An Introduction to Computer Sciences 2024 PDF

An Introduction to Computer Sciences For Undergraduate Medical Professional Students Prepared by Prof. Mahmoud Helmy Elsaied Hussein Professor of Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology Damietta...

An Introduction to Computer Sciences For Undergraduate Medical Professional Students Prepared by Prof. Mahmoud Helmy Elsaied Hussein Professor of Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology Damietta Faculty of Medicine Al-Azhar University, Damietta, Egypt 2024 Copyrights are preserved Chapter (1): Concepts of IT Chapter 1: Concepts of IT A computer is a programmable, multiuse machine that accepts data—raw facts and figures—and processes, or manipulates, it into information we can use, such as summaries, totals, or reports. Computer hardware is organized according to these basic functions. The system unit focuses on processing, whereas a variety of peripheral devices facilitate input, output, storage, and communication. In other words, computer can be defined as an Electronic Device (machine) working by instructions to store and/or process any data to produce different outputs. It can store, retrieve and process data. Generally, it describes a collection of devices that function together as a system. Importance of computers We cannot imagine the world without computers, as it now used in nearly every aspect of daily life. It is now essential for every job. Advantages Fast manipulation and calculations ; Accuracy of processes Storage of large volume of data; Security (Relative) Uses Medicine: Diagnosis (e.g., imaging modalities); Surgery (laparoscopy); Medical Records (etc…..). Education Banking: keeping records of clients and all transactions. Communications: Internet and emails (for example). Business and trading Media Travelling and ticketing Weather prediction; Sports Daily life activities (e.g., washing machines, microwave) Arrangement (To do list) Simulation Historical background [Reading]: As the time passed, many computing devices got developed. After lot of advancements and improvements calculating devices reached the stage of modern computer. Ever since the birth of abacus, calculating devices have been making continuous progress. A brief historic development of these devices is given below. 1 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT 1- Abacus Around 1000 years before Christianity, a device made of stones sand and pebbles, called Abacus was used for counting. It represents the primitive computer and computer development started there. It submitted to reforms, as straight wires were fixed in a wooden frame and small beads were put in the wires. Different calculations could be performed by the new abacus (Figure 1). Interestingly, abacus is still used today and used to teach children counting. 2. Napier's Bones John Napier (1550-1670), a Scottish mathematician a set of rods, called Bones and printed digits on them and used it for the process of addition and subtraction to express complex multiplicity and division processes. 3-Slide Rule Slide rule was once-upon-a-time favorite mechanical device that was quite often used for performing complex and complicated calculations at very fast speed. Using slide rule mathematical, statistical and engineering calculations are performed with ease. For doing all these calculations, it makes use of logarithmic tables that were invented by John Napier in 1941. 4- Pascal's Calculator (Pascaline) Pascal's adding machine (Calculator) was built on a brass rectangular box where, a set of notched dials moved internal wheels, in such a way that a full rotation of a wheel caused the wheel, at the left to rotate one tenth. The wheels of the machine moved only clock wise and were designed to perform additions. 5-Leibniz’s Calculator A German mathematician, Gottfried Leibniz, improved the adding machine, developed by Pascal. This new machine, constructed in 1671, was able to multiply and divide as well. The concept of multiplication was to repeatedly add the same number to itself. Instead of using wheels in his machine, he used stepped-cylinders, each with nine teeth of varying lengths. 6- Jacquard's Loom A French weaver Joseph Jacquard invented an automated loom in 1804. This loom used punched cards to produce patterns and designs on cloth. The weaving action of this machine was totally governed by the absence or presence of holes in the cards. In other words, you can say that the entire operation was under a program's control. With this, historic invention of punched cards, the era of storing and retrieving information started that greatly influenced the later inventions and advancements of computing devices. 7. Babbage’s Difference Engine In year 1822, Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics developed a machine called Difference Engine. This machine was able to calculate logarithms up to high precision degree. It had capability to calculate different functional values and could also calculate polynomials by finite difference technique 8. Babbage’s Analytical Engine Charles Babbage started working on a device named Analytical Engine in year 1833. This Analytical Engine was in real terms the ancestor of modern computer. The Analytical Engine was able to perform all four arithmetic operations. It was conceptualized around processor, storage area, memory and input/output devices. The two revolutionary inventions in Analytical Engine were comparison and modification of stored information. This was the first invention, which enabled machine to compare quantities and then decide which of the instruction 2 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT sequence to follow. Due to lack of technology at that time, it was not possible for Babbage to build such an engine. Its design remained conceptual. His great invention of Difference Engine and Analytical Engine earned Charles Babbage the title Father of Modern Computers - a suitable tribute to him. 9. Hollerith’s Machine The dream of Charles Babbage was fabricated by an American, named Herman Hollerith (1869-1926). In year 1887 he fabricated the first electromechanical punched card tabulator that used punched cards for input, output and instructions. This machine was used by American department of census to compile their 1880 census data and was able to complete compilation in 3 years, which earlier used to take around 10 years. 10. Mark-1 Prof Howard Aiken (1900-1973) of U.S.A constructed an electromechanical computer named Mark-1 in year 1943. Mark-1 had capability to multiply two 10-digit numbers in 5 seconds, which was a record at that time. Mark-1 was the first machine, which could perform according to preprogrammed instructions automatically without any manual interference. This was the first operational general-purpose computer. 11. ENIAC The defense department of USA was supposed to design advanced weapons, missiles and aircrafts. For this, they had to do lot of complex calculations. This process was not only time consuming but was error prone also. To do this work efficiently, in 1946, scientists of Pennsylvania University designed a new computer. This computer was 20 feet long and 40 feet high. It consumed as much electric power as was sufficient to light a small city. But this machine was much faster than any earlier machine. It was capable of doing more than 5000 additions, subtractions or 350 multiplications and divisions in a second. This machine was called ENIAC. ENIAC is acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The biggest problem with this computer was that all the instructions were hardwired within the computer. Thus, making modifications in instructions was a very difficult task. This problem was removed from the computers, which came after this computer. 12. EDVAC EDVAC is acronym for Electronic Discreet Variable Automatic Computer. It was designed and created in 1950 in Moore school of America. It was capable of taking instructions from external resources. Data and instructions, both could be provided to it, using punched cards. Thus problem of hardwired instructions, which was there in ENIAC, was solved in this computer. Its performance was much better than earlier computers. 13. Modern Computer In the year 1981, IBM developed a modern computer. It was small in size but very powerful. Its functioning was very simple. This computer was called Personal Computer or PC. It became popular very soon. After 1981 lot of improvements were made in PC. These improvements made PC very powerful and easy to operate. Personal Computer's functioning has now become so simple that even a child can operate it. GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER Computer being an electronic device, its size, capabilities and power at any time are greatly influenced by the existing state of electronics of that time. If electronic components and devices of any time were big, slow and unreliable then computers of that time were also big, slow and unreliable. On the other hand fast, reliable and smaller electronic components made the computers small, reliable and fast in operations. You know that technological developments of electronics passed through few major phases. For example, there was a time when vacuum tubes were quite popular. They were freely used in majority of electronic equipment. After some time, 3 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT they were replaced by transistors. Later Integrated Circuits came and set a new path for electronic developments. Computers of specific electronic era are often referred to as a generation. Various generations of computer that came into existence, are described below.  First Generation Computers (1942-1955) First generation computers were voluminous in size. They were made using vacuum tubes. Vacuum tube was a fragile glass device that could control and amplify electronic signals. First generation computers used the idea of execution of stored programs. Following were the main drawbacks of first generation computers: 1. Their size was very large. 2. Speed of instruction-execution was very slow. 3. They generated lot of heat. 4. Switching through vacuum tubes was not reliable. 5. Heavy air conditioning was required. 6. Only scientists and engineers were able to use these computers and that too in limited areas due to their high cost. 7. They needed a constant maintenance, which was very expensive. Some of first generation computers are ENIAC, EDSAC and UNIVAC I etc.  Second Generation Computers (1955-1964) Transistor was invented as a smaller and more reliable successor of the vacuum tube. Although transistor was invented in 1948, its application in computers started in the year 1958. The transistor was more reliable, less expensive, and smaller than the smallest vacuum tube. It consumed very little power and produced much less heat. A transistor is also called a solid-state device. It is made of a material whose principal part is silicon element. It is also called semiconductor device. It performs all the functions of a vacuum tube i.e. switches circuit on and off at a very high speed. Second generation computer made use of transistors. Apart from the above listed advantages, the second generation computers used better devices such as card readers, printers etc. This generation is also important from the point of view of language development and use. First generation computers used machine level language or low-level language i.e. program was written directly in binary digits, which was very cumbersome and tedious. Later the development of Assembly Language helped the programmers to some extent. The high level language FORTRAN was also developed for this generation of computers. This development brought the computers very close to man and made it a very popular machine. Some of the names of second generation computers are IBM series, UNIVAC III, CDC 1400 series, Honeywell etc.  