COMM100 M1, M2, M3 PDF

MODULE 1: Introduction to Communication and Media Characteristic of communication 1. Symbolic - Symbols are arbitrary constructions which convey meanings 2. Shared - Encoding, Decoding 3. Culturally Bound - Bound to culture; set of shared beliefs, values, and...

MODULE 1: Introduction to Communication and Media Characteristic of communication 1. Symbolic - Symbols are arbitrary constructions which convey meanings 2. Shared - Encoding, Decoding 3. Culturally Bound - Bound to culture; set of shared beliefs, values, and practices 4. Intentionality - Spontaneous, you can never stop it 5. Channels - Methods through which communication takes place 6. Transactional process - Sender - Receiver Defining Communication Communication is the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response. (Griffin, 2022) Mass Media Refer to the organized means of communicating openly, at a distance, and to many in a short space of time. (McQuail, 2010) Mass media plays a vital role in sha[ing public opinion, disseminating news, and influencing culture and economy. Mass Communication Society-wide communication process in which an individual or institution uses technology to send messages to a large, mixed audience, most of whose members are not known to the sender. Models of Communication 1. Transmission Model - Communication is a process of transmission of a fixed quantity of information - the message as determined by the sender or source. - Guided by the interests and demands of an audience that is known only by its selections and responses to what is offered. - Ex. weather updates, news reports 2. Ritual or Expressive Model - Communication is linked to such terms as sharing, participation, association, fellowship, and the possession of a common faith. A ritual view is not directed towards the extension of messages in a space, but the maintenance of society in time; not the act of imparting information but the representation of shared beliefs.  - Emphasis on the intrinsic satisfaction of the sender (or receiver) rather than on some instrumental purpose. - Highlights share understanding and emotion - Ex. cultural expressions, advertisements or commercials that appeal to filipino values and evokes emotion 3. Publicity Model - Communication as a display and attention - The focus is simply to catch and hold visual or aural attention - Media attain one direct economic goal, which is to gain audience revenue (attention equals consumption, for most practical purposes), and an indirect one, which is to sell audience attention to advertisers - Ex. marketing gimmicks such as what happened in ‘UnHappy for You’ 4. Reception Model - The essence of the reception approach is to locate the attribution an construction of meaning with the receiver - Media messages are always open and polysemic (open to different interpretations and meanings) and are interpreted according to the context and the culture of receivers. - This is encoded according to the meaning structure of the mass media production organization and its main supports, but decoded according to the different meaning structures and frameworks of knowledge of differently situated audiences. - Ex. ‘creative’ advertisements that may be perceived differently (may or may not offend) Communication Theory and Communication Traditions Theory - defined as any “organized set of concepts, explanations, and principles of some aspect of human experience” Doing theory - having care to ask questions 1. Quantitative Perspective - Theory is a specification of relationships. - Theory is a set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena. - Theory provides an overarching explanation for how and why one would expect the independent variable to explain or predict the dependent variable. 2. Qualitative Perspective - Theory is an explanation of reality. - Theorizing is the cognitive process of discovering or manipulating abstract categories and the relationships among these categories. - Theory is the result of inductive contemplation of observations made within the holistic context of naturalistic inquiry. Philosophical Assumptions - Basic beliefs that underlie the theory - Every theory, explicitly or implicitly, includes assumptions about the nature of knowledge and how it is obtained, what constitutes existence, and what is valuable. 1. Epistemology - questions of knowledge 2. Ontology - questions of existence 3. Axiology - questions of value Approaches of Communication Theory - Their view of the methods used to create and expand knowledge - their epistemology - Their view of the nature of reality, what is knowable and worth knowing - their ontology - Their view of the proper role of human values in research and theory building - their axiology 1. Postpositivism - Theory based on empirical observation guided by scientific method, but it recognizes that humans and human behavior are not as constant as elements of the physical world - Goal: explanation, prediction, and control - Knowledge is advanced through the systematic, logical search for regularities and causal relationships employing the scientific method 2. Cultural - Theory that seeks to understand contemporary cultures by analyzing the structure and content of their communication. - Goal: to understand how and why that behavior occurs in the social world - Knowledge is local; it is specific to the interaction of the knower and the known. 