COMM102_yv.pdf

Definition and Elements of Communication by yv What is Communication? > The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicits a response. - Em Griffin > A social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment. - We...

Definition and Elements of Communication by yv What is Communication? > The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicits a response. - Em Griffin > A social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment. - West & Turner, 2010 > Etymology: Communication comes from the Latin word "communis," which means "to make common." > It is having something in common with the other person or being. > In the communication process, common field of experience is expected. > It is a process that is ongoing, unending, dynamic, complex, and continually changing. Messages are created every time we communicate. ○ Dynamics of meaning making, hence there is no beginning and ending. ○ As long as there is life, there is search for meaning. > Communication is affected by individual and cultural changes. ○ Different people have different backgrounds lived in different environments. ○ People in terms of sociocultural contexts belong to places, time and different intellectual capacities. ✓ We cannot not communicate. Elements involved in the communication process: > Source > Feedback > Message (encoding) > Context > Channel > Interference/noise > Receiver (decoding) Simple definition: SENDER sends a MESSAGGE to a RECEIVER by means of some CHANNEL to produce a RESPONSE from the RECEIVER according to the intention of the SOURCE. History and Development of Communication Two Perspectives: Scientific Perspective (Western) > Communication is the transmission and reception of information - popularized by Engr. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver. > The model specifically designed to develop effective communication between the sender and the receiver while looking at noise as part of the process. Initially, to developed to improve the technical communication part, but was later applied to communication in general. Communication Theory Page 1 Humanistic Perspective (Europe) > Communication is the generation of meaning- Philosopher I.A. Richards Translates to search for understanding and relevance. A way of establishing common grounds and connecting with another's experience. An analysis of everyday conversation. Early Years (1900 - 1950): Rise of Rhetoric > Communication as artful public address. > Rhetoric's aim was to study techniques, writers, or speakers utilized in order to inform, entertain, persuade particular audiences in certain situations. > Rhetoric: It is the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing; especially the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques. Aristotle popularized the logos, pathos, and ethos (logical, emotional, and ethical appeals) Communication and Social Change (1930 - 1960): Media Effects > The Great Depression happened, bringing rapid social and cultural changes. > The radio, news, telephone, and mail were various forms of communication. > World War II: Before: 'Communication research' covered only media effects done in sociology, psychology, political science, and journalism. After: There became an urgent need to find effective ways to inform, influence, and inspire maximum support for the war efforts. One example will be the military recruitment. > Leading social scientists converged in Washington to discover how broadcast messages affected listeners. > Wilbur Schramm was the first to train the first generation of empirically oriented communication researchers. He identified four founding fathers of communication research: Harold Lasswell, Kurt Lewin, Paul Lazarsfeld, and Carl Hovland. > Harold Lasswell, a political scientist, analyzed the content of Nazi Propaganda to determine why it had powerful effects. Defined communication: who said it, what was said, in what channel it was said, to whom it was said, and with what effect it was said. The Empirical Revolution (1950 - 1970): > Communication discipline was becoming more scientific. > Shannon and Weaver presented the linear mathematical model. > David Berlo wrote the leading communication textbook in the 1960s. Communication model: SMCR - source, message, channel, receiver Communication Theory Page 2 Turbulent Sixties (1960 - 1970) > Launching Pad for Interpersonal Communication > 1960s introduced critical innovations and global communication. Satellite technology and computer network was present. 