Third Generation Computers (1964-75) The development of integrated circuit was another milestone in the history of computer science. It was micro electronic technology, in which it was possible to integrate large number of circuit elements into very small surface area (less than 5 mm square) of silicon known as Chip. This generation was based on Integrated Circuits (IC) technology and the computers that were designed with the use of integrated circuits were called third generation computers. These computers had better storage devices and improved input / output devices, such as Visual Display Unit (VDU), Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) and high-speed line printers. These computers were 10,000 times faster than the first generation computers and arithmetic and logical operations could be performed in nano seconds (1 nano second=10-9 seconds). It was this time, around which major 4 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT advancement in the field of hardware as well as software took place. Many useful high- level languages were developed. These computers used operating system. The use of faster input and output devices enhanced the capabilities of these computers and made multi- programming possible, in which a number of programs could be executed simultaneously by a single processor. Some of the popular computers of this generation are IBM 360 series, 370 series, UNIVAC, HOG 9000 series etc. Some of them are still in use.  Fourth Generation Computers (1975 Onwards) The development of microprocessor chip that contains entire central processing unit (CPU) on a single silicon chip led to the invention of fourth generation computers. The technology that was used in third generation computers in the form of Integrated Circuit (IC) was known as Small-Scale Integration (SSI). This IC contained about ten to twenty transistors on it. Later, the Medium Scale Integration (MSI) was developed, in which it was possible to assemble up to hundred transistors on a single chip. After this, came the era of Large-Scale Integration (LSI) in which, it was possible to integrate 30,000 transistors on a single chip. Efforts were made and now the era of VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) has come, in which millions of transistors can be assembled on single chip. Current generation computers are fourth generation computers and are making use of VLSI chip. This has made the size of current computer very small. Fourth generation of computers can be called microcomputer generation. The input/output devices used with fourth generation computers are quite advanced. These devices are optical readers, which can transfer the contents of CD within few microseconds to the computers. This generation’s computers are compact, faster, and more reliable.  Fifth Generation Computers Till fourth generation computers, the main stress was on hardware technology. Though these computers are faster, more accurate, reliable, smaller in size and very cheap, still they lack thinking power. The fifth generation computers will have thinking power and capability to make decisions like human beings, and may prove better than man in certain aspects. They will be more useful in the field of knowledge processing rather than in data processing. In fact fifth generation computers are dreams of Japanese scientists. They have started work in this direction few years ago. The concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is being used in these computers. These computers will have Knowledge Information Processing System (KIPS) rather than the present Data/Logic Information Processing System. Japan has chosen the PROLOG (Programming in logic) language as its operating software and plans to have the final machine, which will talk with human beings, see and deliver pictures and hear man’s natural language. 5 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT Structure of the computer system Computer and computer system are two different things. The word computer refers to that bare electronic device, which possesses computing power, using which wide variety of operations are performed, while computer system refers to group of items, which put together make computerization of an application possible. Computer system comprises of following five major parts: Hardware Software Firmware Data User Computing cycle Computer systems triad I- Hardware (physical devices): The term hardware refers to the physical components of your computer such as the system unit (i.e., Case), mouse, keyboard, monitor etc. 6 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT They include 1. Input Devices (feed data to computer) 2. Output Devices 3. Processing Devices 4. Storage Devices 5. Communication Devices The central processing unit: The CPU is one of the most important components within computer. It determines how fast computer will run and the CPU speed is measured by Hertz (cycle per second, and its multipliers). Thus, 1.26 GHz is much faster than say 1.00 GHz CPU. CPU performs all calculations and processes within the computer. Memory (Very important) 1-The RAM (Random Access Memory) It is where the operating system is loaded to when the power is switched on. All data are processed in RAM, then when saving data, it transferred to hard disk. As a rule, the more RAM installed in computer the better the performance. 2- ROM (Read Only Memory), e.g. (BIOS Chip). The ROM-BIOS (Read Only Memory - Basic Input Output System) chip is a special chip held on computer's motherboard. It contains software required to make computer work with operating system. It is responsible for copying operating system into RAM when the computer switched on. Before this step, it performs self-test, to be sure everything is OK. 3. Disks (could be considered as a special type of memory), where data are stored to next or long-time use. There are many different types of disk. A- The Hard (Fixed, Internal) or Portable (external) Disk Internal hard disks are installed within the system unit and used to store all data (e.g., operating system, applications, as well as any type of data). B- Floppy Disks, Compact disks (CD) and Digital Versatile disks (DVD): are external carriers of data and largely replaced by Flash Disks (an external memory equivalent to hard disk). 4- Video (graphics) memory: found on the graphic card to store the graphics shown in the screen. Measures of storage capacity (VI):  Bit: is a representation of (on off) for electricity or 1, 0 from the binary system used to store data. 7 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT  Byte: This equals to 8 bits and used to store digit, letter or symbol. Just one of them.  KB - Kilobyte: approximately a thousand bytes  MB - Megabyte: approximately a thousand of Kilobytes  GB - Gigabyte: approximately a thousand of megabytes  TB - Terabyte: approximately a thousand of megabytes gigabytes. Input/output ports (connectors; sockets): These are special ports found on the back of the board (system unit) and used to connect (plug) external devices (peripherals) to the computer. Many ports are known (e.g., Serial, Parallel and universal serial ports (USB). USB largely replaced the old ports and connect nearly any device. Factors affecting computer performance (VI)  CPU Clock speed [The higher the clock speed the faster the computer]  RAM size: As a rule the more memory you have the faster the PC will appear to operate  Hard disk speed and storage (the disk access time, which is measured in milliseconds, the smaller this number, the fast is the hard with good performance). In addition, it is used to store temporary files.  Free Hard Disk Space (Windows can use free space as a RAM).  De-fragmenting Files  Multitasking considerations (the more programs which are running at the same time, the slower each one will run). Hardware according their function (input, output and both): a- Input devices Devices used to feed computer with data or instructions, regardless the type of entered data. These include Keyboard (text), Mouse (orders), scanners (images or scanned documents; convert printed material into digital form), tracker ball (like the mouse but with fine control), Touch pad (graphic designers, like a sheet of paper), Joysticks (for games), Web (or digital) Cams (to introduce media) and microphone (for sound). B- Output devices Devices used to express the data after processing either on the screen or any other medium (examples include screen, projectors, printers, speakers, headphones, camera, etc…). As input device, each output devices concerned with the expression of one or more types of data. 8 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT c- Input, output devices: These devices that had the ability to feed computer or represent data (e.g., hard disks, flash disks, modems (routers), touch screens, digital camera. Types of printers (reading): 1- Dot matrix printers: Dot matrix printers work by firing a row of pins through an ink ribbon onto the paper. The more pins the print head has the higher the quality of the print (low quality, with high noise). 2- Inkjet printers: Inkjet printers work by using tiny jets to spray ink onto the paper (Low noise with higher image quality than dot matrix printers). 3- Laser Printers (Colored, or black and white (mono)) (high quality, low noise, but higher cost). II- Software: It is the collection of instructions which makes the computer work. It is held (stored) either on your computer’s hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD or on a diskette (floppy disk) and is loaded (i.e. copied) from the disk into the computers RAM (Random Access Memory), as and when required. 9 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT System Software All those instructions, which computer uses either for its activation or internal resource management are called system software. For example, software that would transfer the data/instructions from keyboard to computer’s memory will be system software. Similarly the software that would make the processor run and do the calculations or print the result of calculations on printer/monitor will also fall into the category of system software. Following are the names of few systems software’s, which are essentially required for normal functioning of computer system. 1-Operating System: Operating system is the first and foremost system software that is required for any computer system to become operational. For any computer system to become operational, it activates all its devices, components and resources and makes them ready for work. It performs all internal management functions and ensures systematic functioning of computer. 