COMP 1103 Midterm Review PDF

COMP 1103 Midterm Review Conceptual Computers The first commercially released desktop computer was called the Altair Mits 8800, released in January 1976. The 8800 contained an Intel 8080 CPU board, and only 16K of static ram. It passed data along a channel called a bus. Apple then released the ear...

COMP 1103 Midterm Review Conceptual Computers The first commercially released desktop computer was called the Altair Mits 8800, released in January 1976. The 8800 contained an Intel 8080 CPU board, and only 16K of static ram. It passed data along a channel called a bus. Apple then released the early desktop, containing a keyboard in 1977 called the Apple I (1). Computer systems were initially modeled around the Input, Processing, Output model. Always linear in that order. After the Apple I, they released the Apple II in 1977. A drastic upgrade with a built in screen, and keyboard. The Apple II was the first fully realized consumer product, coming with all of the essential features that the Apple I did not contain. In 1978 the Apple II+ was released, which differed from the II because of its improved graphics and disking-booting support in the ROM (Read only memory). Additionally, it was the first mass marketed computer. A year later (1979), the Atari 400 was released, which was considered an early gaming computer. Included a keyboard, 6502 mashed machine with a custom graphics and sound chip. In that same year the Atari 800 was released with the goal of out performing the Atari 400. The 800 contained a second cartridge slot and upgradable ram slots. The first “business” computer was the IBM PC, released in 1981. One of its core features was its text processing capabilities, making it incredibly viable for professions such as secretaries. At this point, hardware models had started implementing storage as it was becoming increasingly common in computers. The first GUI (graphical user interface) computer was released in 1981 called the Xerox Star, which contained graphical elements that could be manipulated. A new piece to the hardware model had been added, communication. This is now the standard computer model since ~1991. Modern computers consist of the iMac, etc. Moore's Law Hardware Generations - Pre-modern (Relays); 1940’s - Electrically operated switch - Vacuum Tubes (Generation 1); 1940’s, 1950’s - Used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetics drums for memory. Enormous, took up tons of room and burnt out easily - Transistors (Generation 2); (1947) 1950’s, 1960’s - Miniature semiconductor that regulates or control current or voltage flow - Integrated Circuits; 1960’s - Semiconductor wafer with millions of resistors, capacitors, diodes, and transistors. - Microprocessor; 1972 - Computer processor for which data processing logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit. - System on a chip; 2005 - Many many high level function elements of an electronic device onto a single chip instead of using separate components. Types of Computers 1. Mainframes; 50’s, 60’s 2. SuperComputers; 70’s 3. Minicomputers; 70’s 4. Workstations; 80’s 5. Personal Computers; late 70’s, early 80’s 6. Laptop Computer (Portable); late 80’s 7. Palmtop Computers; 90’s 8. Tablets; 2001, 2010 Networks & Internet - Networks are created by linking computers - Internet refers to all computers that can talk to one another. - Began in the 1960’s with Arpanet - First visible in the 80’s - Popular in the 1990’s - World Wide Web; Time Berners Lee - Information system that enables content sharing over the internet. Hypertext-based information system. - Ubiquitous in the 2000’s - Advanced network that enables seamless communication between individuals, objects, and devices. Hardware Computer System - Hardware - Physical components - Software - Instructions which control the hardware - User - Controls and uses the system Number Systems - Important numbering systems - Base 10; Decimal; 10 symbols, used by people - Base 2; Binary; 2 Symbols, used by computers - Other Computer number systems - Base 8; 8 symbols; Octal (0-7) - Base 16; 16 symbols - Hexadecimal (0-9, A-F) - Other Human number systems  - Base 12 - 12 symbols; Duodecimal (0-9, A-B) Decimal and Binary Comparison: Number Definitions - Bit; Binary Digit; 0 and 1 - Nibble; 4 bits; ranges from 0 - 15 (1 Hex digits - 0-9,A-F) - Byte; 8 bits; range; (2 Hex digits; 0-9,A-F) - Word; originally 16 bits, now size in bits of CPU - Kilo, Mega, Giga, Terra - ASCII, unicode; these are language encoding system; e.g.: letters, numbers and symbols. Processing Units - CPU—Central Processing Unit - Origin: Described by John Von Neumann in the 1940s. - Function: - Central hub for all computer processing.  - Handles general-purpose tasks such as: - Integer mathematics. - Logical comparisons. - Key Role: Acts as the brain of the computer, coordinating tasks like program execution, logic operations, and system control. - FPU—Floating Point Unit - Purpose: Special unit created in the late 1980s to handle decimal mathematics and perform complex arithmetic operations like floating-point calculations. - Performance Impact: - Improved processing speed by 10% to 25%, particularly in scientific computations and tasks involving precise calculations. - History: - Originally a separate chip until the early 1990s. - Integrated into CPUs starting with Intel 486 and Motorola 68040 processors, making floating-point calculations standard in personal computers. - GPU—Graphics Processing Unit - Development: By 1991, it became clear that a dedicated processor was needed for graphics. - Functions: - Speeds up graphics processing by offloading rendering tasks from the CPU. - Supports larger displays and more colors, enhancing the visual experience. - Relieves RAM from storing screen display data, freeing it up for other tasks. - Plays a crucial role in neural network training by handling large-scale parallel computations, especially in AI applications. - When idle, it can assist with parallel processing using technologies like OpenCL, making it versatile for non-graphical tasks as well. - DSP—Digital Signal Processor - Introduction: Emerged in the mid-1990s to handle specialized tasks. - Functions: - Designed for audio signal processing, telecommunications, digital image processing, radar, sonar, speech recognition, mobile phones, disk drives, and HDTV. - Usage: Processes large numbers of mathematical operations quickly and repeatedly, making it ideal for real-time signal processing. - Impact: Key in compressing, filtering, and analyzing analog signals, allowing for clearer communication, faster data transmission, and enhanced multimedia experiences. - Neural Processor - Purpose: Introduced in the early 2010s to handle tasks requiring advanced machine learning capabilities. - Functions: - Video analysis, such as object detection and real-time video enhancements. - Voice recognition for virtual assistants and transcription services. - Image performance: Optimizes photo and video processing for applications requiring high accuracy, like face detection and augmented reality. - Motion Processor - Introduction: Developed in the late 2010s to process motion-related tasks efficiently. - Functions: - Special-purpose unit for hardware encoding of pictures and videos. - Supports: - HEIF (High-Efficiency Image File Format), which stores high-quality images using half the space of JPEGs. - HEVC (High-Efficiency Video Coding), which compresses video files without significantly reducing quality. - Impact: Motion processors are critical in managing video compression, ensuring smooth video playback, and reducing file sizes for more efficient storage. - Image Processor - Introduction: Developed in the late 2010s to handle the complexities of computational photography. - Functions: - Enhances photographic detail through advanced algorithms. - Improves low-light photography, making night shots clearer and more vibrant. - Digital zoom capabilities are refined, producing high-quality zoomed-in images without a physical zoom lens. - Supports wide color capture, ensuring more accurate and vibrant colors in photos. - Advanced pixel processing improves overall image quality by refining each pixel's representation, critical for modern smartphone cameras. - Machine Learning Processor - Purpose: Designed in the late 2010s as an AI accelerator to handle a growing number of tasks that rely on machine learning. - Functions:  - Integral to Face ID and Animoji applications, allowing for real-time facial recognition and expression mapping. - Improves speech recognition, enabling more accurate voice commands and virtual assistant interactions. - Supports various machine learning tasks like photo enhancements, predictive text, and other smart features within smartphones. - Impact: Machine learning processors are at the heart of AI developments, improving device performance, security, and user interaction through on-device intelligence. CPU Internal Structure - ALU; Arithmetic-Logic Unit - Place