Data Analysis 1 PDF

1- Data Analysis Maximum is the maximum value of a set of numbers (highest value) (Max((Xi:XN)). Minimum is the minimum value of a set of numbers (lowest value) (Min((Xi:XN)). Sum is the summati...

1- Data Analysis Maximum is the maximum value of a set of numbers (highest value) (Max((Xi:XN)). Minimum is the minimum value of a set of numbers (lowest value) (Min((Xi:XN)). Sum is the summation of the values of a variable.(sum(Xi:XN)). Count is number of variables. For example, the Count of 2, 3, 3, 5, 7, and 10 is 6. (Count(Xi:XN)). Average is the arithmetic mean, and is calculated by adding a group of numbers and then dividing by the count of those numbers. For example, the average of 2, 3, 3, 5, 7, and 10 is 30 divided by 6, which is 5. (AVERAGE(Xi:XN)). ▪ Median is the middle number of a group of numbers. Half the numbers have values that are greater than the median, and half the numbers have values that are less than the median. For example, the median of 2, 3, 3, 5, 7, and 10 is 4. ▪ Mode is the most frequently occurring number in a group of numbers. For example, the mode of 2, 3, 3, 5, 7, and 10 is 3. ▪ Standard Deviation S.D. (STDEV(Xi:XN)) ▪ Dispersion of the values of a random variable around its expected value. ▪ In statistics, the standard deviation is a measure of the amount of variation of a random variable expected about its mean. A low standard deviation indicates that the values tend to be close to the mean (also called the expected value) of the set, while a high standard deviation indicates that the values are spread out over a wider range. https://trumpexcel.com/standard-deviation/ Variance (VAR.S(Xi:XN)) Expectation of the squared deviation of a random variable from its mean 1. Square each deviation from the mean to find the squared deviations from the mean. 2. Divide the sum of squares by n -1 to get variance. The square root of the variance is the standard deviation (SD or σ), which helps determine the consistency of the variable values. Sort descending Sort and arrange from largest to smallest or from Z to A Refer to the link https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/quick-start-sort-data-in-an-excel-worksheet- 60153f94-d782-47e2-96a8-15cbb7712539 Sort ascending Sort and arrange from smallest to largest or from A to Z. Refer to the link https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/quick-start-sort-data-in-an-excel-worksheet- 60153f94-d782-47e2-96a8-15cbb7712539 Clustering of a set of variables Definition of numbers clustering: It is the grouping of a set of numbers based on their characteristics. Width of a set of numbers Width = (Max. – Min.)/Number of groups. Frequency Distribution Table Frequency is the number of repetitions of a value in a specific range according to the width. Mean: 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥̅ =) 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛(/n Where n is number of readings. The median The median is the middle value when measurements in the data set are written down in ascending order of magnitude. If the total number of readings is odd, such as for a set of nine measurements x1, x2 … x9 arranged in order of magnitude, the median value is x5. For an even number of measurements, the median value is midway between the two center values, that is, for 10 measurements x1, x2 … x10, the median value is given by (x5+x6)/2 Standard Deviation and Variance The data set with the smallest variance and standard deviation the most precise data set. Data Analysis Example Function Origin Ascending Descending 65 42 92 84 45 84 92 47 79 57 49 75 70 53 72 49 55 70 79 57 68 72 57 66 59 59 65 45 59 60 42 60 59 66 65 59 75 66 57 57 68 57 53 70 55 59 72 53 60 75 49 47 79 47 55 84 45 68 92 42 Sum = 1254 Max.= 92 Min.= 42 Count = 20 Average = 62.7 S.D. = 13.262928 Variance = 175.90526 Number of Groups (Clustering) (given) = 5 The frequency distribution Table Width= 10 Group N0. Range (Clustering) Frequency 1 42-51 4 2 52-61 7 3 62-71 4 4 72-81 3 5 82-92 2 Tota l= 20 Represent the following data Origin 65 84 92 57 70 49 79 72 59 45 42 66 75 57 53 59 60 47 55 68  3D- Bars 2D-Bars 19 19 17 17 15 15 13 13 11 11 9 9 7 7 5 5 3 3 1 1 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 2D-Line 3D-Line 100 90 80 100 70 60 50 50 40 30 0 1 2 3 4 20 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Series1 13 14 15 16 17 10 18 19 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20  3D-Pie 2-D Pie 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20  3D-Column 2D-Column 100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20  Data Representation 1- 2D-Pie 2- 3D-Pie 3- 2D-Columns 4- 3D-Columns 5- 2D- Bars 6- 3D-Bars 7- 2D-Line 8- 3D-Line 9- Histogram 10- Dot plot Histogram Difference Between Histogram and Bar Graph https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-histogram-and-bar- graph.html  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Statistical Analysis of Data Lecture #1 1. Mean and Median Values The average value of a set of measurements of a constant quantity can be expressed as either the mean value or the median value. As the number of measurements increases, the mean and median values become so close to each other. For any set of n measurements x1, x2 … xn of a constant quantity, the most likely true value is the mean which is given by: 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥̅ = 𝑛 The median is the middle value when measurements in the data set are written down in ascending order of magnitude. If the total number of readings is odd, such as for a set of nine measurements x1, x2 … x9 arranged in order of magnitude, the median value is x5. For an even number of measurements, the median value is midway between the two center values, that is, for 10 measurements x1, x2 … x10, the median value is given by (x5+x6)/2. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (49)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Example: Suppose that the length of a steel bar is measured by several different observers and the following set of 11 measurements are recorded (in mm), this measurement set is considered set A. (Measurement set A) 398 420 394 416 404 408 400 420 396 413 430 The mean value is calculated as: 398 + 420 + 394 + 416 + 404 + 408 + 400 + 420 + 396 + 413 + 430 𝑥̅ = = 409 11 To calculate the median, the 11 readings are arranged in ascending order 394 396 398 400 404 408 413 416 420 420 430 Median = 408 (the 6th reading) Note: the difference between the min reading (394) and the max reading (430) is 36 Suppose now the measurements are taken again using a better measuring rule and with the observers taking more care to produce the following measurement set B: (Measurement set B) 409 406 402 407 405 404 407 404 407 407 408 The mean value is calculated as: 409 + 406 + 402 + 407 + 405 + 404 + 407 + 404 + 407 + 407 + 408 𝑥̅ = = 406 11 To calculate the median, the 11 readings are arranged in ascending order 402 404 404 405 406 407 407 407 407 408 409 Median = 407 (the 6th reading) Note: the difference between the min reading (402) and the max reading (409) is 7 DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (50)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Now the question is, which of the two measurement sets, A and B, and the corresponding mean and median values should we have the most confidence in? The answer is, we can regard measurement set B as being more reliable because the measurements are much closer together (the spread is only 6). In set A, the spread is 36. Thus, the smaller the spread of the measurements, the more confidence we have in the mean or median value calculated. From another point of view, if the number of readings is increased, the mean and median values become very close to each other. Let us now see what happens if we increase the number of measurements by extending measurement set B to 23 measurements. We will call this measurement set C. 409 406 402 407 405 404 407 404 407 407 408 406 410 406 405 408 406 409 406 405 409 406 407 The mean value is calculated as: 409 + 406 + 402 + 407 + 405 + 404 + 407 + 404 + 407 + ⋯ + 407 𝑥̅ = = 406.5 23 To calculate the median, the 23 readings are arranged in ascending order 402 404 404 405 405 405 406 406 406 406 406 406 407 407 407 407 407 408 408 409 409 409 410 Median = 406 (the 12th reading) Note: the difference between the min reading (402) and the max reading (410) is 8 This confirms that the median value tends toward the mean value as the number of measurements increases. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (51)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 6.2 Standard Deviation and Variance Expressing the spread of measurements simply as a range between the largest and the smallest value is not the suitable way of examining how measurement values are distributed about the mean value. A much better way of expressing the distribution is to calculate the variance or standard deviation of the measurements. The data set with the smallest variance and standard deviation the most precise data set. First, calculate the deviation (dn) of each measurement xn from the mean value 𝑥̅ in a set of measurements x1, x2, … xn: 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑛 ) = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥̅ Variance (v) The degree to which the value varies about the mean value (𝑑1 )2 + (𝑑2 )2 + (𝑑3 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑑𝑛 )2 𝑣= 𝑛 Standard deviation () (𝑑1 )2 + (𝑑2 )2 + (𝑑3 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑑𝑛 )2  = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = √ 𝑛 High values of 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑  means low precision (spreading of data) Low values of 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑  means High precision (spreading of data) Unfortunately, these formal definitions for the variance and standard deviation of data are made with respect to an infinite population of data values whereas, in all practical situations, we can only have a finite set of measurements. A better adjustment of the variance of the infinite population can be obtained by multiplying the above formula with Bessel correction factor (n/n−1): DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (52)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs (𝑑1 )2 + (𝑑2 )2 + (𝑑3 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑑𝑛 )2 𝑣= 𝑛−1 (𝑑1 )2 + (𝑑2 )2 + (𝑑3 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑑𝑛 )2  = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = √ 𝑛−1 If n < 30, we will use the above 2 equations Example: Calculate 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑  for measurement sets A, and B given in the previous example. Set A Set B n xn 𝑥̅ dn dn2 𝑣  xn 𝑥̅ dn dn2 𝑣  1 398 −11 121 409 3 9 2 420 11 121 406 0 0 3 394 −15 225 402 −4 16 4 416 7 49 407 1 1 5 404 −5 25 405 −1 1 6 408 409 −1 1 137 11.7 404 406 −2 4 4.2 2.05 7 400 −9 81 407 1 1 8 420 11 121 404 −3 9 9 396 −13 169 407 1 1 10 413 4 16 407 1 1 11 430 21 441 408 2 4 Thus, as the variance and the standard deviation decrease for a measurement set, we are able to express greater confidence that the calculated mean or median value is close to the true value, that is, that the averaging process has reduced the random error value close to zero. Based on the values of variance and the standard deviation, the data set (B) is more confident (precise) than data set (A). DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (53)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Lecture # 87 Graphical Representation of Data Data are individual facts, statistics, or items of information, often numeric. In a more technical sense, data are a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables about one or more persons or objects, while a datum (singular of data) is a single value of a single variable. 1. Meaning of data If you recorded the minimum and maximum temperature of a city, rainfall, time of sunrise and sunset of certain location, attendance of students in certain course, all these are considered as data. As an example of data, the number of students registered in GEN201 course is recorded in Table 1. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (40)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Table 1: Number of students registered in GEN201 course Program Students CCE 125 EEC 11 CSM 40 ESE 27 IND 55 The complete set of information given in Table 1 is called a population. Each of the elements is called a piece of data. 2. Presentation of Data in Sequence The simplest way to organize a set of data is to present the data in a sequence. This makes it easy to comprehend and interpret. For example, let us consider the height (cm) of 15 children as shown below: Height: 142,156,139,148,150,149,148,144,150,152,148,149,147,141 and 145. Little can be said about the height of the children from these numbers. Even if you try, you will find yourself re-arranging them in some way. For example, you may be looking for the minimum and the maximum figures or the number that is most frequent. If you arrange these heights in a sequence from lowest to highest. Height: 139,141,142,144,145,147,148,148,148,149,149,150,150,152 and 156. Now, one can say that the height of the children varies from 139 cm to 156 cm; there are 3 children having the same height of 148 cm and the number of children having height below 148 cm and having height above 148 cm is the same. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (41)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Data can be arranged in two ways. One, from lowest to highest referred to as the ascending order, and the other, from highest to lowest referred to as the descending order of presentation. 3. Graphical Representation of Data We use graphics to understand the problem under investigation. Pictures can convey an overall message much better than a list of numbers. In this section we describe some graphical presentations of data. 3.1 Dot Plot Dot plot is a graphical representation of numerical data. A dot plot is a number line with x’s placed above specific numbers to show their frequency. By the frequency of a number, we mean the number of occurrence of that number. Example: Suppose thirty people live in an apartment building with the following ages: 58 30 37 36 34 49 35 40 47 47 39 54 47 48 54 50 35 40 38 47 48 34 40 46 49 47 35 48 47 46 Make a dot plot of the ages. This graph shows all the ages of the people who live in the apartment building. It shows the youngest person is 30, and the oldest is 58. Most people in the building are over 46 years of DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (42)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs age. The most common age is 47. Line plots allow several features of the data to become more obvious. For example, outliers, clusters, and gaps are realized. Outliers are data points whose values are significantly larger or smaller than other values, such as the ages of 30, and 58. Clusters are isolated groups of points, such as the ages of 46 through 50. Gaps are large spaces between points, such as 41 and 45. 3.2 Stem and Leaf Plot Another type of graph is the stem-and-leaf plot. It is closely related to the dot plot except that the number line is usually vertical, and digits are used instead of x’s. To illustrate the method, consider the following scores which twenty students got in a GEN201 course: 69 84 52 93 61 74 79 65 88 63 57 64 67 72 74 55 82 61 68 77 We divide each data value into two parts. The left group is called a stem and the remaining group of digits on the right is called a leaf. We display horizontal rows of leaves attached to a vertical column of stems. we can construct the following table where the stems are the ten digits of the scores and the leaves are the one digits. If you are comparing two sets of data, you can use a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot where the leaves of sets are listed on either side of the stem as shown in the table below. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (43)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs where the stems represent the tens digits of both scores and the leaves represent the ones digits of both scores. 3.3 Histogram When we deal with large sets of data, a good overall picture and sufficient information can be often conveyed by distributing the data into several classes and to determine the number of elements belonging to each class, called class frequency. For instance, the following table shows the test scores of a 40-student course: 65 91 85 76 85 87 79 93 82 75 100 70 88 78 83 59 87 69 89 54 74 89 83 80 94 67 77 92 82 70 94 84 96 98 46 70 90 96 88 72 It’s hard to get a feel for this data in this format because it is unorganized. To construct a frequency distribution, it is recommended to follow these steps: 1) Select the desirable number of classes, (7) 2) Arrange data in ascending order, then find the lowest & highest number (46 & 100) 46 54 59 65 67 69 70 70 70 72 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 82 82 83 83 84 85 85 87 87 88 88 89 89 90 91 92 93 94 94 96 96 98 100 3) Calculate the class width (CW) as: CW = (100−46)/7 = 7.7 4) Round CW to the next highest whole number. Rounding up CW, it will be 8 marks. The low number in each class is called the lower-class limit, and the high number is called the upper-class limit. With the above information we can construct the following table called frequency distribution: DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (44)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Class CW Frequency #1 45-52 1 #2 53-60 2 #3 61-68 2 #4 69-76 8 #5 77-84 9 #6 85-92 11 #7 93-100 7 Once frequency distributions are constructed, it is usually advisable to present them graphically. The most common form of graphical representation is the histogram. 