2-Commands: All those instructions, using which, day-to-day housekeeping tasks are performed on computer, also fall into the category of system software. For example, commands for storing the data in file, viewing the contents stored in a file, making duplicate copy of a file, renaming a file etc. are all system software. 3- Utilities: All those software, which safeguard the computer and its resources from hazards or ensure its proper functioning or build an efficient working environment are called utilities. Utilities are basically system software. For example, data compression utilities, virus protection utilities, disk fragmentation utilities etc. are system software. 4-Device Drivers: That software, which is written with the objective of making a device functional when it is connected to the computer, is called device driver. For example, device driver for web camera, device driver for light pen, device driver for printer etc. are example of system software. Operating system: It is a special type of software (programs) which loads automatically when the computer switched on. It permits to use and control of all functions and advanced features provided by modern computer without having high experience how to deal with computers. It may be open source (i.e., the source code is available for public and can be modified by anyone). The other side, is the closed-source, where a certain group (developers) hold the source code and only them working on and distribute it. Additionally, each of open or closed-source software could be distributed free of charge (Then called freeware) or after payment (Shareware). Even, shareware could be provided as one time purchase (license forever) or as a service (paid on a 10 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT regular basis; with introduction of software as a service).  The first personal computer (PC) introduced in 1981, was equipped (worked by) an operating system call “DOS (Disk Operating System); a black screen filled with white orders or commands”. It was very complicated and just experts can use it (not user-friendly). Later on, Microsoft introduced the operating system known as “Windows”, with introduction of graphical user interface (becomes user friendly, and nearly every one can deal with it with a bit of experience). There are many operating systems (windows is the commonest) and each system had many versions or distributions (especially Linux or open sources). 2- Software applications (or packages): It worked as a second layer on operating system and specified for a single purpose (e.g., word processing, spread sheets, databases, presentations, image manipulations, emails, exploring internet, etc…). Difference between the operating system and applications The operating system works closely with the hardware installed within computer. It interprets the input via the mouse or keyboard and outputs data to the screen. The application programs sit above the operating system, and make use of the functionally built into the operating system. They are specific to a particular task. Accessibility options Options to improve computer accessibility (e.g., Voice recognition software - Screen reader software - Screen magnifier software - On-screen keyboard). [Search for more data about these options] (VI). III- Networks When two or more computers connected together and data transferred between them, the network is present. Each network can be wired or non-wired (Wireless). 1- LAN: stands for local area network, as in a single company or institution, where resources can be shared. 11 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT 2- WAN: wide area network: more than one organization are connected together to cover a wide area. The commonest type is the “client server network”, where main computer (server) serves for many peripherals (PCs or any devices), known as clients. Internet: A global network of interconnected networks and/or PCs. The term “internet” is applied for all sources of the network and available information. On the other side, World Wide Web; WWW, is set for a piece of internet. The WWW describes the explored data by any internet explorer. Intranet: A network in an organization where access is exclusively authorized to persons from this and inside the organization. Extranet: is an intranet that permits access for authorized outsiders (outside the organization but have a relationship permits the access). Data transfer rate and directions: it is the speed of data transfer and it represented the amount of data transferred per second and measured by “bits” and its multipliers. Upload describes transfer of data from the uploader PC to any other PC on the network, while download describes the opposite process, where the downloader transfers data from network to his PC. Broadband vs. dial-up Internet connection [Search for it] and write two pages about these connections [To be delivered before the end of the semester]. Uses of computer in daily life [Search for it] and write 5 pages about these uses [To be delivered before the end of the semester]. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER (VI) Following are the characteristics of computer:  Computers are basically dumb devices. They cannot perform any function on their own. For doing anything on computer, you have to give instructions to them. Generally these instructions are written in computer language and are given from the keyboard.  Computer performs the tasks according to the instructions provided by the user. In other words, you can say that the correctness of output depends upon the correctness of the data and the instructions provided by the user. For example, if you add two numbers 70 and 30, the result could be 40 in case you have given wrong instruction i.e. subtraction instead of addition.  The speed, with which a computer performs a task is much faster than manual 12 Chapter (1): Concepts of IT speed. As a result of which, computers are widely used for performing those tasks, in which speed is of prime importance.  Computer can perform a task with the same speed for several days without getting tired. This is not possible in case of manual activities. Human beings get tired after sometime and the chances of making mistakes start getting high as the time passes by. So you can say that computers are capable of performing error free tasks efficiently for the duration, which is beyond human capabilities. 13 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Operating system An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot (‫ )تمهيد‬program, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a command line or a graphical user interface (GUI). An operating system performs these services for applications:  Ordering and resources assignment: In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn.  It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.  It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports.  It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.  It can offload (‫ )إزالة التطبيق غير المستخدم‬the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so that the initiating application is freed from this work.  On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time. All major computer platforms (hardware and software) require and sometimes include an operating system, and operating systems must be developed with different features to meet the specific needs of various form factors. Windows operating systems have long dominated the market and continue to do so. As of August 2016, Windows systems had a market share of over 85 percent (60.0% on July 2024). A mobile OS allows smartphones, tablet PCs and other mobile devices to run applications and programs. Mobile operating systems include Apple iOS, Google Android, BlackBerry OS and Windows 10 Mobile. An embedded operating system is specialized for use in the computers built into larger systems, such as cars, traffic lights, digital televisions, ATMs, airplane controls, point of sale (POS) terminals, digital cameras, GPS navigation systems, elevators, digital media receivers and smart meters. 14 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Features of the Operating System (VI) Operating system is essential software, purpose of which is to activate the computer and: 1. Perform internal management functions. 2. Provide services. 3. Provide user interface. Management Functions Of Operating system Essential functions that an operating system performs are: 1. Process management function 2. Memory management functions 3. Information management functions 4. Device management functions Process Management Functions Programs that are to be executed and their data, initially reside within computer's memory. For executing them they are taken to the processor, arithmetic and logical operations are performed within the processor, result of processing are transferred back to the memory and processor is set free for performing other tasks. All these processor related operations are called process management functions. It is quite obvious that these functions cannot be carried out on their own. Some software is required to perform these functions. Operating system is the software, which performs these process management functions. Memory Management Functions All the programs that are to be executed and the result that are to be printed, have to be essentially present accommodated in some free portion of the memory. If there is no free space, swapping (‫ مق ايضة‬، ‫ )تبادل‬procedure is started. On the other hand, if any item present in memory is no more required then memory is reclaimed and free space is created. All these functions are memory management functions and are performed by operating system. Information Management Functions Permanent storage of information within computer is an essential requirement of any computer environment. For this, data / information is written on the secondary storage devices, in well systematic way. In this process, all arrangements are made to ensure that new data / information being written on the device doesn't overwrite previously written data / information and afterwards it is easily retrievable in its, original form. All those activities, which are carried out in computers for this objective are called information management functions and are carried out by operating system. 15 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Device Management System Keyboard, monitor, floppy drive, hard disk etc. are few devices that are part of almost every computer. In computers, their functionally is partially controlled by hardware and partially controlled by software. Operating system is the software that controls these devices. For example, when a command is given from the keyboard, keyboard controller card (hardware) converts it into computer readable form and operating system (software) interprets it and executes it. Similarly, disk controller card (hardware) places the read/write head of the disk at appropriate place, and operating system performs the writing function. Services Provided By Operating System Apart from performing above mentioned management functions, operating system provides many commands and utilities for doing housekeeping tasks. For example, it may provide utility for: 1. Listing the names of all files and directories, present on a disk. 2. Copying the contents of a file into another. 3. Compressing the file and uncompressing the files. 