where calculations are performed - Control unit - Place where the software instructions are interpreted - Cache - Temporary memory - Used to speed up CPU CPU Operation - Originally a cycle consisted of Fetch (get the next software instruction), decode (interpret the instruction), execute (have the ALU perform the operation) - Used to be sequential, but now are interlaced for faster operation, usually fetch and execute are perform simultaneously CPU Development (Desktop) - Intel, AMD, et al. (x86 family) - Develop the 8008 accidentally - PC chips - Motorola (6800 family) - Original Mac chip, (68000), embedded - MOS technologies, et al. (6502) - Apple, Atari, Commodore - Zilog (Z80) - IBM (PPC family used mainly for servers; RISC) - Power Mac 64 bit - Servers CPU Development (Mobile) - ARM; Acorn RISC Machine - Designs (Architectures and instruction sets) - Licensed for phones and tablets  - Initial circuit test worked without a power block - Companies using Arm chips - Apple (A & M series) SOC - Nvidia GPU; Tegra (discontinued) - Qualcomm; US based manufacturer of SOC - Samsung (EXynos variant of Apple’s A series) SOC - Major difference with desktop is low power CPU Performance or Power - Word Size; size in bits of CPU registers - 8/ 16 / 32 / 64 / 128 (SuperComputer) - Clock Speed; operating speed of the CPU - Motherboard - CPU - Architecture; evolution of computing - FPU (Floating Point Unit) & MMU (Memory Management Unit) - MMU handles all memory and caching operations associated with the processor - CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) & RISC (reduced instruction set computer) - CISC Can execute several low level operations - RISC is designed to simplify the individual instructions given to the computer - MMX & Velocity Engine (Altivec) - MMX is a single instruction - Velocity Engine is a single-precision floating point and integer instruction set. - Copper vs. Aluminum connectors - System on a chip - Number of processing units (cores) - Parallel processing Memory (Primary Storage) - RAM (dynamic memory) - Read/write memory - Volatile (static ram is not volatile. Used in mobile) - ROM - Read only memory - Nonvolatile - Used to start (boot) the computer and ASCII/Unicode - VRAM (Video Ram) - Used by graphic processors to speed up display - Cache RAM which is built into the CPU Other Important Parts - Bus - Data, Address & Control - Ports - Older standards - IDE, SCSI, Parallel - Firewire - New standards - USB, Thunderbolt - Peripherals - Everything other than the Processing Unit - Stuff outside the box Mobile Sensors - Proximity Sensor - Function: Detects when the phone is close to your face (e.g., during a call) and switches off input such as the touchscreen to prevent accidental inputs. - Purpose: Conserves battery by turning off the display and disables unintended touches during calls. - Ambient Light Sensor - Function: Detects the ambient light around the device to automatically adjust the screen's brightness. - Purpose: Improves visibility in different lighting conditions and helps conserve battery life by lowering brightness in dim settings. - Accelerometer - Function: Detects when the phone is moving and in which direction. - Purpose: Used for activities like step counting, screen orientation changes (portrait/landscape), and gaming controls based on movement. - GPS Sensor - Function: Tracks the geographic position of the phone using satellite signals. - Purpose: Enables mapping services, navigation, geolocation features in apps, and location-based services like ridesharing or weather updates. - Gyroscope - Function: Detects motion across X, Y, and Z planes, providing data on roll, pitch, and yaw. - Purpose: Enhances motion tracking and is used in applications such as augmented reality (AR), gaming, and precise navigation. - Touch ID Sensor - Function: Reads the fingerprint when the sensor is touched. - Purpose: Provides biometric security, enabling users to unlock their phone, authorize app access, and make secure payments. - NFC Payment Sensor  - Function: Communicates with payment stations to transfer money to merchants via contactless payments. - Purpose: Facilitates mobile payments through services like Apple Pay or Google Pay, supporting the move towards cashless transactions. - Barometer - Function: Detects elevation and changes in phone elevation (up or down). - Purpose: Useful for fitness apps that track elevation gain (e.g., stair climbing) and enhance GPS accuracy by providing altitude information. - Pressure