3.4 Bar Graph Bar Graph is similar to histogram. It is often useful in conveying information about categorical data where the horizontal scale represents some nonnumerical attribute. The bars can be vertical or horizontal. The length of a bar represents the quantity we wish to compare. Example: The areas of the various continents of the world (in millions of square miles) are: 11.7 for Africa; 10.4 for Asia; 1.9 for Europe; 9.4 for North America; 3.3 Oceania; 6.9 South America; 7.9 Soviet Union. Draw a bar chart representing the above data and where the bars are horizontal. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (45)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs A double bar graph is similar to a regular bar graph but gives 2 pieces of information for each item on the vertical axis, rather than just 1. The bar chart given below, shows the weight in kilograms of some fruit sold on two different days by a local market. This lets us compare the sales of each fruit over a 2-day period, not just the sales of one fruit compared to another. We can see that the sales of star fruit and apples stayed most nearly the same. The sales of oranges increased from day 1 to day 2 by 10 kilograms. The same amount of apples and oranges was sold on the second day. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (46)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 3.5 Line Graph A Line graph is particularly appropriate for representing data that vary continuously. A line graph typically shows the trend of a variable over time. To construct a line plot, we put time on the horizontal scale and the variable being measured on the vertical scale and then we connect the points using line segments. Example: The population (in millions) of the US for the years 1860-1950 is as follows: 31.4 in 1860; 39.8 in 1870; 50.2 in 1880; 62.9 in 1890; 76.0 in 1900; 92.0 in 1910; 105.7 in 1920; 122.8 in 1930; 131.7 in 1940; and 151.1 in 1950. Make a line plot showing this information. 3.6 Pie Chart A circle graph or pie chart, consists of a circular region partitioned into disjoint sections, with each section representing a part or percentage of a whole. To construct a pie chart we first convert the distribution into a percentage distribution. Then, since a complete circle DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (47)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs corresponds to 360 degrees, we obtain the central angles of the various sectors by multiplying the percentages by 3.6. We illustrate this method in the next example. Example: A survey of 1000 adults, the survey showed that 680 of the respondents hide their things in the closet, 230 hide things under the bed, 60 put things in the bathtub, and 30 hide things in the freezer. Make a circle graph to display this information. We first find the central angle corresponding to each case: in closet (680/1000) ×100 × 3.6 = 244.8 under bed (230/1000) ×100 × 3.6 = 82.8 in bathtub (60/1000) ×100 × 3.6 = 21.6 in freezer (30/1000) ×100 × 3.6 = 10.8 Note that 244.8 + 82.8 + 21.6 + 10.8 = 360. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (48)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Lectures #2 Introduction to Technical Report Writing 1. Introduction Report writing is an essential skill for engineering students. Therefore, this course provides guidelines to engineering students for writing technical reports (for example on experiments, and final year projects). Engineering reports usually present results, analyze data, and make recommendations in a logical, precise, and accessible manner. Report writing is a requirement for: Completing bachelor’s degree in Engineering qualification at Benha University Central part of succeeding in future employment. The ability to prepare professional engineering reports is one of the competencies standards given in NARS (National Academic Reference Standard) that specified by NAQAAE (The National Authority for Quality Assurance and Accreditation of Education). DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (1)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs One of the main forms of communication in engineering is the technical report. In the workplace, the report is a practical working document written by engineers for clients, managers, and/or other engineers. We cannot all be William Shakespeare or Ernest Hemingway, but it is possible to acquire enough writing skill to write simple, declarative sentences and readable reports. Subjects you know about; you can also learn to write about. If you know clearly "why" you are writing and "who" will read your report, you have the basis for the report design. In engineering practice, the reader can be a client, a colleague, or a manager. In academic writing, the target reader is usually the examiner. The author must therefore ensure that sufficient background and details are given to convince the examiner. Therefore, the target audience determine the degree of technicality of the language and concepts involved in the report. Consequently, you need to analyze your audience. 2. Audiences Analysis One of your early tasks as a report writer is to identify and analyze your audiences. You want to know things about them such as: ✓ What their technical background is, ✓ What their function in the organization is, ✓ What their interests are, ✓ what level of detail they need from your report? There are three broad categories of audiences for a technical report: 1. Technical Audiences DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (2)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 2. Non-Technical Audiences 3. Mixed Audiences 2.1 Technical Audiences are made up of people in the same field as yours. They are the most obvious audience. They are people such as other engineers, technicians, or scientists. They may be people you know within your own organization, or they may work outside. Their interests may include other things as well, but it is almost certain that they will understand the technicality level of your report. For example, if the document is to be read only by engineers, use appropriate scientific vocabulary and detailed supporting data. If it is a tool for executive decisions, present data in lay terms, with clear supporting graphics. 2.2 Non-Technical Audiences may include for example, citizen advisory boards, financial experts, legal or administrative readers, and many, many others. Their needs will be quite different from your "technical" readers. As they read your report, they are looking for certain things (like profit, project time period, …) which are far from technical information. 