4. De-fragmenting the disk. User Interface While working on computer, user has to interact with computer. For example, if a program is to be executed, user has to communicate to the computer that this is the program, which is to be executed. Note that different operating systems provide different ways of interacting with computer. In computer terminology, the method of interaction is often referred to as user interface. User interfaces are basically of two types: 1. Command Line Interface (CLT). 2. Graphical User Interface (GUI). Command Line Interface In command line interface, user interacts with the computer by typing the commands in specified format. Thus he mostly makes use of keyboard to interact with the computer. For example, to copy the contents of data.dat file in data.bak file, he will have to type the command in following format: COPY [name of file to be copied] [name of file in which contents have to be copied]. Thus he will type the following contents: COPY data.dat data.bak Note that in such type of communications, user has to remember the name and format of the commands. Spelling mistakes and deviations in format lead to errors and the task is not performed. MS-DOS, UNIX, Linux etc. are few operating systems, which provide command line interface. 16 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Graphical User Interface In graphical User Interface (GUI), user interacts with the computer through graphical items, such as icons, menus, dialog boxes. etc. As and when required, these items automatically appear on the monitors and user has to simply select his choice from the displayed items, by clicking the mouse on desired option. Thus, in this type of communications, user mostly makes use of mouse to interact with computer. Windows, Macintosh, OS/2, some versions of Linux, UNIX etc. provide graphical user interface to interact with computer. Graphical user interface makes use of following GUI components to make the user interaction easy and interesting: Program Icons: All those icons that represent program are called program icons. To run the program, you need to double click the mouse on its program icon. For example, to execute Date/Time program, you will have to double click the mouse on its icon. Objects Icons: All those icons that represent objects like, devices, files, folders etc. are called object icons. Menus Following types of menus appear in GUI. Each menu provides various options. An option is selected by clicking the mouse on the desired option. Popup menu Shortcut menu Bar menu List Boxes List boxes display various choices within a box (names, numbers, symbols etc.). An item of choice is selected by clicking the mouse on it. Drop Down List Box Drop down list box is another type of list box that looks like a text box with a down pointing arrow button on its right-hand side. When you click the mouse on the arrow, a list of options drops down. To select any option from this list, you need to click the mouse on it. Check Boxes Small square shaped buttons (could be one or more) form check boxes. Labels written near the buttons give an indication of the type of data / information that will get selected, when you click the mouse on it. When you select a check box, a mark gets placed within the check box. If you wish, could select more than one check box from the group. Radio Buttons Group of at least two or more rounded buttons form radio buttons. Labels written near 17 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) buttons give an indication of the type of data/information that will get selected when you click the mouse on it. Only one radio button, from the group can be selected. When you select a button, a black dot appears within the selected button. Spinner A spinner consists of two arrow buttons and a text box, with some value written into it. One arrow points up and the other points down. When you click the mouse on up arrow, the value in the text box increases. When you click it on down arrow, the value in the text box decreases. Text box Text box consists of rectangular blank area, in which contents are typed. Note that the label written beside the text box gives the idea of the contents that are to be typed in text box. For example, the label "File name" indicates that the name of the file is to be typed in this text box. Buttons Rectangular labels, with some text written on them form buttons. When you click the mouse on the button, an action takes place. The text written on the buttons, generally gives an indication of the action, which will take place, when you click the mouse on it. For example, when you click the mouse on "Open" button, the file mentioned in the dialog box gets opened. Toolbars A row of small buttons, with icons in them forms a toolbar. Each button performs a specific task when you click the mouse on it. MOST DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATING SYSTEM (VI) As man's popularity and acceptability depends upon his character, operating system's popularity depends upon its characteristics. Following are the most desirable characteristics of operating systems: 1. Easy-To -Use Any operating system is required that its user interface should be user friendly. Process of invoking commands, utilities and applications should be easy. Few decades back, when devices like modern monitors and consoles were not available, people had to interact with computer through punch cards and tapes. What data is going into computer could neither be seen nor modified on-line. In those times working on computer was really a tough task. Price and unfriendly user interface were the two factors that were against computer's popularity. Introduction of Character User Interface (CUI) made interaction with computer easy to some extent, but with the advent Graphical User Interface (GUI), problem got solved to large extent. It is due to Graphical User Interface that even a child can operate computer these days. Hand writing recognition, voice recognition systems etc. are now being incorporated in operating 18 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) systems. They, coupled with other sophisticated modern hardware devices, are adding new dimensions to computer's functionality. For example, operating system of the table PC supports these features. 2. Reliability Performance of the operating system should be reliable. Each time it executes a program, it should produce same result with same efficiency. It should sustain abrupt power failures and shutdowns. It should not happen that these hazards corrupt user's data or system files. It is required that operating system should be robust in nature and should withstand all odd conditions. 3. Speed and Efficiency Response time is one of the prime factors that attributes to the success of any operating system. Response time of any operating system partly depends upon the quality of the hardware and partly upon the efficiency of the algorithms that has been implemented for internal resource management. It is quite obvious that computer with faster CPU, faster memory etc. will produce faster results. Such a hardware managed by efficient operating system will produce still faster throughputs. 4. Reusability With wide variety of processors and other hardware computers available these days, it is required that operating system written for one type of computer should be easily portable to other hardware platforms. This saves time, effort and cost. Object oriented approach for programming promotes reusability to a large extent. 5. Security Security is the most desirable characteristic of any operating system. An operating system should provide means for safeguarding system resources from unauthorized users and protection of one user's resources from other users of the system. With the advent of Internet and local area networks getting popular, even single user computers need to interact with other computers these days. Such situations demand tight security features. Popular operating systems offer these features through incorporation of following: Login name. Login password. Read, write, access file permissions. Encryption of data. Virus protection software layers. 6. Adaptability With the advancement in electronics and its focus on miniaturization, wide variety of 19 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) plug-in devices has suddenly invaded the market. Each device is meant for getting connected to the computer and working in coordination with other devices. In this scenario, it is desired that operating system should be adaptable enough to accommodate these devices easily. Quite some time back, it was very difficult to add new devices to the system. Lot of changes and modifications had to be done in system files to make the new device functional. Now the scenario has completely changed. These days’ operating systems have large database of device drivers built into them. They support plug and play feature. They automatically sense the presence of new device in the system and load corresponding device drive automatically. Operating systems have helpful wizards incorporated in them. In all those events, in which they fall short of any data, software or hardware, wizards is invoked automatically. Wizard guides the user to perform all necessary steps for making the device/system operational. 7- Compatibility Data communication and resource sharing are the two prime activities that need to take place in most of the working environments these days. Wide variety of hardware, operating systems, and applications need to interact with each other. So it is highly desirable that operating system should be communication protocol rich so that it is compatible with other operating systems. Files and programs of other computers be accessible in the same way, as files and programs of local computer remain available. Most of the operating systems these days are compatible with other operating systems. Effective protocols and software layers have been incorporated in operating system to promote compatibility issue. It is also desired that Internet connectivity and accessibility issues are inbuilt into operating system. No addition and alterations should be externally required. For example, in the earlier days of Windows-95 operating system, many software and utilities (including internet explorer) had to be installed on top of operating system to get connected to Internet and avail its services. But in the later versions like Window-98, Window-XP etc. these services became integral part of the operating system. As soon as operating system is installed on computer, it becomes ready for Internet access. 8-Multimedia Support Computer is no more data crunching tool now. It is more like multimedia electronic device. Its usage is no more limited to numbers and words. Graphics, sound, animation, video etc. fall within the preview of its capabilities. These days it is desired that operating system should support all multimedia features to accommodate wide range of multimedia hardware devices. Multimedia operations like photo editing, sound editing and playing, animation and video effect etc. should be possible on computer. GUI based operating system of modern times, like Windows, Linux etc. provide strong support for multimedia operations. 