Sensitive Display (Force Touch) - Function: Detects the level of force applied to the display. - Purpose: Enables additional input options, such as performing different actions based on how hard the screen is pressed, offering more interactive control over the interface. - Sensor for True Tone Display - Function: A more advanced version of the ambient light sensor. - Purpose: Adjusts the screen’s color temperature based on ambient lighting conditions, providing a more natural viewing experience that reduces eye strain and improves color accuracy. - Magnetometer - Function: Acts as a digital compass by detecting the earth’s magnetic field to determine the direction the phone is facing. - Purpose: Helps in navigation apps by providing compass functionality and assists in certain augmented reality (AR) applications. Input - Keyboard - QWERTY & DVORAK - Modifier Keys - Mouse - A pointing device - Substitutes - Other devices - Microphone - Camera Output - Monitor - Term - Type - Color - VRAM video RAM memory - Printer - Sound  - Others Monitor Terms - Pixel; Picture element - Screen size; viewing area; pixel - 640x480, 1920x1080 - Screen Aspect Ratio - 4:3 (old TV standards), 16:9, etc. - Display Quality - Resolution (quantity component) - Dots per inch, dot pitch (inverse relationship) - Color depth (quality component) - 8, 16, 24, 32 bit - sRGB is 24 bit model - Wide color uses 48 bit model then down samples - Refresh Rate times per second the screen is redrawn Types of Monitor - CRT; Cathode Ray Tube - Bulky and Heavy - Cheap - Flat Screen - Compact - More expensive - Quality as good as CRT by early 2000’s Resolution - This is the quantity element of display quality - Screen size in dots horizontally and dots vertically - Shorthand is dots per inch or dot size - Higher resolution means more load on GPU Colors - Uses sRGB color model (additive color) - Color depth (quality component) - 1 Bit (Monochrome); Green/Amber and Black - 2 Bit; CGA - 4 Bit; EGA - 8 Bit; VGA; 256 colors - 16 Bit; 16,777,216 colors - 32 Bit; 16,777,216 colors + alpha channel - 30 Bit; 10 bits per color, over 1 billion colors Secondary Monitor Factors - Monitor Size - Measured on diagonal - Larger shows more - Refresh Rate - Prior to 90s were designed for static images - Minimum effective is 24 frames per second - Best systems are up to 120 FPS Printer - Impact - Dot Matrix; main use today is multi-forms - Non-Impact - Laser - Excels at printing text - Inkjet  - Excels at printing quality images - CMYK Color model Storage - Tape; sequential therefore slower access - Used for backup - Disk; direct access therefore faster - Used for Operations - Solid State; new, limited size, more expensive; Ram stick / USB drive - Portability - Much faster - No moving parts Disks - Tracks (concentric circle) & Sectors (piece of track) - 360K; originally floppy standard on IBM PC 1981 - 512 bytes per sector, - 9 sectors per track, - 40 tracks per side,  - 2 sides per disk - The numbers change with the type of disk (CD DVD) but principles are the same - Directory; index of disk contents (card catalog) Magnetic Disk Drives - Floppy (obsolete) - 5 1/4" - 3 ½" - Hard Drive - Various sizes from 5 ¼" to 1" Optical Disk Drives - CD - CD – 700 MB - CD R - CD RW - DVD - DVD ROM – 4.7 GB & multiples - DVD R also + & - - DVD RAM Solid State Storage - Flash Memory (USB, RAM Stick) - Fast - All buy largest sizes are very affordable - Characteristics - Device speed; faster startup and data access - Portability; small with large capacity - Often uses static ram Software Categories of Software - Operating System - Controls the hardware - Utilities (some say part of the OS) - Maintenance - Applications - Tasks users are interested in - Programming Software - Used to create all software Operating System History - Character based (command line & menu) - Language based - Recall memory - Displaying based on ASCII code - Graphic based (GUI, sometimes WIMP) - Icon based - Recognition memory - Display based on the pixel Operating System Components - Device Drivers - BIOS, etc - DOS; Dis Operating System - UI; User interface - Communications; link to the outside world - Security; Account management & access Operating System Functions - Coordinates hardware - Controls processing - Multi-tasking - Concurrent processing - Program & data management - Memory management - Network communications Operating System Platforms - DOS; 80’s; generic meaning and older systems - Windows; many variants - Macintosh; 1984; several variants - UNIX; 60’s; spans all sizes of computers - Linux; 90’s; recent innovation, like Unix - iOS; 2007; Apple portable OS - Android; 2008; Google portable OS User Interfaces - Command line - Easy to use - Hard to learn - Menu Driven  - Easy to learn - Hard to use - GUI - Easy to learn - Easy to use Utilities - Disk utilities; maintains disk in good operating conditions - Antivirus software; detects viruses,worms, spyware, etc, and tries to remove it. Applications - Most successful applications - Built on a visual metaphor - Extends human capabilities - Basic Categories - Programming software; create applications - End user applications Programming Software - Purpose - Creates software - Operating Systems - Utilities - Applications - Programming Software - Organized by: - Language (Programming Language) - Platform (Operating System) End User Applications - Productivity; Word, Excel, Powerpoint - Publishing; Desktop, Web - Graphics; Raster and Vector - Sound; Full spectrum and compressed - Video; MPEG, etc - Scientific; SPSS, modeling - Niche software; Accounting, etc Software Compatibility - Exists on three levels - Hardware; especially CPU  - Operating System; tied to the hardware - Data; tied to the application and file type. Graphics Programs - Bit-mapped or raster graphics - Paint programs; based on the pixel - Image Processing programs - E.g. Photoshop - Object Oriented or Vector graphics - Drawing programs; based on objects (line, oval) - CAD programs - 3D modeling - E.g. Illustrator Sound - Digitized sound - Full quality -.wav (windows) -.aiff (apple) - Sampled -.mp3 (MPEG layer 3) -.aac (advanced audio codec) - Synthesized sound (It is digitized) - MIDI; Musical instrument digital interface - Digital equivalent of sheet music Video Codec Standards - AVI - Old windows standard - MPEG - 1, 2, 3, 4 - H.264; Widescreen - H.265 - Advanced video codec and compression - VP8 Web M - Google's attempt at controlling video codecs Video Programs - Windows Players - Most prolific for desktop computers - Quicktime - Originally Apple now cross platform  - VLC - Modern standard, plays anything - Free player Other Media - Presentation Software - Powerpoint, Keynote - Hypertext - Markup languages for web - SGML, HTML, XHTML, XML - Multimedia; tempers from 80’s prior to the internet - Virtual Reality; space created by computers - Augmented Reality; reality mixed with VR Smartphones Original Cell Phones (Feature Phones) - Market Share in December 2006: - Nokia: 35% - Motorola Mobility: 21% - Samsung: 11% - Nokia Feature Phone 8210 4G: Still available today. First Smartphone - Developed by AT&T in 1994. - Featured a stylus and large size compared to modern phones. Key Technologies Required for Smartphones - Miniaturization (Integrated Circuits, ICs). - Cell Towers: Necessary for communication infrastructure. - Batteries: Essential for powering mobile devices. Modern Smartphone - Apple iPhone: - Introduced in January 2007. - Almost the entire front consists of a touch screen. - User Interface: Multi-touch, with touch detected via capacitance (interaction through electrical charge on fingers).  - Gloves typically hinder the use of the touch screen unless they are special touchscreen gloves. Multi-Touch Technology - Developed by Fingerworks. - Key developers: Wayne Westerman and John Elias. - Initially designed as a touchpad for people suffering from RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury). - Purchased by Apple, becoming a core part of the iPhone’s interface. iPhone Advantages - Simplicity: "It Just Works!" – known for user-friendly design. - Privacy: High priority on user privacy. - Security: Marketed as the most secure phone. Android Advantages - Customization: Highly customizable; however, only around 5% of Android users take advantage of this feature. - Cost: Generally cheaper than iPhones. Market Share Profits Problem Solving Economic Decision Making - Understand the problem - Search for all possible solutions - Select the best solution - Implement the selected solution Issues from Simon in the 1950s - Imperfect Knowledge: We cannot know all alternatives - Bounded Rationality: People are not perfectly rational but try to be - People cannot maximize, they "satisfice" - Simon won the Nobel Prize in Economics for this Problem Solving Steps - State the problem - Define criteria for the solution  - Identify alternatives - Determine which alternatives satisfy the criteria - Implement the chosen alternative Examples of Problem Solving - Balance several large