2.3 Mixed Audiences are the most common audiences include both technical and non- technical readers. Such audiences are more difficult to write for, but there are several principals of report design which, if followed, will provide each reader with the information he or she needs to use your report efficiently. Example for this category is an engineer with financial experts, investor with engineering qualification, contractor with engineering background, … 3. Report Purpose Every report has a purpose. Some common purposes are: DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (3)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs To convince the reader of something. For example: to convince a government agency of the effect of a particular course of action to convince a client that your solution will fulfill their needs to convince the public that a proposed project will bring benefits To encourage the reader to do something. For example: to encourage a government or council to adopt a particular course of action to encourage a client to choose one design over another to encourage an organization to partner with your company on a project To inform the reader about something (usually for a further purpose). For example: to provide a government department with information they will base policy on to instruct other engineers who will work from your plans to present the outcomes of a project to stakeholders When planning an assignment report, your first step is to clarify its purpose; that is, what you want it to achieve: A technical report is meant to convey a specific message or to perform a particular function, rather than to ‘teach' the reader about the topic. The general rule is to begin writing the sections of the report as soon as possible. The table of contents should be drafted very early in the process of writing the report since the table of contents provides a good overview of the entire document and, while the report is being written, provides an indication of which sections still need to be done. Regardless of the order of the report, a chapter, or an appendix (with tables and figures) should be written as soon as that part of the work has been completed, for example when some apparatus has been developed or set up, a section of theory has been derived, a computer program has been written, or a set of readings has been taken. It is also a good DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (4)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs idea to give the written work to a fellow student or a supervisor as early as possible to criticize constructively. Some sections written as appendices in the early phases will remain appendices, while others will later be included in the main text, and some will not be included in the final report. 4. Getting Started To create a useful report, you need to express the purpose of the report and identify the audience for it. You need to define the following items: ✓ Define the purpose of the report and the key information it needs to convey ✓ Define the audience and their level of technical understanding ✓ Determine the level of detail necessary for the report ✓ Define the report title ✓ Organize the data ✓ Work with a team of authors ✓ Meet deadlines 4.1. When You Work with a Team When a document is a group effort, first assign a task for each team member. Then, let each team member know the level of detail required, the audience, and the deadlines. Everyone in the team knows how their section fits into the whole document. Since team members often have other responsibilities and busy schedules, follow up with each author to ensure that the commitment is being met and whether any problems have occurred. Finally, you must select one of the team to be an editor who can greatly enhance the final document. The editor’s role is to ensure a single, coherent writing style, eliminate redundancies or contradictions, and maintain consistent use of terminology. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (5)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 4.2. Deadlines Deadlines should be clear, and team members should commit to them in writing. Managing the document is a project management task that requires frequent contact with all members. One missed deadline can cause an avalanche of missed deadlines. Therefore, it is important to be aware of potential problems before they occur. If possible, it is always best to plan for some leeway in the schedule so that late members do not affect the quality of the project. Remember to allow adequate time for the editor as well as for making copies. Tools such as Primavera and Microsoft Project are helpful for monitoring progress. 5. Employ Ethical Principles Accuracy of technical information is the responsibility of the writer. Make sure you have the information you need to write accurate reports by avoiding the following items: ✓ Avoid language that attempts to evade responsibility (be legal) ✓ Avoid language that could possibly mislead readers (be factual) ✓ Avoid plagiarism (give credit), (be honorable) ✓ Do not suppress important information (be legal) ✓ Do not emphasize incorrect information (don’t deceive) ✓ Avoid hiding part of information that mislead others to follow up your research (be truthful) ✓ Avoid violation of copyright laws. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (6)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 5.1. Plagiarism Definition Plagiarism can be defined as follows: To use another person's words or ideas as if they were your own. The following are seen as plagiarism: ❖ To steal or borrow another person's work ❖ To pay another person to write your assignment ❖ To copy directly from a source without referencing the original source ❖ To use another person's ideas without giving credit to the original ideas ❖ To paraphrase another person's work word for word ❖ To present false data (fabricated, altered or borrowed without permission) The worst form of plagiarism is to do it intentionally: to pretend that another person's work is your own; to buy a piece of written work from somebody (for example from the Internet) or to pay somebody to write your assignment for you; or to write something word-for-word from a source without acknowledging that source (or to "cut and paste" from the Internet). DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (7)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 5.2. Plagiarism and the Internet In the past, plagiarism cost more in time and money. In recent years the Internet has extraordinary search capabilities that provide a plagiarist with quick access to literally thousands of sources and documents. Nowadays, many institutions use plagiarism detection software to uncover potential plagiarism and to prevent students from plagiarizing. 5.3. How to avoid Plagiarism 5.4. Advice regarding Plagiarism Don't plagiarize under any circumstances. Don’t copying from other sources without citing If you decide to paraphrase another author, even a little, Reference the work Plagiarism could end your academic or professional career in some circumstances. As Engineers, you must maintain the highest ethical standards. Violation of this trust may place public lives in danger, hence there is no mercy. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (8)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Lectures #3 6. Wasted Words and Phrases to Avoid After you write a sentence, look it over and ask whether there are any words you can cut without affecting the meaning. If so, start cutting, because the shorter version is usually better. Avoid words and phrases that don’t add meaning to a sentence. Some words and phrases to avoid include: ❖ all of (replace with “all”) ❖ at the present moment in time (replace with “now”) ❖ in order to (replace with “to”) ❖ in near time (replace with “soon”) ❖ utilize or utilization (replace with “use”) ❖ actually ❖ as you know ❖ it can be seen that ❖ it has been indicated that ❖ it should be noted that DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (9)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 6.1. Grammar and Punctuation A or An Use an in place of a when it precedes a vowel sound, not just a vowel. This confuses people most often with acronyms and other abbreviations. Often, writers think it’s wrong to use “an” in front of an abbreviation (like MRI) because “an” only goes before vowels. However, the sound determines which article to use. It’s “an MRI,” assuming you pronounce it “em are eye.” Every Every requires a singular verb and singular pronouns. Do not write “Everyone are …”, use “Everyone is …” Different The word different is often redundant, as in “several different options” or “many different participants”. It is recommended to be “several options and “many participants”. Affect versus Effect Affect is usually a verb; effect is usually a noun. (AVEN) A = Affect is a V = Verb E = Effect is a N = Noun For example, “The cold weather affected the crops.” If you can substitute affect with another verb, you are using the right word: “The cold weather damaged the crops.” So, when you want to use a word to express a change or to describe an action, choose affect. Effect is used as a noun, meaning “result” or “consequence.” One way to decide if effect is the correct word to use is to replace it with another noun. For example, “His sunburn was DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (10)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs an effect of exposure to the sun.” Another way to say it is, “His sunburn was a result of exposure to the sun.” Alternate, and Alternative Alternate (as an adjective or verb) means to go back and forth between two things, as in alternate Mondays (that is, every other Monday), or “we alternate between meeting here and in Cairo.” Alternative means a different way of doing things. “One alternative is a calculator; another is a computer.” Among versus Between Follow this simple rule: Use between for two things, among for more than two. Ensure, Insure Ensure means “to make certain.” For example, “the legislation ensures discipline.” Insure is a specific word meaning to set aside resources in case of a loss: “We insure our car against accidents.” Compound Words as Adjectives When you combine two words to describe a noun, use a hyphen between them if the description comes before the noun. If it comes after the noun, don’t use a hyphen. For example: “The report is well written”; “They were excited by the well-written report.” Hyphen versus Dash As before, hyphen is used in two-word adjective. For example: Three-Phase Circuits. A dash is used to indicate a range, e.g., 1939−1945. A long dash is an informal way of marking a parenthetical statement—or a diversion from the main thought—during a sentence. Avoid using dashes in formal writing, use parentheses. e.g. versus i.e. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (11)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs The abbreviation e.g. means “for example.” i.e. is means “that is.” A comma should follow (and precede, if appropriate) both abbreviations. Because these terms are often confused, it’s often clearer to use the words for example or that is instead of these abbreviations. Less versus Fewer Use less for indefinite quantities, like water or satisfaction. If you can count the items, however, use fewer. For example: “Nine items or fewer.” Numbers Spell out numbers less than 10; write numbers 10 or greater as figures. Spell out first or fifth but use 14th or 122nd numbers. Do not begin a sentence with a number: either spell out the number (however large), or rewrite the sentence so it does not begin with a number. Very large numbers are expressed in figures followed by the word million, billion, etc. For example: not 1,000,000,000, but 1 billion. Use figures for physical quantities and measurements. For example: 6 meters; 3 cubic feet; 9 gallons. Punctuation in technical writing The purpose of punctuation is to convey ideas clearly and without ambiguity. Colon (:) A colon marks a pause for explanation, expansion, enumeration, or elaboration. Use a colon to introduce a list: item one, item two, and item three. Use it to provide an example. Semicolon (;) Connect two sentences which are closely connected, and often not joined with a linking word e.g. The initial survey revealed a high interest; results showed that further development is valid. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (12)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Separate complex items in a list e.g. The following factors are critical: the environmental impact statement; the government and union policies; the approval of business and council; and public opinion. Comma (,) Show a pause or natural separation of ideas e.g. After the recommendations were implemented, further evaluations were conducted. Separate information in a sentence e.g. The additional results, which were withheld, raised doubts about the initial hypothesis. Precede linking words, such as ‘but’, ‘so’, ‘hence’, and ‘whereas’ e.g. The aim was to test strength and density, but the measurements taken were not accurate. Separate information in a list e.g. The items included: circuit boards, several meters, wires and a power supply. Capital letters Used especially in titles and headings where small words such as ‘and’, ‘in’, ‘the’, ‘by’ should not be capitalized. Use also for a person’s name (e.g. ‘Ohm’s law’). Apostrophes for ownership (‘) Place the apostrophe at the end of the owner-word, then add a possessive s e.g. The researcher’s results. (one researcher owns the results) If the original word ends in an s, place the apostrophe at the end of the owner word without adding a possessive s e.g. The researchers’ results. (more than one researcher owns the results) 7. Spectrum of Technical Writing Technical writing is a broad term that includes a wide variety of documents in science, engineering, and the skilled trades. The major types of documents in technical writing can be grouped into four major categories as shown in Fig. 1. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (13)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Group #1 is the technical writing used in Industry & Manufacturing Group #2 is the technical writing used in Engineering research & Attorneys Group #3 is the technical writing used in Day-to-day business Group #4 is the technical writing used in Teaching & Education Industry & manufacturing 8. Examples of Reports 8.1 Laboratory Reports It is a report based on experimentation and research done by individuals or teams. The lab report aims to develop scientific knowledge or to solve an industrial problem. Success in engineering profession depends on the ability to present results as it does upon the ability to perform the work. Lab Report is an accurate representation of the findings (data) Ethical consideration Don’t fabricate data or misrepresent findings. Audience for Lab report (your teacher or classmate) DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (14)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 8.2 Periodic Reports This section discusses three categories of these periodic reports: 8.2.1 Activity Reports This report is written (individually) to update others with the activities you completed during a given time. This report is considered as an important tool for assessing productivity to meet the goals of companies. No specific format for this type of report. 8.2.2 Progress Reports This report is written by individuals or groups to update others on the progress of a project that is underway. This report is used to keep projects on track so that deadlines are met and to ensure that resources are appropriately used. You must discuss the achievements since last report. 8.2.3 Annual Reports Completed by the corporate leaders to update stockholders (and potential investors) about the accomplishments of the company in the past year. 8.3 Design Reports This type of reports introduces and document engineering and scientific designs. These reports have two audiences: 1. Engineers and scientists interested in how the design works. 2. Management interested in the application and effectiveness of the design. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (15)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 8.4 Proposal Reports A proposal is a plan for solving a problem. It is submitted to universities and academic institutions (to obtain M. Sc or Ph. D degree) or to companies and industrial organizations (to obtain fund or support) 8.5 Field Reports Field reports are set as assignments in a variety of disciplines and usually require the student to combine theory and analysis with observation and practice. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (16)  Grammer (In) ‫حرف‬ ‫ كما‬،‫ والفترات الزمنية‬،‫ يستعمل مع األشهر والسنوات والفصول والقرون‬-1 :‫في األمثلة التالية‬ in March / in October / in 1982 / in winter / in summer in the 19 th century / in the twentieth century / in the evening(s) in the 1990s / in the morning(s) / in the Middle Ages /in the afternoon(s) / in the past / in the future / in time. 1- In Jordan most people don't work on.‫في األردن معظم الناس ال يعملون أيام الجمع‬ Fridays. 2- The sun rises in the morning..‫تشرق الشمس في الصباح‬ 3- My father was born in 1977. 1977 ‫ولد أبي عام‬.‫ كقولنا‬،‫ يستعمل مع الدول والمدن الكبيرة‬-2 in America in Jordan in Iraq in Damascus in Amman 4- I have lived in Syria for three years..‫لقد عشت في سوريا لمدة ثالث سنوات‬ 5- We watched several beautiful.‫شاهدنا عدة بنايات جميلة عندما كنا في لندن‬ buildings when we were in London. 6- There are more than fifteen.‫يوجد أكثر من خمسة عشر جامعة في األردن‬ universities in Jordan. - :‫ كقولنا‬،)‫ يستعمل مع الزمن المستقبل لنعبر عن فترة زمنية معينة بمعنى (خالل‬-3 1- My brother will be here in a year..‫سيكون أخي هذا خالل سنة‬ 2- I will be ready in two hours. ‫سأكون مستعدا خالل ساعتين‬ 3- They will get married in seven months ‫سوف يتزوجون خالل سبعة شهور‬ :‫ كقولنا‬،)‫( تأتي بمعنى (أمام‬In front of) ‫حرف‬ 1- Don't sit in front of the television. ‫ال تجلس أمام التلفاز‬ 2- The book was open in front of him. ‫كان الكتاب مفتوحا أمامه‬ 3- Park your car in front of the house. ‫صف (اركن) سيارتك أمام البيت‬  ‫حرف )‪(Next to‬‬ ‫تأتي بمعنى (بجانب بعد) مثل‪:‬‬ ‫‪1- Sami always sits next to me.‬‬ ‫يجلس سامي دائما بجانبي‬ ‫‪2- Next to English I think my favorite‬‬ ‫موضوعي المفضل بعد اإلنجليزية هو التاريخ‬ ‫‪subject is history.