20 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Most Desired Advanced Features in Modern operating Systems Networking along with Internet has completely changed computing scenario in modern times. They have turned the globe into global village. Physical location of data, devices and user of an application are no more required to be confined to single geographical location. For example, a user in India may have to store his data on three different computers that are placed in three different countries (say America, France, and Australia). With such type of requirements taking place, modern operating system should support following features: Seamless Distributed Computing Seamless Distributed Database Global User Management Universal Environment Composed Based Operating System. Seamless Distributed Computing Seamless distributed computing refers to the feature that if A, B, and C computers are in network and you are sitting on computer B, whenever, you fall short of resources (like CPU time, memory space etc.), operating system should ensure that you are efficiently allocated resources of A and C so that your task is completed effortlessly. This feature of operating system is the demand of the day. Seamless Distributed File System Database File systems should allow the user to create cabinets on their computer, in which they set few parameters so that when they use cabinets, files show up there as if they were any other folder. File system should also allow the user to set the scope of the cabinet, local, network or worldwide. The physical location of files should be irrelevant. This feature should be part of operating system today. Global User Management Operating systems of modern times should have global user management feature built into them, so that when user activates his OS, he should be given a global account where his preferences and other key settings are stored along with the data, which he chooses to store there. In that space, all his e-mails, favorites and other system specific stuff could also be kept so that all this stuff doesn't become local to the computer, on which he is working today. Tomorrow if he works on other computer, his global stuff should be accessible. Apart from this, if he is working on other computer, OS should allow him to lift the data from other computer on which he worked previously. Universal Environment It is highly desirable that operating system of modern times should support the feature of Universal Environment so that when a user shifts from his computer to public computer, the same working environment (program setting etc.) is provided to him and his programs work well on other computers also. Component Base Operating System In the era of open system, it is desired that it should be possible for others to modify the OS code, so that its capabilities and services could be enhanced. TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS (VI) Various types of operating systems are available for use. For example, MS-DOS, 21 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Windows, Linux, Unix etc. are the names, of few popular operating systems. Although all of them perform above-mentioned management functions but they differ from each other in terms of capabilities, user interface and services that they extend to their users. Operating systems can be broadly classified into following categories: 1. Single user operating systems 2. Multi user operating systems 3. Network operating systems Single User Operating Systems Single user operating systems are those operating systems, which allow only one user to work on the system at a time. In no way, multiple users can work on the system simultaneously. Single user operating systems can be broadly categorized into two categories: 1 Single user single task operating systems. 2 Single user multitasking operating systems 3 Single user single task operating systems allow user to execute one program at a time. For example, if he is preparing a worksheet on computer, he cannot print a report on the printer. As soon as he invokes a program, computer gets dedicated to that task only. CP/M, MS-DOS etc. are few examples of single user single task operating systems. Single user multitasking operating systems allows user to execute more than one programs at a time. For example, while he is preparing a worksheet on computer, he can print a report on the printer and play music too. Practically there is no limit from operating system's side for the number of tasks that can be executed simultaneously. Physical size of the memory (hardware available) puts the limitation. Windows Me, Windows-XP, Macintosh operating system, OS/2 etc are few examples of single user multitasking operating systems. Multi-User Operating Systems Multi-User operating systems are larger and more complex operating systems. They allow multiple users to work on the system simultaneously. Following are the features of multi- user operating systems, which are not provided in single user operating systems. Time sharing (CPU devotes time to all the users in round robin fashion). 1. Tight security features. 2. Resource sharing among users. 3. System administrator privileges. Linux, Unix, VMS etc. are few examples of multi-user operating systems. Network Operating System When two or more computers are connected to each other with the objective of sharing their resources, they form a computer network. A network operating system is an operating 22 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) system, which includes special functions, protocols and device drivers for connecting the computers of the network. When a computer is booted with network operating system, all computers get connected together and the network becomes operational. When network becomes operational: Security features get implemented Devices of one computer can be used by other network users. Files can be shared among them. They can communicate with each other, sending mail and messages. Windows-NT, Windows-2000 server, Windows server 3000, Novell Netware, IBM AIX, Red Hat Linux etc. are few examples of network operating systems. Concept of Directory: Directory can be conceptualized as special file, which could hold files and directories in it. Directories can be utilized for classified storage of files on the disk. For example, directory named LETTER could be utilized for storing all letters in it. Similarly, the directory CPROGRAM could be used for storing all the programs written in C language. Concept of Path: Path of a file or directory is the list of directory names in descending sequence, starting from root and each directory name separated by a back slash (\), following which you reach to the desired file or directory. 23 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Windows 10 Windows 10 is the pre-latest OS version from Microsoft. Officially it was released in 2015 and was initially offered free of charge to legitimate users of Windows 7 and Windows 8.1. There are two approaches you can take for installing Windows 10 in your computer: Upgrade or a Clean Install. System Requirements The main requirements are:  A processor (CPU) with a clock rate of at least 1GHz.  At least 1 to 2GB of memory (RAM), but Microsoft recommends 4GB.  At least 16GB space in your hard disk. File Naming Convention in Windows  As you know, file is a medium to store data and information on computer. File is always identified by its name and the same name is used while operating upon it.  Recall that MS-DOS allows maximum 8 characters in primary name and three characters for extension name. Primary name and extension name are always separated by dot (.). The pattern of file names in Windows is slightly different from MS-DOS. Following points apply on file names in Windows:  File name can be up to 255 characters long.  Blank and dot (.) can also be used in file names. For example “My File” is a valid file name.  Characters like + ; [ = ] etc. can also be used in file names  Characters like \ / : * ? “ are still prohibited in file names. Concept of Folder Folder is a special file, which is capable of holding other files and folders into it. In MS- DOS operating system they were called directory. In Windows, they are called folders. Features Of Windows Operating System 1- GUI based Operating System Windows is Graphical User Interface based operating system. It provides very simple, yet powerful and interesting mechanism for interacting with computer. It is a user-friendly operating system. 24 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) 2- Multitasking Operating System Windows is multitasking operating system. Thus in Windows, you can perform multiple tasks simultaneously. For example, while typing the letter through keyboard, you can view a movie on VDU and print the report on printer too. 3- Drag and Drop Drag and Drop is a powerful feature of Windows. Using this feature, you can drag objects like files, folders etc. from their original location and drop them at some other place, with the help of mouse so that they could either be copied or moved there. 4- CUT COPY and PASTE Cut, Copy and Paste is powerful feature of Windows. Using this feature, selected items like text, graphics, icons etc. can either be copied from their original place to a temporary memory location called Clipboard or from Clipboard to the desired location. Thus you can either move these items from one place to other or make duplicate copies of them. For example, when you select an item and perform CUT operation on it, it physically moves from its original place to the Clipboard. When you move to some other location and perform PASTE operation there, the item from Clipboard gets copied to the current location. Thus at the end of CUT- PASTE operation, selected item changes its place. Similarly when you perform COPY operation on a selected item, it gets copied into Clipboard After this, when you change your current location and perform PASTE operation there, contents of Clipboard get copied to the new location. Thus a duplicate copy of the selected description gets made. 5- Object Embedding This is one of the most powerful features of Windows operating system. It enables two or more programs to exchange objects like text, graphics etc. among them. For example, a drawing made in Paint program could be brought into the document, created through WordPad program so that figure could be embedded in the text. 6- Object Linking Object linking is yet another powerful feature of Windows operating system. Using this feature, one object can be linked to the other object. Thus whenever linked object is modified or changed modifications/changes get visible in other object also. 7- Plug And Play It makes the operating system, slightly intelligent. Whenever you attach a new device to the computer, operating system automatically senses its attachment and loads its device driver. Thus due to plug and play feature, new devices become automatically operational in Windows 25 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) operating system. 8- Command Prompt Using this feature, Windows provides MS-DOS working environment, within Windows environment. Thus all MS-DOS commands can be executed from Windows. 