the White House for US Government 🔣 Lexical Ambiguity Lexical ambiguity: Single word/phrase with multiple meanings. o Example: The engineer saw that gasoline can explode. o The seniors were told to stop demonstrating on campus. (senior grades, elderly, staI) 📜 Additional Relationships 📚 Member-Collection Unit to collection relationship o Examples: ship/fleet, tree/forest 🧮 Portion-Mass Mass noun relationship with its unit of measurement o Examples: drop of liquid, grain of sand, strand of hair