‬‬ ‫حرف )‪(By‬‬ ‫‪-1‬يستعمل مع المبني للمجهول بمعنى (من قبل) كقولنا‪:‬‬ ‫‪1- The football match was watched by‬‬ ‫االف من الناس شاهدوا مباراة كرة القدم‬ ‫‪thousands of people.‬‬ ‫‪2-‬‬ ‫‪The new hospital was opened by‬‬ ‫افتتح أبي المستشفى الجديد‬ ‫‪my father.‬‬ ‫‪3- All the body functions are controlled‬‬ ‫يتحكم العقل بجميع وظائف الجسم‬ ‫‪by the mind.‬‬ ‫‪ :2‬يستعمل بمعنى (قرب بجانب)‪ ،‬كقولنا‬ ‫‪1-‬‬ ‫‪Come and sit by me.‬‬ ‫تعال واجلس بقربي‬ ‫‪2-‬‬ ‫‪They stood by the table‬‬ ‫جلسوا بجانب الطاولة‬ ‫‪3-‬‬ ‫‪The bell is by the door.‬‬ ‫الجرس بجانب الباب‬ ‫‪ :3‬تستعمل مع الوقت وتعني (بحلول بداية ذلك الوقت)‪ ،‬كقولنا‪:‬‬ ‫‪1- By October we shall have finished‬‬ ‫بحلول تشرين األول سوف تكون قد أنهينا دهان‬ ‫‪painting the house.‬‬ ‫البيت‬ ‫‪2- He will have been in Amman by the‬‬ ‫سوف يكون في عمان يطول بداية الصيف القادم‬ ‫‪beginning of next summer.‬‬  ‫حرف )‪(With‬‬ ‫‪ -1‬يستعمل للداللة على الواسطة التي تم بها حدوث الفعل‪ ،‬كقولنا‪:‬‬ ‫‪2-‬‬ ‫‪I opened the door with the key.‬‬ ‫فتحت الباب بالمفتاح‬ ‫‪3-‬‬ ‫‪Please write with pen.‬‬ ‫اكتب بقلم الحبر من فضلك‬ ‫‪4-‬‬ ‫‪These photographs were taken‬‬ ‫تم أخذ هذه الصور بواسطة كاميرا جيدة‬ ‫‪with a good camera.‬‬ ‫‪ -2‬يستعمل بمعنى (مع)‪ ،‬كقولنا‪:‬‬ ‫‪I will go with you.‬‬ ‫سوف اذهب معك‬ ‫‪We left the keys with the neighbors.‬‬ ‫تركنا المفاتيح مع الجيران‬ ‫‪I live with my parents.‬‬ ‫عيش مع والدي‬ ‫‪ -3‬يستعمل بمعني (ذو‪ ،‬له)‪ ،‬كقولنا‪:‬‬ ‫‪I saw a girl with black hair.‬‬ ‫رأيت بنتا ذات شعر األسود‬ ‫‪The child with blue eyes is my brother‬‬ ‫الطفل ذو العيون الزرقاء هو أخي‬ ‫‪He has a house with a garden‬‬ ‫يمتلك بيتا له حديقة‬ ‫حرف )‪(From‬‬ ‫يستعمل بمعنى (من)‪ ،‬كقولنا‪: -‬‬ ‫‪1- He studies from six till eight‬‬ ‫بدرس من السادسة وحتى الثامنة‬ ‫‪o'clock‬‬ ‫?‪2- Where did he come from‬‬ ‫من أين جاء؟‬ ‫‪3- I traveled from London to New‬‬ ‫سافرت من لندن إلى نيويورك‬ ‫‪York‬‬ ‫حرف )‪(To‬‬ ‫‪ -1‬يستعمل بمعنى (إلى ل)‪ ،‬كقولنا‪:‬‬ ‫‪2- My father goes to work by bus.‬‬ ‫أبي يذهب إلى العمل بالباص‪.‬‬ ‫‪3- I gave the book to Ahmed.‬‬ ‫اعطيت الكتاب ألحمد‬ ‫‪ :2‬يستعمل للداللة على الزمان والمكان‪ ،‬مثل‪:‬‬ ‫‪1-i traveled from Amman to Syria.‬‬ ‫سافرت من عمان إلى سوريا‬ ‫‪2- Samia usually works from 7 o'clock‬‬ ‫تعمل سامية عادة من الساعة السابعة إلى العاشرة‬ ‫‪to 10 o'clock.‬‬  ‫‪ -3‬تستعمل لإلخبار عن الوقت بمعنى (إال) كقولنا‪:‬‬ ‫‪1- It is ten to four.‬‬ ‫الساعة الرابعة إال عشر دقائق‪.‬‬ ‫‪2- It's fifteen to ten.‬‬ ‫الساعة العاشرة إال خمس عشر دقيقة‬ ‫‪-4‬تستعمل بمعنى (ل‪ ،‬من أجل)‪ ،‬كقولنا‪:‬‬ ‫‪1- He went to Amman to meet his friend.‬‬ ‫ذهب إلى عمان ليقابل صديقه‬ ‫‪2-I want some money to buy this book.‬‬ ‫اريد بعض النقود ألشتري هذا الكتاب‬  Audiences Analysis One of your early tasks as a report writer is to identify and analyze your audiences. You want to know things about them such as: What their function in the organization is; What their technical background is; What their interests are; and what level of detail they need from your report. There are three broad categories of audiences for a technical report: 1- Technical Audiences (engineers, technicians, or scientists); 2- Non-Technical Audiences (citizen advisory boards, financial experts, legal or administrative readers); and 3- Mixed Audiences (include both technical and nontechnical readers). Team Leader Duties: 1- Assign a task for each team member; 2- Let each team member know the level of detail required, the audience, and the deadlines; 3- Everyone in the team knows how their section fits into the whole document; 4- Follow up with each member in team to ensure that the commitment is being met and whether any problems have occurred; 5- Select one of the team to be an editor who can greatly enhance the final document; and 6- Review the editor’s role to ensure a single, coherent writing style, eliminate redundancies or contradictions, and maintain consistent use of terminology. The major types of documents in technical writing can be grouped into four major categories: Group #1 is the technical writing used in Industry and Manufacturing; Group #2 is the technical writing used in Engineering research (Books-Papers- Theses-Magazine Articles- Scripts); Group #3 is the technical writing used in Day-to-day business; and Group #4 is the technical writing used in Teaching and Education. Types of Reports: 1- Laboratory Reports; 2- Periodic Reports (Activity Reports- Progress Reports- Annual Reports); 3- Design Reports; 4- Proposal Reports; and 5- Field Reports.  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Lecture #4 Characteristics of Effective Technical Writing 1. The four C’s that characterize reports Clarity -- it is easily understood by your intended audience Comprehensiveness -- all the necessary information is present Conciseness -- it is clear without redundancy Correctness -- it is grammatical and follows conventions 2. Formatting guidelines of technical report writing Appropriate formatting of reports improves the readability of information. This lecture outlines essential formatting guidelines. An important principle underlying all formatting choices is consistency. Therefore, each report should maintain the same internal style and structure, which can be achieved. 3. Basic Report Structure Most reports contain the sections listed below. Where each report will differ is in the body; the sections you decide to include will depend on the type of report and the specific topic. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (17)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs A report usually has the following components: Cover Page Title page Abstract Dedication* Disclaimer* Preliminary Pages (Front matter) Acknowledgement Table of contents List of Tables List of Figures Nomenclature* * Optional Pages Introduction chapter Central Chapters Main Text Pages Conclusions References Appendices* Supplement Pages (Back matter) Bibliography* 3.1 Templates One way in which consistency of a word-processed, or LaTex-processed report can be achieved is using a template. The template forms the basis of a docx or tex processed document as it determines the basic structure and formatting for the entire document. You can use templates provided software processor or use the ones provided by your lecturers. When using a template, styles can be created and modified to suit your purposes. For example, you can create styles for the several levels of headings. Creating a style saves you the tedium of applying the same font size, appearance, numbering and white space every time you type a heading or sub-heading. The single most significant advantage is that using styles allows you to automatically create a Contents page. In the following section, each component of the report structure is explained: DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (18)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 3.2 Cover Page (Hard cover or Soft cover) The purpose of the cover page is to protect and identify the whole report. The cover page should be simple and attractive. It should contain the following information: University name & Faculty name with logo Subject name and code Project (report) title Date of submission DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (19)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs The title of the report must be considered carefully. A good title is striking and clearly reflects the contents of the report. The title of the report should indicate exactly what the report is about. The reader should know not only the general topic, but also the specific aspect of the topic addressed in the report. Compare the following pairs of report titles: Weak titles Strong titles Bridge Analysis Analysis of Prestressed Concrete Bridge An Evaluation of Internet-Based Automated Traveler Internet-Based ATIS Information Systems Most of the reports you write at university will form part of the assessment for particular units. You will therefore often talk about ‘Assignment 1’ or ‘the water project’, for example. These terms can form part of the title, but the report will usually need a more specific title too. Compare the following examples: Weak titles Strong titles Assignment 1 Assignment 1: Water Consumption Data Collection Laboratory Report 1: Experimental Determination of Transformer Lab Report 1 Parameters 3.3 Title Page The title page contains all information given on the cover page with white background with extra information: Student names and ID or affiliation Supervisor name DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (20)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 3.4 Abstract Abstracts highlight major points of