9- Useful Programs of Windows Windows is a powerful operating system. It not only makes the computer functional, it also provides many useful programs. Using these programs, you can perform different types of operations. Following are commonly used programs of windows: Notepad This program is used for creating small text files. WordPad This program is used for creating large text files. It also provides many formatting options, using which the document could be formatted and made attractive. Paint It is basically a drawing and coloring program. Using this program, you can create shapes and drawings and color them with attractive colors. Calculator Using this program you can use your computer as calculator and perform arithmetic and scientific calculations. Media Player Using this program, you can play audio and video files on you computer. Movie Maker Using this program, you can put graphical pictures in sequence and prepare multimedia presentations. Windows Explorer Windows Explorer is a program, using which file and folder maintenance activities are performed on computer. Creating new folders, deleting old folders, moving or copying files from one folder to another are the activities, which are easily performed with the help of Windows Explorer. Internet Explorer Internet Explorer is basically a browser, using which activities like net surfing, net search, e-mail etc. are performed. WHAT IS BOOTING? The process of loading the operating system in computer's memory is called booting. When you switch on the computer, it reads a special program, called bootstrap program from ROM and execute it. On its execution, it carries out a self-test. During self-test all the peripherals and devices of computer are checked. If any fault is found in them a corresponding errors message is displayed on the monitor and booting process stops. On the other hand, if no peripheral is found faculty, operating system is read from the disk and loaded into computers memory. At the end of booting process computer becomes ready for accepting commands, executing them and displaying result. Booting is the first and foremost task that is to be performed when computer is to be used. 26 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) WHAT IS SHUTDOWN? The process of switching the computer off is called shutdown. The procedure for shutdown varies from operating system to operating system. During shutdown, computer stops all running processes, saves current settings, closes all opened files and disconnects from all the links. Basics of graphical user interface (GUI) One of the most important parts of your Desktop is the Taskbar. By default, it sits at the bottom of your screen giving you access to the Start Menu, several application icons, and the Notification Area. Windows components Every open window features three buttons in the upper-right corner. These are used to minimize, maximize, or close the window:  Minimizing means that the window will hide in the Taskbar.  Maximizing will bring the window to a full-screen size.  Windows can be moved around or resized as you please:  To move a window, just click on its Title Bar on the upper side of the window and drag it.  To resize a window, move your mouse to any corner until you see a double-sided arrow. Then click and drag until you reach the desired size. 27 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Icons Most Windows versions will feature different icons on the background. An icon is simply a graphic representation of an application or a file. To open or access an icon, just double click on it. Although the amount and type of icons will vary, depending on the computer, you can add more icons by following these steps: Step 1: Right-click on the Desktop Background Step 2: Choose “New” and “Shortcut”. Step 3: Browse for the application or file you want to create a shortcut to. Step 4: Assign a name to the shortcut and click “Finish”. Icons can also be moved around by clicking on them and dragging them to another place in the screen. Desktop Background Another component of your Desktop is the Background. This is simply an image that appears at the back of your screen. Most computers come with a pre-selected background, but you can change it to any image you want. To change the background, follow these steps: Step 1: Right-click on the background and choose “Personalize” Step 2: From the Personalization window, choose from a series of pre-selected pictures or browse for your own. After choosing a picture, the Background will change automatically. NAVIGATION To navigate your Windows, you can simply type what you are looking for on the Taskbar search. It can be the name of a document or application, or just any information you are looking for. 28 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Start Menu If you are looking for a specific application, you can also open the Start Menu and click “All Applications”. This will open an alphabetical list of all the applications installed on your computer. File Explorer If you are looking for a specific document, another alternative is to use the File Explorer by clicking on the Folder icon on the Taskbar. In the File Explorer window, you can browse all your folders and documents. Virtual Desktops One of the new features of Windows 10 is the addition of Virtual Desktops. This allows you to have multiple desktop screens where you can keep open windows organized. To add a virtual desktop, follow these steps: Step 1: Click Task View on the Taskbar Step 2: Click the “New desktop” option on the lower-right corner. You can access or delete the new Desktop by clicking Task View again. START MENU The Start Menu is the main point of access to your applications. There are two main ways to open it: 29 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Step 1: Use your mouse to click Windows icon in the lower-left corner of the taskbar. Step 2: Press the Windows key on your keyboard The Windows 10 Start Menu features two panes. The left pane resembles the traditional Start Menu from Windows 7 and earlier, while the right pane features live tiles that were used in Windows 8. Left Pane Among the things you can do in the left pane are: 1. Click the username at the top of the menu to change account settings or log in with another user. 2. Access the applications you use more frequently. 3. A small arrow next to an application will open a sub-menu with a list of recent documents opened with that application. 4. Open the “File Explorer” to navigate your folders and files. 5. Change the settings of your computer like your Internet connection or changing your background. 6. See different options to shut down your computer. 7. See a list of all the applications installed in your computer. Search Box The “Search box” on the Taskbar will allow you to search within your documents and files or on the Web for anything you write. The initial results will appear within the Start Menu 30 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) itself. The results will be grouped according to the closest match (or matches) labeled “Best match” at the top of the list. The remaining results will be grouped according to what they are or their location: The Gear icon will allow you to configure the settings of your Search. This icon will let you send Feedback to Microsoft on what you like or dislike about Windows. The Cortana icon will activate Windows’ new personal assistant. Right Pane  The right pane features a varied array of tiles, similar to the ones that were seen on the Start Screen of Windows 8.  These tiles can be moved and dragged to different places by holding the mouse button.  You can also configure them by right-clicking on them to see options to resize them or “unpin” them (remove them) from the Menu.  The whole Start Menu can also be resized by dragging the borders with the mouse to the desired size. TASKBAR  The Windows 10 taskbar sits at the bottom of the screen giving the user access to the Start Menu, as well as the icons of frequently used applications. On the right-side, the Taskbar features the Notification Area which informs the user of different things like the state of the Internet connection or the charge of the laptop battery.  The icons in the middle of the Taskbar are “pinned” applications, which is a way to have a quick access to applications you use frequently. “Pinned” applications will stay in the Taskbar until you “unpin” them. Pin an Application to the Taskbar Step 1: Search for the application you want to pin in the Start Menu. Step 2: Right-click on the application. Step 3: Select “More” option at the top of the menu. 31 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Step 4: Select the “Pin to taskbar” option. This will attach or “pin” the application icon to your Windows Taskbar. Unpin an Application from the Taskbar To “unpin” it, just right-click the icon in the Taskbar and select “Unpin from taskbar”. You can “pin” it back again any time you want. Notification Area The Notification Area is located at the right side of the Taskbar. It shows different types of notifications from your computer like your Internet connection, or the volume level. At first, the Notification Area shows a limited amount of icons. But you can click the upward arrow on its left-side to see other icons as well. Task View Task View allows you to quickly move within your open windows and applications. You can access it by clicking the “Task View” button from the Taskbar. You can also press and hold the Windows key, and then press Tab to achieve the same result. By pressing the Alt+Tab keyboard shortcut also serves a similar purpose. TABLET MODE The Tablet Mode is a new feature in Windows 10, which allows the user to switch the system interface, whenever a tablet is detached from a base or dock. When the Tablet Mode activates, the Start Menu goes full-screen. During Tablet Mode, many other windows like the File Explorer or the Settings window also open at full screen. How to Activate the Tablet Mode? Step 1: Open the Start Menu and select “Settings”. Step 2: Select the “System” option. Step 3: Turn the Tablet Mode switch from “Off” to “On”. FILE EXPLORER File Explorer is the file management application used by Windows operating systems to browse folders and files. It provides a graphical interface for the user to navigate and access the files stored in the computer. The main way to access the File Explorer is by clicking the folder icon in the Taskbar. After clicking the icon, the File Explorer window will open. The initial File Explorer window is comprised of the following sections: 32 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) 1. The File Explorer ribbon, which resembles the ribbon featured in Microsoft Office. The ribbon contains buttons for common tasks to perform with your files and folders. 2. The Navigation Pane gives you access to your libraries of documents and pictures, as well as your storage devices. It also features frequently used folders and network devices. 3. The Frequent folders section on the right features the folders you’ve worked with recently to allow for quick access to them. 4. The Recent files section in the lower part of the window features files and documents that you’ve opened recently. The File Explorer Ribbon In Windows 10, the File Explorer features a new ribbon toolbar, similar to the one featured in the recent versions of Microsoft Office. This ribbon contains buttons and commands for the most common tasks. The Ribbon features four tabs, each with different commands. Among the tasks you can perform from the Home tab are: other location. creating a new folder or other new items. 