nails on the head of one nail - Safely get off a roof during snow with a 50-foot slope, a scaffold, a drill, and a roof vent Evaluation of the Decision-Making Process - Works well for individuals and small groups - Unwieldy for problems involving many stakeholders - Difficult to gain agreement on problem, criteria, and solutions in large groups Key Learnings - Quality of decisions depends on the number and quality of alternatives considered - Rational thinking helps, but emotional factors also influence decisions - People often accept a solution that "satisfies" - Criteria development helps assess whether a solution will be successful in advance Missing Elements in Decision Making - Proper understanding of the problem before solving it - Implementation challenges, especially with large groups Music Sound - Digitized sound formats: - Full quality.wav (Windows standard) -.aiff (Apple standard) - Lossless sound - Sampled sound formats: -.mp3 (MPEG layer 3) -.aac (Advanced audio codec) - Synthesized sound: - MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) MIDI Samples - See AV audio files (MIDI) - Play MIDI &.mp3 Recorded Music History - Phonograph (Tinfoil) – Thomas Edison 1877 - Using Wax as medium – AG Bell 1879 - Gramophone (Records) – Berliner 1892 - Vinyl for records – 1940 - High Fidelity Sound – 1970s - Audio Tape/Cassette – 1970s - Compact Disc – 1990s - Digital format – 1997 Apple Corps versus Apple Computer (Not needed) - Apple Corps: - Beatles' record company - Founded January 1968 - Apple Computer: - Founded by Steve Jobs & Steve Wozniak to build computers - Founded April 1976 - First lawsuit (1978) over trademark infringement: Won by Apple Corps - Apple Computer agreed not to enter the music business - Second lawsuit (1986) over MIDI capability of the Apple IIGS: Won by Apple Corps, stopping Apple IIGS development Modern Music History – Key Events - 1991: Stereo standard on all computers - Mac IIsi included chimes (renamed to "Let it Beep" then "sosumi") - Third lawsuit (Apple Corps vs Apple Computer) resolved by rights transfer (Corps: music media; Computer: players) - 1992: MP3 standard created from MPEG-2 Layer 3 - Uses audio compression - AAC (Advanced Audio Codec) offers better sampling with smaller file size - 1997: Napster debuts, offering free(?) music - Legal consequences in the U.S. - Canada revised copyright law - 1997: Apple buys NeXt Computers; Steve Jobs returns to Apple with Mac OS X - 2001: iPod debuts, revolutionizing the music player market - Received strong reviews for quality, ease of use, and integration - 2003: iTunes Music Store launches with DRM - Sold over 2 billion songs - Available in 23 countries - Triggered the fourth Beatles lawsuit - DRM (Digital Rights Management) became a key concern  - Fourth Beatles lawsuit results in transfer of Apple trademark rights to Apple Computer Inc. (later Apple Inc.) - Apple Computers paid another large sum to Apple Corps - 2007: Steve Jobs publishes an open letter calling for DRM-free music - Led to a heated debate - 2008: Amazon begins selling DRM-free music - The Big Four record companies turn to Amazon due to Apple's large market share - 2009: Apple gets to sell DRM-free music with flexible pricing ($0.69, $0.99, $1.29 per tune) - By 2010, Apple sold its 10 billionth track - Beatles music arrives on iTunes - 2005+: Streaming music services - Became mainstream due to increased bandwidth - Top players: Spotify, Apple Music, Amazon Music - Subscription-based access to vast music libraries Music Landscape — 2003 - Four dominant record companies: Universal, Sony/BMG, Warner, EMI - Focus: Protecting assets - Activity: Suing potential customers - Consequence: Lack of action on new distribution methods The Lawsuits – 4 in 25 Years (Not needed) - Occurred in 1978, 1986, 1991, and 2003 - Triggered by rapid innovation outpacing legal frameworks When Apple Created Apple Music - Initial offer to artists: a 3-month royalty-free trial - Taylor Swift publicly objected, leading Apple to reverse its decision and pay artists during the trial period Stream Rates Paid to Artists - Spotify: £0.002 to £0.0038 per stream - Apple Music: £0.0059 per stream - YouTube: £0.00052 per stream DO NOT STUDY PAST THIS:: Computer Communications Computer Communications Hardware - Network Hardware - Networks - Software - Protocols - Technologies Communications Terms - Bandwidth: The amount of data transferable per second - Internet: A global network connecting computers - Intranet: A private network