the report and explain why your work is important. Abstract is not an introduction to the report. It often provides no background information. Abstract is also known as an overview, or short summary. The abstract is often written last as its purpose is to provide a summary of the report’s essential information. All material in the abstract will also be explained in more details through the report. The abstract should appear on a separate page after the title page, and it is usually about 100–200 words in length. The abstract should include the following elements: DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (21)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs why? purpose of the report (Intro) P how? brief details of the approach/procedure/methods (Method) M what? important results/findings (Results) R so what? major conclusion(s) and recommendation(s) (Conclusion) C When you are writing your abstract, you should avoid: Extensively referring to other works Defining any terms Adding information that isn't contained in the larger work Abstract for the report with the title “Video Game Addiction and College Performance Among Males” This report explores the pattern of video game usage and video game addiction Purpose among male college students and examines how video game addiction was related to expectations of college engagement, and college Grade Point Average (GPA). More than 4-hundred first- year students at faculty of Engineering are targeted. In Method the week before the start of classes, participants are given two surveys: one of expected college engagement, and the second of video game usage, including a measure of video game addiction. Results suggested that video game addiction is (a) negatively correlated with Results expected college engagement, (b) negatively correlated with college GPA that occurred during the first year in college. Results are discussed in terms of implications for male students' engagement and Conclusion success in college, and in terms of the construct validity of video game addiction. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (22)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 3.5 Dedication This is a short sentence, in the middle of a separate page, in which the report is dedicated to a family member, or a friend. It may be left out and is seldom included in short technical reports. It is more suited to theses. 3.6 Disclaimer A ‘disclaimer’ or declaration of authenticity is often required in major pieces of work such as large reports, projects, and theses. It is a signed statement declaring that the report is the work of the stated author(s). The disclaimer should appear on a page following the abstract. This is an example of disclaimer statement: DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (23)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 3.7 Acknowledgments The acknowledgments page is optional; however, it is essential that significant assistance, editing, or work carried out by another person or organization be acknowledged. Also, students may wish to thank colleagues or supervisors. Also, we must acknowledge institutions that provided money or made facilities available. Thanks to my supervisor Dr. Ahmed for being so patient and to Dr. Essam from Electrical Engineering lab for putting me right on how to use the equipment. Without your help this project might never have got off the ground. I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Ahmed M. Hussein, Benha University for his encouragement and guidance throughout the project. Also, I would like to express deep thanks to Dr. Mohamed Salah, Cairo University for his help in setting up my experiments. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (24)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 3.8 Table of Contents The table of contents must begin on a new page. The page is provided with a heading, such as “Contents” or “Table of Contents”, followed by a list of the three main levels of headings and their page numbers. Journal papers do not have a table of contents. The first item in the table of contents should be the first heading that appears after the table of contents, for example List of Figures. Front matter that precedes the table of contents are not listed. Appendices must be listed, each with their title and starting page. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (25)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs 3.9 List of Tables and List of Figures These lists, arranged according to the table and figure number, each begin on a new page and indicate the relevant page number in the right-hand column. The titles of tables and figures must be descriptive enough so that a specific figure or table can be identified in the list and must correspond to the title used for the figure or table in the text. 3.10 Nomenclature The list of symbols that are used must begin on a new page. The list is arranged in the following sequence: All the ordinary symbols are listed first, followed by the superscripts and then the subscripts. Finally, the auxiliary symbols, for example overbar and underscore for vectors and averages or accent marks for time-dependent components, are listed. The following order must be used within each of these groups: First, all the Roman letters (in alphabetical order, with the capital letter of each symbol before the small letter, for example “A” followed by “a”, followed by “B”); Then all the Greek symbols (in the order of the Greek alphabet, capital letters before small letters); DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (26)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs A consistent set of symbols should be used (for example do not use V, C and W for velocity, unless there is a consistent difference, such as V for relative flow velocity, C for absolute flow velocity and W for blade velocity). If equations are taken from sources that use other symbols, the symbols should be “translated” into the set that has been selected for the report. 3.11 Introduction The introductory chapter should provide the reader with the following information: The context in which the report originated, how it links to or differs from preceding or related work, the limitations that were placed on the work. The purpose of the report. The motivation for the work or report, that is, why the work was undertaken. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (27)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs The introduction also contains a general overview of previous work in the field and definitions of words or expressions that have a specific meaning in the document. This what is called literature review. Literature is used to list the textbooks and journal articles related to the report topic, it can also include official publications such as engineering standards and government reports. Example: Introduction: Over one billion people in developing countries do not have access to electricity. Indoor lighting, where available, is therefore usually provided by kerosene lamps or candles, which are expensive and can emit dangerous gases such as carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide. Even when available, the light they produce is not sufficient to read by. Many children in developing countries are therefore unable to study outside of daylight hours, which negatively affects their potential to succeed at school. To address this problem, an inexpensive, reliable, clean and safe source of reading light has been developed. The portable LED desk lamp presented here … 3.12 Conclusions The conclusion of a report must be related to, and resulting from, the material which appears in the report. it must not introduce any new material. Quite often present tense is used. For example: “the cement tested in this project is a good candidate for the dense-phase mode of pneumatic transportation”. Conclusions quite often read by managers before the main text of the report and hence, should summarize the main points clearly. This section also may include: Aim(s) and objective(s) of the report, application(s) of results, limitations and advantages of the findings, judgement/evaluation of the author(s). DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (28)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs The conclusion does NOT: provide background information on the topic explain the motivation for the project refer to figures, tables or references contained in the report. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (29) Do not use these words: 1- Obviously 2- Both 3- Clearly 4- most of the time 5- I 6- we 7- They 8- consequently 9- It is evident that 10- obviously 11- furthermore 12- this may indicate that 13- finally 14- in turn 15- additionally, after word 16- about …% 17- actually 18- as you know 19- it can be seen that 20- it has been indicated that 21- it should be noted that Equivalent words Word Equivalent word a number of several owing to due to owing to the factor because In accordance with by With respect to concerning & and @ at With regard to about Tests results Test results The experiment and the numerical The experiment and numerical  200 liters 200-liter Such as as However However, Also Also, more greater less smaller Experimental work Experimental study paper article they The authors He The author acknowledgments acknowledgment where Where: note Note: type types Different number Different numbers but However, equals to equals By using using 20 % 20% This means that therefore All of all At the present moment in time now In order to to In near time soon utilize use utilization use Everyone are Everyone is Several different options Several options  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Lecture #5 3.13 Appendix Explanatory material that would interfere with the logical continuity. Supporting material not critical and may be of interest only to a few readers. Supplementary calculations; detailed derivations; datasheets; charts, maps, graphs as additional information; detailed experimental results; description of equipment; description of software tool. each appendix must be labelled with a number (or letter) and title the appendix numbers and titles must be listed on the Contents page under the heading Appendices (if more than one) or Appendix (if only one) each appendix must be referred to by number (or letter) at the relevant point in the text. 4. Format of pages 4.1 Paper and Margins A4 paper is appropriate, and printing on one side only is often preferred for assessment purposes. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (30)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Wide margins are recommended; for example, allowing 2.5 cm on all sides. Bound reports have a left-hand margin of at least 3.5 cm, and 1.5 cm on the other three sides. 4.1.1 Page numbering The title page should not be numbered. All other pages may be numbered either in the right- hand upper corner, or in the center at the bottom of the page. Roman numerals — i, ii, iii, iv etc. — are usually used to number the preliminary pages. Arabic numerals — 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. — are used to number the main text. Pages in the Appendices can be numbered internally, according to the letter of the individual appendix and the number of pages within each appendix — A1, A2, B1, C1, C2, C3 etc. (where Appendix A has two pages; Appendix B has one page, and so on). 4.1.2 Headers and Footers Headers or footers position page numbers automatically. Two different headers or footers must be created so that the preliminary pages are numbered separately from the text of the report. Student name and ID number can appear in a footer in 9-point size. 4.1.3 Font A Times New Romans is usually chosen for the text of a report. A different font (such as Arial) may be used for headings and tables. The same font should be used throughout the whole report, unless a second font is chosen for headings and tables. 4.1.4 Size and style of type 12-point type is the normal size for the text of a report. 10-point may be used for figures and tables. First-level 16 bold 6 Environmental Impact Second-level 14 bold 6.1 Chemical Waste Third-level 12 bold 6.1.1 Cost Analysis DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (31)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Fourth-level 12 bold italics 6.1.1.1 Equipment Costs Headings without text should never appear on the bottom line of a page. Technical reports use headings to divide information into sections. The headings help reader locate relevant information quickly. Capital letters are used for the first letter of the first word in each heading only; except for any acronyms (e.g. IEEE), trade names, or personal names and places, which may require more than one capital. 4.1.5 Format of text :Justification Text must be justified (right and left margins). 4.1.6 Line spacing 1.5 line spacing is generally used for work submitted for assessment. extra line spacing should be used in the following cases: – to separate paragraphs – to separate figures, tables, equations, and long quotations from the text – to separate a main heading from the section of text which comes before 4.1.7 Indentation and centering Indenting text at the beginning of a paragraph is necessary. But if an extra line space is inserted between paragraphs, no need for the indentation. indentation is appropriate for lists with bullet points ( ) figures and tables may be centered in the text 4.2 Figures and Tables Figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs, and maps Tables summarize data in rows and columns; a dash (—) indicates no data All figures and tables may be centered DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (32)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs All figures and tables should be labelled in bold with the appropriate consecutive number, (figures are generally labelled at the bottom, and tables at the top) All figures and tables must be referred to in the text (e.g. ‘see Figure 14’); avoid using words such as ‘Figure above’ or ‘Table below’ Figures and tables can be separated from the text with extra line spacing. Example: The single-diode model, shown in Fig. 1, has become the most widely used model as it offers a good compromise between simplicity and accuracy [1,2]. Fig. 1. Single-diode equivalent circuit for PV module Two examples of such module are BP SX-150 and MSX-60 modules whose basic information are presented in Table 1. More details about these two PV modules are provided by manufacturer websites. Table 1: Electrical characteristics of BP SX-150 and MSX-60 PV modules at STC Datasheet Value Parameters BP SX-150 MSX-60 Maximum Power (Pmax) 150 W 60 W Voltage at MPP (Vmp) 34.5 V 16.8 V Current at MPP (Imp) 4.35 A 3.56 A Short-circuit current (Isc) 4.75 A 3.87 A Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 43.5 V 21.0 V Temperature coefficient of Isc (0.065±0.015) %/°C (0.065±0.015) %/°C Temperature coefficient of Voc – (160±20) mV/°C – (80±10) mV/°C Series-connected cells (Ns) 72 36 DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (33)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs Lecture #6 4.3 Equations: All equations must be centered and numbered, All equations must be referred to in the text (e.g. ‘as explained by eqn. (1)’); avoid using words such as ‘equation above’. Example: The current (I) and voltage (V) in the single-diode model are related as defined by eqn. (1). 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑠 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑠 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝐼𝑜 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1] − (1) 𝑉𝑇 𝑅𝑠ℎ 5. Active or Passive Voice Example 1: “We therefore decided that...”. This sentence is written in the active voice. It has a subject who performed the verb: “We decided…”. Example 2: “The pipe was cut…” This is written in the passive voice. It does not specify who performed the verb: we don’t know who cut the pipe. DR. AHMED M. HUSSEIN (34)  Benha University GEN 201 Technical Report Writing Faculty of Engineering at Shubra Dr. Ahmed Mustafa Hussein Credit-Hour Programs The convention of using the passive voice when writing about method is to avoid: a. beginning every sentence with “I” or “We”, which would sound repetitive b. focusing on who did the work rather than what they did, which is more important. Therefore, it is recommended to use of the passive voice in academic writing. Nevertheless, it is still best to avoid overuse of “I” or “we” when describing what you did, for the reasons given above. 6. Uses of ‘we’ You may have been told not to use “I” or “we” in your reports; however. there are two cases in academic writing when ‘we’ is quite acceptable. Consider the examples below: The number of animal extinctions is rapidly increasing worldwide. In Australia, we have now lost 54 species, with another 457 classified endangered or vulnerable (Commonwealth of Australia, 2018). In this case, “we” means ‘we Australians’ and refers to our society. It could also refer to human beings in general. 7. Referencing In-text citations are used throughout the rep