33 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) The Share ribbon gives you different options to share your files and folders. For example: -mailing or messaging a file. The View ribbon allows you to change the way Windows displays your files and folders. Some of the changes you can make here are: The File tab opens a menu with different options like: Opening an additional File Explorer window. changing or configuring options about how File Explorer behaves. USERS MANAGEMENT Like most Windows versions since XP, Windows 10 allows you to log in to different user accounts when using your computer. Like we discussed earlier, you can choose which account you want to log in to after turning on the computer. But you can also configure or manage your user account after you’re logged in. To do this, 34 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Start Menu Step 2: Click on Settings. Step 3: From the SETTINGS window, choose Accounts option. Step 4: In the ACCOUNTS window, choose the account setting you want to configure. If you want to change your sign-in options, like your password, select Sign-in options. Under Sign-in options, Windows 10 lets you change your password. It also lets you choose when the computer will ask you to sign in. Windows 10 features a series of tools to help you protect your computer from threats like viruses and other malware. The three main security tools are: User Account Control The Windows User Account Control is a tool that warns you when someone or something attempts to change your computer system settings. When this happens, the screen will alert you until an Administrator can confirm the change. This helps protect your computer against accidental changes or malicious software altering your settings. Initially, this User Account Control is set at a moderate to high level, which means it will notify you only when an application tries to make changes to your computer. However, you can change this setting to your desired level by following these steps: Step 1: Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the Search bar. Step 2: After the Control Panel is open, choose User Accounts. After choosing User Accounts, click on “Change User Account Control settings”. In the User Account Control Settings, you can move the slider to the desired position. Windows 10 will give you a summary of how your system will behave under that level. Windows Defender Windows Defender is an antivirus and malware protection included in your operating system. It allows you to scan your computer for malicious software, while also checking each file or program you open. To configure Windows Defender, follow these steps: Step 1: Go to SETTINGS and select Update & security. 35 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Step 2: In the UPDATE & SECURITY window, select Windows Defender. Here you can customize settings like turning off real-time protection or activating cloud-based protection, which allows Defender to send Microsoft information about security threats it finds. Windows Firewall Windows Firewall prevents unauthorized access from outside to get into your computer. By default, it is turned on to protect your computer and your network. If you want to customize your Firewall, follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the Search bar. Step 2: When the Control Panel is open, choose Windows Firewall. Step 3: In the Windows Firewall window, you can customize the settings of it by turning it on or off or choosing when to protect your computer PARENTAL CONTROL Windows 10 allows you to set up a child’s account for your children. This account will allow you to establish restrictions on how the account is used and monitor what your child does. To create a child’s account, follow these steps: Step 1: Go to SETTINGS and choose Accounts. Step 2: In ACCOUNTS, select the Family & other users option. Step 3: Click the “Add a family member” button. Step 4: Choose what family member you want to add (child or adult) Step 5: You will then be prompted to create an account for your child. If they don’t have an e-mail account, you can create an Outlook account for them: Step 6: Provide a phone number for account security. This will be used in case the account is hacked or inaccessible. Step 7: Choose from some notification and experience options, for example, if you want to receive promotional offers from Microsoft. After creation, your child can log in to his own Windows 10 account. In addition, you can choose to monitor what your child does in his account by turning on reports on his activity: 36 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) You can also choose to block “inappropriate websites” to limit your child’s browsing only to allowed websites. Finally, you can also establish when your child is allowed to log in by establishing a schedule: APPLICATIONS Windows 10 lets you access your applications in several ways. The easiest way is to search for the name of application using the Search box in Taskbar. Another basic option is to open the Start Menu and click on All Apps. After selecting All Apps, Windows 10 will present an alphabetical list of all the applications installed in your computer. WEB BROWSING Windows 10 includes the first version of Microsoft’s new browser: Edge. By default, Edge can be accessed by clicking on the icon placed on the taskbar When Edge opens, it presents a window similar to most browsers. The toolbar, however, is more simplified than the Internet Explorer. It features the following buttons: 1. Back – Takes you to the previous web page. 2. Forward – Takes you to the next web page. 3. Refresh – Reloads the web page. 37 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) 4. New tab – Add another tab to see a different web page. 5. Hub (Favorites and History) – See lists of favorite web pages and history of visited web pages. 6. Web Notes – Make Web Notes on the web page. 7. Share – Share the web page via e-mail or other methods. 8. More options – See more options to configure the browser. Adding a Web Page to your Favorites Like most browsers, Edge allows you to store pages that you visit frequently as “Favorites”. To do this, follow these steps: Step 1: Go to the page you want to add as a “Favorite”. Step 2: Click on the “Star” button on the right-side of the browser. You can then access your list of Favorite websites by clicking the “Hub” button on your browser. Reviewing Browsing History The same “Hub” button can also present you a list or “History” of web pages you’ve visited. If you wish, you can clear the history by clicking on the “Clear all history” option in the menu. WINDOWS 10 – NETWORKING 38 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Like previous Windows version, Windows 10 will let you know the status of your network connection in the Notification Area. If the connection is wireless, you will see this icon. If the connection is wired, you will see this icon. Wired Connection (Ethernet) If your network connection is through cable, you can access its settings by going to the SETTINGS window, and selecting Network & Internet. In the NETWORK & INTERNET window, click on Ethernet to see the settings of your connection. Wireless Connection (Wi-Fi) If your connection is wireless, clicking on the wireless icon will show you details of your connection as well as other wireless networks available. Clicking on Network settings will take you to the Network & Internet window, which presents more specific details about your connection, and options to configure it. In the NETWORK & INTERNET window, you can turn your Wireless Network Connection on or off. What Windows version do you have? To find out what specific Windows version you have, follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the Search bar. Step 2: After the Control Panel is open, choose System Step 3: In the System window you can see what specific Windows version and what type of processor (CPU) your computer has. VIRTULIZATION One of the features that Windows 10 has included is the capacity of creating virtual machines. A virtual machine is the software emulation of a computer system. They are created within a real or physical computer, allowing you to create multiple separate “computers” that can run different operating systems and programs. These virtual machines are handled using a special software called a Hypervisor. In this case, Microsoft’s own Hyper-V. Due to the advanced nature of virtualization, not all computers can run virtual machines. In the past, this feature was reserved for servers. But with operating systems like Windows 10, users can create their own virtual machines too. Pre-requisites in Windows 10 39 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) The basic pre-requisites for creating and running virtual machines in Windows 10 are the following: -bit edition of Windows 10 Pro or Windows Enterprise. Hyper-V isn’t available for Windows 10 Home edition. computer processor needs to support virtualization, or more specifically SLAT (Secondary Level Address Translation). handles the boot-up of your computer making sure everything is in the right place. Enabling Virtualization in the BIOS The BIOS is a small program that runs whenever you turn on your computer. Its basic function is to help the computer boot up by making sure everything is working properly. However, it also controls some advanced features within your computer, some of which have to be enabled in order to work. One example is Virtualization. To enable virtualization, follow these steps: Step 1: Restart your computer and enter the BIOS setup. This is done by pressing a key just as the computer is turned on. The key you have to press varies from one system to another, but it usually is F2, F10, or Delete. Most systems tell you which key to press to enter the setup, or you can consult your computer manual. Step 2: After entering the BIOS setup, you must enable all virtualization settings. The BIOS also varies greatly from system to system, depending on the brand. Step 3: After enabling all necessary settings, save and exit the BIOS setup. This is usually done by pressing F10. After this, the computer will restart. Setting Up Hyper-V To create and manage virtual machines, you need to set up Microsoft Hyper-V. To do this, follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the Search bar. Step 2: After the Control Panel is open, choose Programs and Features Step 3: In the Programs and Features window, click “Turn Windows features on or off”. Step 4: In the Windows Features window, look for the Hyper-V feature and check all the boxes. Windows will then install and configure Hyper-V, after which it will ask you to restart and confirm the changes. It will then go through a series of restarts to finish configuring your system. 