1969: Neil Armstrong's first step on the moon > Considered the coercive techniques of social agitation, nonverbal behavior, and the power of mass media in shaping culture. The Hunt for a Universal Model (1970 -1980) > Critical theorists from Europe migrated to the US; > They scoffed at media research establishments that professed to be neutral, but always ended up serving those who held political and economic power. Ferment in the Field (1980 to present) > Recent trends in communication research > Interpretative research - e.g. cultural studies, feminist critiques > Ethnographic methods > Interpersonal scholarship and personal relationships > 1993: Fragmentation in the field (Journal of Communication) > 1999: Robert T. Craig's landmark article on Theoretical Traditions unifying theories. > 2007: Book on the 7 Theoretical Traditions Models and Types of Communication Communication is a basic feature of social life. > It is through communication with one another that personal relationships, communities, and societies are made and maintained and it is through these social networks and relationships that we become who we are. (Good, 2001) Communication is a process > In which participants create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding. (Rogers, 1995) Communication Theory Page 3 Based on Parties > Internal Communication - within an organization; along with your colleagues and supervisors, or the people you work with. Vertical - communication between different levels of organizational hierarchy.  Downward communication  Upward communication  Cross/Diagonal communication Horizonal - communication between people, divisions, departments or units within the same level of organizational hierarchy. > External - do not belong within the organization; perhaps the customers, clients, suppliers, competitors, and other organizations. Based on Formality > Formal communication > Informal communication Based on Media > Verbal Communication (written and oral) - includes sounds, words, language, and speaking/writing. > Oral Communication - is the ability to talk with others to give and exchange information and ideas, such as ask questions, give directions, coordinate work tasks, explain, and persuade. > Non-verbal Communication - involves physical ways of communication, like, tone of the voice, touch, smell, and body motion. > Visual Communication - the visual display of information, like topography, photography signs, symbols, and designs. Others > Mass Communication/Mediated - the process of using message to generate meanings in a mediated system, between a source and a large number of unseen receivers (e.g. TV show broadcasted via TV to viewers). > Intrapersonal Communication - internal use of language or thought Communication within one's self, which may include self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and even recall memory (McLean S., 2005). 'Self-Talk': When Talking to Yourself, the Way You Do It Makes a Difference  Do you ever talk to yourself? Be honest. Researchers say talking to yourself, out loud, is more common than many of us might care to admit. Psychologists call it "self-talk" and say how we do it makes a big difference in both our mood and our behavior. > Interpersonal Communication - the exchange of information between two or more people. It involves independent individuals with own motivations, expectations, and interpretations. Communication Theory Page 4 Models of Communication Shannon & Weaver, 1949: Linear Model (Transmission); one-way > Sender/source --> Message --> Target/Receiver > Noise - distortion Semantic, physical, psychological, physiological Wilbur Schramm: Interaction Model; two-way > Sender/Source --> Message --> Target/Receiver; vice versa > A feedback from the receiver is established. > Field of experiences Barnlund, 1970; Frymier, 2005: Transactional Model (negotiate meaning) > Field of experiences overlap > Both the sender and receiver of a message are encoding and decoding content while exchanging feedbacks. Definition, Significance and Functions of Communication Theory Definitions of Theory: - "Theories are maps of reality. The truth they depict may be objective facts 'out there' or subjective meaning inside our heads. Either way we need to have theory to guide us through unfamiliar territory." - Em Griffin, 1997 - Theory is "a set of interrelated propositions that suggest why events occur in the manner that they do." - Hoover, K.R., 1984 - "Theory is more accurately defined as a set of interrelated concepts that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations for the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena." - Tucker, Weaver, & Berryman-Fink, 1981 - A (scientific) theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses. - Boss, 2010. - A theory is an abstract system of concepts and their relationship that help us understand a phenomenon. It is very crucial that all the concepts relates to one another in a more cohesive manner. - It attempts to make sense of things. A theory offers an account of what something is, how it works, what it produces to happen, and what can change how it operates. Communication Theory: - Attempts to explain the production of information, how this information is transmitted, the methods used to convey it, and how meaning is thereby created and shared. Communication Theory Page 5 Components of a Theory: > Concepts - are "labels" that theorists make to the patterns that the found across many inquiries. They label the elements of a theory. Concepts can be: Real - directly observable (e.g., personal, ritual, spatial, distance) Nominal - not directly observable (e.g., democracy, love, independence) > Relationships - ways in which the concepts in the theory are combined Causal explanations Practical explanations Functions of a Theory: > Organizes experience- a theory is a summary of the patterns seen from different observations about a certain event > Extends knowledge - it allows us to see implications that are not evident from individual observations. > Stimulates and guides further research - has a heuristic function. It points the way to look for further knowledge and explanations. Heuristic function - one uses language as a means of exploring, learning, and acquiring knowledge about one's environment, or the status quo, typically through the use of questions. > Predict - they allow us to anticipate events we may never have encountered. Uses of Theories (Littlejohn, 1999): > Focus attention on particular concepts > Clarify our observations > Predict communication behavior > Generate personal and social change Don't Forget: Theories are lenses for understanding the world around us Theories allows us: > To organize and understand communication experiences; > Select communication behavior to study; > Broaden our understanding of human communication; > Predict and control communication situations; > Challenge current social and cultural relationships, and; > Offer new ways of thinking and living. Developing Communication Theory > Remember! Theory is not fixed; it is provisional. It is open to revision and grows into more accurate and comprehensive explanations about the make-up and operation of the social world. - Dr. Christopher Sunday Communication Theory Page 6  > Because theories are abstractions, every theory is partial. > Communication theories change and develop over time. > Theories organize a broad range of experiences into smaller categories by paying attention to "common features" of communication situations. > Communication theory attempts to explain: The production of information; How this information is transmitted and the methods used to convey it; How meaning is thereby created and shared. Differences of Models and Theories: > Models only describe. "What happens?" but not "why does it happen?" thus it cannot predict "what will happen if…" > Theories describe, explain, and predict. What are the goals in theory formation? > Explanation > Understanding > Prediction (control) > Reform (social change) Developing a Theory How to start? > Personal interests > Observations > Questions about communication > Asking important questions > Looking for answers by observing communicative behavior > Forming answers and theories as a result of observations Steps in Theory Construction > Identification of empirical (observable/can be verified) phenomena to become the target of explanation. > Construction of a proto-theory: a set of theoretical principles that potentially explain these phenomena. Example: In Information Theory (Shannon and Weaver), it is assumed that noise is the enemy of information. So, it is proposed that noise reduces information-carrying capacity. [scientific perspective] > The proto-theory is used to construct a formal model: a set of model equations or simulation models that encode the explanatory principles. > Investigation of the model's explanatory adequacy. This is done by formalizing the empirical phenomena in terms of the model and assessing whether model indeed reproduces them. Communication Theory Page 7  > Studying the overall adequacy of the theory by evaluating: A. Whether phenomena are indeed reproduced faithfully with the same results over time; B. Whether explanatory principles are parsimonious (can be explained in basic or simple terms) and substantively plausible (reasonable/valuable); C. Whether the theory implies new predictions to promote further research. Evaluating a Communication Theory Levels of Theory operate at different levels: > Micro-level Theory seeks to explain behavior at the level of the individual or family environment (e.g. psychology, frustration, aggression, hypothesis, etc.) > Meso-level Theory seeks to explain the interactions of micro-level organizations (e.g. social institutions, communities, etc.) > Macro-level Theory seeks to explain behavior at the level of large groups of people (e.g., ethnicity, class, gender, etc.) How to Evaluate the Quality of a Theory 1. Is the theory logical and coherent? 2. Does it fit the available data? 3. Does it provide testable claims? 4. Have the theory-based predictions been tested? 5. Does the theory work better than rival theories or explanations? 6. Is it general enough to apply to more than once place, situation or person? 7. Can practitioners use it to apply or control things in the world? Theory and Research > How is theory related to research? > How is research related to theory? > In research, does the theory: Frame what we look at and how? Provide concepts and direct us to the important questions? Suggest ways for us to make sense of the data? Enable to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute? Increase awareness of interconnection and of broader significance of data? Communication Theory Page 8