within an organization - Search Engine: A tool for finding information on the internet - Portal: An access point to the internet Computer Hardware for Communications - Wired - MODEM: Dial-up service - NIC: Always on - Wires: The connection medium - Wireless - Wi-Fi: 802.11 (a, b, c, g, n, x) - Bluetooth: Short-range radio communication - Infrared: Line-of-sight technology - Cellular MODEMs - Dial-up communication with a top speed of 56.7 Kb/s - Inexpensive and requires phone service - Converts digital data into analog for transmission via phone lines NIC (Network Interface Card) - Always on - Wired standard: Ethernet (10/100/1000 Mb/s) - Uses an RJ-45 connector - Transmits digital data Wires - Twisted Pair: Handles six phone conversations, cheap, range of 100 meters - Coaxial Cable: Handles hundreds of TV channels, range of 800 meters - Fiber Optics: Carries 10,000 phone conversations, range of 125 miles, more expensive Wi-Fi (802.11) - Radio technology requiring another station for connection - Speed ranges from 11 Mb/s (b) to 500 Mb/s (n) - Range of 30 meters (can extend with antenna) Cellular Generations - 1G: 1980s – Talking pagers and SMS - 2G: 1990s – Improved quality and security, email and text messaging - 3G: 2000s – Multimedia access and global roaming - 4G: 2010s – LTE, video streaming, and music - 5G: Will be fully implemented by 2024, 10–20 times faster than 4G Bluetooth - Radio technology with a range of 10 meters - Communicates with other Bluetooth devices - Current top speed: 10 Mb/s Infrared - Requires a line-of-sight connection - Top speed: 9600 b/s Networks - WAN: Wide Area Network (e.g., The Internet) - MAN: Metropolitan Area Network - LAN: Local Area Network - PAN: Personal Area Network - HAN: Home Area Network Network Hardware - Hub: Dumb repeater - Switch: Smart repeater - Router: Manages traffic between networks - Firewall: Manages security between networks - Bridge: Connects different networks LAN Topologies - Bus: Cheapest and slowest, easiest to maintain - Ring: Faster but requires shutdown for maintenance - Star: Fastest and most expensive, requires shutdown for maintenance Personal Technology - MP3 players, digital cameras, GPS, tablets, video games (consoles and devices), podcasts, and YouTube - These technologies are now integrated into smartphones The Internet - Concept described in 1950s science fiction - Arpanet: US Department of Defense project in the 1960s - World Wide Web: Developed by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989 Web Protocols - TCP/IP: Protocol for sending and receiving data on the internet - DNS: Translates IP addresses to human-readable addresses - HTTP(S): Serves web pages, with S designating encrypted servers - FTP(S): File Transfer Protocol with a secure version The Cloud - Cloud Storage: Files stored on the internet - Cloud Computing: Processing and computing done via the internet Communications Software - Email (POP, SMTP, browser-based) - Browsers (for accessing information and apps) - FTP (file transfer) - Instant Messaging (now encrypted) - Social Networking (with privacy concerns) Internet Services - Information: Research, search engines, directories, crawlers, and metasearch engines - Entertainment: Movies, TV, games, podcasts, and streaming Computer Security - Threats: Denial of service, hackers, keyloggers, phishing, social engineering, ransomware  - Malware: Viruses, Trojan horses, bombs, worms, macro viruses, spyware Security Threats by Platform - Self-spreading malware: Most prevalent on Windows XP - Attacks on vulnerable browsers: High risk on Windows XP, lower on modern systems Authentication Methods - What we know: Passwords - Who we are: Biometrics - What we have: Access cards Protecting Computers - Use strong passwords and secure accounts - Install antivirus software and firewalls - Make backups and consider encryption Artificial Intelligence - Definition: Study of ideas enabling computers to do things that mimic human intelligence - Research Areas: Games, natural language, knowledge bases, pattern recognition, robots, machine learning Machine Learning - Used in fields like computational photography, security (fingerprints, face ID), health (EKG, pulse, etc.) - Concerns about the use of deep fakes in media, politics, and scams Deep Fakes - Created using Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) - Concerns: Misinformation, erosion of trust, scams ChatGPT - AI system developed by OpenAI - Used for generating written content but has limitations and risks