40 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Using Hyper-V to Create a Virtual Machine After Hyper-V finishes installing, you can open it and use it to create virtual machines in your Windows 10 computer. To start Hyper-V and create a virtual machine, follow these steps: Step 1: Enter Control Panel and select Administrative Tools Step 2: In the Administrative Tools window, click on Hyper-V Manager. Step 3: When Hyper-V starts, you will see the name of your computer on the left-side of the application. Select the computer to work on it. Step 4: On the Action menu, select New and Virtual Machine. You can also do this from the sidebar on the right-side of the application, under Actions. Step 5: Hyper-V will open the New Virtual Machine Wizard to help you in the process of creating a virtual machine. Here you can click the Finish button to create a virtual machine with some basic configurations. Advanced users can click next to go through the steps of creating a customized virtual machine. Step 6: After the virtual machine is created, you will see it inside the Hyper-V window. Like real, physical computers, virtual machines need to have an operating system installed in order to work. Hyper-V allows you to turn them on or shut them down using the 41 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) buttons on the right side. Remote Desktop is a feature that allows you to access another computer on a remote location from your computer. Allowing Remote Access to your Computer To use Remote Access, the remote computer must be configured first to accept remote connections. This setting is turned off by default to avoid unwanted connections, but to turn it on, follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the Search bar. Step 2: After the Control Panel is open, choose System Step 3: In the System window, note the “Computer Name”; you’ll need it later. Step 4: After that, click the “Change settings” link to open the System Properties window. Step 5: In the System Properties window, you can review the “Computer Name” again, and then click on the Remote tab. Step 6: In the Remote tab, select the option that reads “Allow Remote connection to this computer”. Step 7: After selecting the appropriate option, make sure you click Apply or OK to save your changes. This will allow other users to access your computer remotely. BACKUP & RECOVERY Windows 10 features several tools to help you perform backups of your documents. Here are some of these tools. File History: File History will perform a back-up of the files located in your libraries (Documents, Pictures, Music, etc.) It allows you to choose a drive, where you can back-up your files and then asks you when to do it. To configure the File History backup, follow these steps: Step 1: Go to SETTINGS and select Update & security. Step 2: In the UPDATE & SECURITY window, select Backup 42 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Step 3: Click “Add a drive” to choose where to store your backup. Backup & Restore (Windows 7) This tool, which was removed in Windows 8 and 8.1, was brought back allowing you to perform back-ups and restore data from old Windows 7 backups. However, it also lets to back-up your regular documents on Windows 10. To open the Back-up & Restore, follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the Search bar. Step 2: After the Control Panel is open, choose Backup and Restore (Windows 7) Step 3: In the Backup and Restore window, you can choose to “Set up backup”. Step 4: In the Set-up backup window, choose where you want to store your backup. When choosing any of the listed storage devices, Windows 10 will give you information about that specific device. After choosing the desired destination, click Next Step 5: In the next window, you can choose what files you want to backup. Windows default is to store everything in your libraries (Documents, Pictures, etc.) and in your Desktop, but you can also choose specific files and folders to backup. After making your selection, click Next. Step 6: In the last window, you can review the settings of your backup and establish the schedule in which you want to perform it. Step 7: In the end, click Save settings and run backup. The backup will perform at the scheduled time. Creating a System Image In case your computer failing, Windows 10 offers you some alternatives to restore it to a specific state. One of these alternatives is creating what is called a system image. A system image is a copy of all your system and program files needed for your computer to run properly. You can use this option to store an image of your computer at a specific moment, and use it to restore your computer to that state later. The option to create a system image is in the same Backup and Restore window we discussed before. Step 1: Open the Backup and Restore window from the Control Panel. 43 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Step 2: On the Backup and Restore window, choose the “Create a system image” option on the left. Step 3: On the Create a system image window, you can choose where to store the backup from among three places: your hard disk, on DVD’s, or in the network. After choosing where to store the backup, click Next. Step 4: In the next window, just confirm your image settings and click Start backup. Resetting the PC Another alternative Windows 10 offers you for system recovery is simply called “Reset this PC”. This option will allow you to return your computer to its default factory settings. It will also give you the option of keeping your files or removing everything. To reset your PC, follow these steps: Step 1: Go to SETTINGS and select Update & security. Step 2: On the UPDATE & SECURITY window, select Recovery Step 3: On the Recovery window, you can click the “Get started” button under Reset this PC. Step 4: The next window, will ask you whether you want to reset your settings and applications, but still keep your personal files, or just remove everything and return your computer to its default state. Advanced Options Windows 10 features several advanced options to restore your PC. Although these are meant for advanced users, you can access them from the same Update & Security window that we have discussed before. Step 1: Open the Settings window and select UPDATE & SECURITY. Step 2: On the UPDATE & SECURITY window, select Recovery. Under Advanced startup, click the Restart now button. Step 3: When Windows 10 restarts, it will present you a menu of options to select from. The same menu will appear whenever Windows tries to boot unsuccessfully. APPS MANAGEMENT Windows 10 offers you multiple ways to access your applications. Like discussed earlier, one of the most basic ways is to open the Search menu and click All Apps. This will present an alphabetical list of all the applications installed in your computer. If there is an application that was recently installed, it will be labeled as “New” in the menu. Uninstalling Applications 44 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) There are three ways in which you can remove an unwanted application: the Control Panel Here are the steps for each way. Uninstalling an Application from the Start Menu Perhaps the easiest way to uninstall an application is from the Start Menu. To do this, follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Start Menu and click on All Apps. Step 2: Find the application you want to uninstall on the list, and right-click on it. Step 3: On the menu, choose Uninstall. After this, follow the steps needed to complete the process. These steps will vary for each application. Uninstalling an Application from the Settings window A new and different way to uninstall an application is from the new Settings window. To do this, follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Start Menu and click Settings Step 2: On the SETTINGS window, choose System Step 3: On the SYSTEM window, choose Apps & features Step 4: On the Apps & features window, search for the application you want to uninstall in the search box. Step 5: From the results, click on the application and choose Uninstall Uninstalling Applications from the Control Panel The third way to uninstall an application is more traditional, because it uses the popular Control Panel window. To use this method, follow these steps: Step 1: Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the Search bar. Step 2: After the Control Panel is open, choose Programs and Features Step 3: The Programs and Features window will present a list of all the applications installed in your computer. To uninstall an application, just click on it and use the Uninstall button. An alternate way is to right-click the application on the list. This window also gives you other details about the applications you have installed like: 45 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) specific version of this application. EMAIL MANAGEMENT Windows 10 features the new Mail app to help you handle your e-mails. You can access the Mail app directly from the Start Menu. If you are connected to Windows with a mail account, the Mail app will automatically configure itself to present you your e-mails. But, if you are using a local account, the Mail app will ask you to configure it. Configuring the Mail App The first time you access the Mail account, you will see this window To configure it, follow these steps: Step 1: Click on the Get started button. Step 2: On the next window, add the account you want to use with Mail Step 3: On the Choose an account window, select what type of account you want to configure. Mail is compatible with most of the current mail providers. Step 4: If you’re using a Microsoft account, enter your username and password. Step 5: After a while, the Mail app will start loading your emails. KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS Like most Windows applications, there are several keyboard shortcuts you can use to make it easier or faster for some to perform certain tasks. Most of the new Windows shortcuts use the Windows key () combined with other keys to perform several actions. The following are some of the most common or useful shortcuts used in Windows 10. 46 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) Window Snapping Other useful shortcuts introduced in Windows 10 are the ones used for Windows snapping. Snapping windows was introduced in Windows 7 and allows you to automatically arrange your windows making it easier to work with multiple applications at the same time. Although you can do this with your mouse by dragging the windows to each side of the screen, Windows 10 introduced shortcuts to perform this task. SYSTEM TRAY The System Tray is another name given to the Notification Area, which we can find in the right-side of the Windows Taskbar. The System Tray features different types of notifications and alerts from your computer like your Internet connection, or the volume level. However, you can choose what icons and notifications appear here. To further customize the System Tray follow these steps: Step 1: Go to the SETTINGS window and choose System. Step 2: In the SYSTEM window, select Notifications & actions. Here you can select the option that reads “Select which icons appear on the taskbar”. Step 3: In the SELECT WHICH ICONS APPEAR ON THE TASKBAR window, you can turn on or off the icons in whichever way you prefer. 47 Chapter (2): Operating system (Windows) MEDIA MANAGEMENT Windows 10 offers multiple ways to work with your media files (music and videos). Some of the features needed to handle these files have been integrated into Windows to facilitate the way you access them. For example, if you select a music file, you will see the following ribbon on the top of your folder window. You will see similar options when you select a video file. Media Applications Although you can have multiple media programs in your computer, Windows 10 includes sev