3. Critical - Theory seeks transformation of a dominant social order to achieve desired values - Goal: to gain knowledge of that social world so they can change it - Knowledge is advanced only when it serves to free people and communities from the influence of those more powerful than themselves 4. Normative - Explains how a media system should be structured and operate to conform to or realize a set of ideal social values - Goal: to set an ideal standard against which the operation of a given media system can be judged - Study of a media system or parts of a media system is undertaken in the explicit belief that there is an ideal mode of operation based in the values of the larger social system. Communication Traditions 1. Socio-psychological Tradition - Communication as interaction and influence  - Examines how individual cognition and social factors influence communication behavior, attitudes, beliefs, and social influence - “What predicts friendship that lasts over time?” 2. Cybernetic Tradition - Communication as a System of Information Processing - Looks at communication as a system of information processing and feedback - “How are friendships shaped by their connections to other people?” 3. Rhetorical Tradition - Communication as Artful Public Address - Focuses on the art of persuasions and how people use language effectively - “How did Obama persuade people by appealing to close relationships?” 4. Semiotic Tradition - Communication as the Process of Sharing Meaning Through Signs - Examines how signs and symbols are used to convey meaning in communication - “What does the word intimacy mean to people in the context of friendship?” 5. Socio-cultural Tradition - Communication as the Creation and Enactment of Social Reality - Based on the premise that as people talk, they produce and reproduce culture - Emphasizes the role of culture and social context in communication - “What communication practices shape deteriorating workplace friendships?” 6. Critical Tradition - Communication as a Reflective Challenge to Unjust Discourse - Challenges the contemporary society: (1) The control of language to perpetuate power imbalances; (2) Critical theorists condemn any use of words that inhibits emancipation; and (3) The role of mass media in dulling sensitivity to repression. - “What oppressive ideologies of race and friendship are produced through the TV show Psych?” 7. Phenomenological Tradition - Communication as the Experience of Self and Others Through Dialogue - Places great emphasis on people’s perception and their interpretation of their own experience - “How do people create mutual understanding of each other in their friendships?” MODULE 2: Development of Communication Six Information Revolutions These revolutions represent key periods in the history of communication: 1. Writing Revolution - The introduction of writing systems to record and communicate information. 2. Printing Revolution - The advent of the printing press, which allowed mass production of written materials. 3. Mass Media Revolution - The rise of newspapers, radio, and television, making media more accessible. 4. Entertainment Revolution - The explosion of entertainment media such as films, television shows, and later, digital media. 5. Creation of the Communication Toolshed Home - Home-based media tools, like the internet and personal devices, that transformed how individuals consume and create media. 6. The Information Highway - The digital era where high-speed internet and media convergence became dominant forces. Key Takeaways: Media shapes society’s practice of revolution. The success of the media depends on its neutrality and lack of political agenda. Our beliefs are shaped by the power and flow of information. Media Consumption Trends Situation 1 (Declining physical media): DVD sales fell 20% between 2010 and 2011. Movie attendance dropped by 4.5% from 2010 to 2011. Printed book sales peaked in 2005 and have been declining since. Situation 2 (Increased digital consumption): Media consumption is at an all-time high. Children aged 8-18 spend more than 10 hours a day with media. Filipinos spend an average of 10 hours online per day. Challenge: How to capture fragmented audiences when consumers are spread across various media and platforms. Factors Affecting the Media Industry 1. Concentration of Media Ownership and Conglomeration: ○ Ownership of media is becoming concentrated in the hands of a few conglomerates. ○ This concentration threatens democracy by creating a profit-driven, sensationalist media landscape. 2. Globalization: ○ Diversity of expression is impacted. ○ There’s an ongoing conflict between local and global cultures. ○ Globalization leads to the creation of robust and diverse media communities worldwide. 3. Hyper Commercialization: ○ Media has become highly commercialized with extensive use of advertising, product placement, and long commercial breaks. ○ This commercialization is evident in TV, the internet, and social media. Media Convergence Definition: The erosion of the distinctions between media forms, driven by digitization, connectivity, and advancing technology. Audience Fragmentation: ○ Audiences are breaking into smaller niche groups. ○ Advertisers are focusing on targeted, personalized ads. ○ Consumers are “platform agnostic,” meaning they do not prefer one media platform over another. Regulatory and Social Concerns: Issues like privacy, cyberbullying, pornography, and online scams are becoming significant concerns in the converged media landscape. Process of Mass Communication 1. Source: ○ Traditional media sources were large, structured organizations, allowing little room for individual experimentation.  ○ Modern media allows individuals to be content creators due to lower costs and technological changes. 2. Message: ○ Past: Messages were identical, inflexible, and broadcast to large, homogeneous audiences. ○ Present: Messages are flexible, alterable, and cater to segmented audiences. 3. Audience: ○ Past: Feedback was delayed and inferential. ○ Present: Instantaneous feedback is possible through digital media. Overall Results: The media industry is more democratic. Content is more flexible and audience-driven. Feedback is immediate, leading to more interactive media consumption and creation. Diffusion of Innovation The diffusion of innovation in media refers to how new communication tools and technologies spread throughout society. It includes the following functions of the media: Surveillance: Monitoring events and reporting information. Interpretation: Analyzing and explaining the news. Values Transmission/Socialization: Media helps transmit cultural norms and values. Entertainment: Media serves as a form of amusement and relaxation. Technological Determinism & Digital Divide Technological Determinism: The idea that technology drives societal change and that communication technologies shape society. Digital Divide: The gap between individuals who have access to digital technologies and those who do not, which can exacerbate inequalities in information and opportunity. Introduction to Mass Communication Theory Mass Communication: Rapidly evolves to meet societal needs, and understanding past perspectives is essential to appreciating modern theories. Eras/Trends of Mass Communication Theory 1. Mass Society and Propaganda Trend (1920s-1940s): ○ Early theories were developed alongside industrialization, particularly by elites who feared media’s disruptive power on traditional values. ○ Mass Society Theory: Media was seen as potentially dangerous and disruptive to social order, but also as a tool to control chaos. It was a contradictory theory supported by elites threatened by change.  ○ Propaganda: During this era, the media was used as a tool for propaganda, especially during wartime. 2. Media Effects Theory Trend (1950s-1960s): ○ Limited Effects Perspective: Grounded in scientific research, it argued that media had limited power to change societal norms and largely reinforced existing beliefs. ○ Paul Lazarsfeld: A key figure who introduced surveys and experiments to study media’s influence. His findings supported the notion that media strengthens rather than disrupts the status quo. ○ Elite Pluralism: Focused on how media served as a tool for elite opinion leaders to maintain their influence, particularly in politics and society. 3. Critical Cultural Trend (1970s-1980s): ○ Neo-Marxism: Media is a tool used by dominant elites to maintain power. However, unlike older Marxist ideas, neo-Marxists believed that even those without economic power could shape culture through media. ○ British Cultural Studies: Explored how media promotes dominant cultural values, but also how different subgroups resist these hegemonic views and create alternative meanings. ○ Cultural Criticism: Concerned with how communication perpetuates power imbalances in society. 4. Meaning-Making Trend (1970s-1980s): ○ Focuses on audiences as active participants who use media to create meaning in their lives, rather than passive consumers. ○ Framing Theory: People use prior knowledge and expectations to interpret media and make sense of the world. ○ Media Literacy: Emphasizes the importance of being able to critically access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate media messages. Key Concepts in Mass Communication Theory 1. Mass Society and Culture: ○ Early views, especially from elites, framed mass media as harmful to traditional values and social order, but acknowledged its potential to address chaos. 2. Limited Effects and Administrative Research: ○ Media does not dramatically change societal norms but reinforces pre-existing ideas. Administrative theories focus on the short-term influences of routine media consumption. ○ Red Scare: Media manipulation concerns were highlighted during this time, particularly with Senator McCarthy’s attempts to purge Communists from media. 3. Critical Cultural Theory: ○ Hegemony: Media often promotes dominant ideologies, but people within subcultures can resist and create alternative interpretations. ○ Audience Resistance: Research showed that audiences are not always passive; they can resist hegemonic messages and contribute to cultural change.  4. Meaning-Making and Media Literacy: ○ The focus shifted to how individuals and groups use media to make sense of their world. Audiences are seen as actively involved in interpreting and finding meaning in media content. Critical Theories and Cultural Implications Neo-Marxism and British Cultural Studies: These approaches highlighted how media supports societal elites but also how it can be resisted by marginalized groups. Cultural Criticism: Emphasizes the conflict of interests in society and how communication perpetuates power imbalances. Audience Research: Demonstrates the potential for media to be used in ways that resist dominant culture, allowing subgroups to challenge hegemonic views. Levels of Analysis 1. Macro-Level: Examines the effects of media at the cultural or societal level. 2. Micro-Level: Focuses on individual or personal effects of media. Key Theories to Review 1. Mass Society Theory: Media as disruptive and dangerous vs. media as a tool for control. 2. Limited Effects Perspective: Media’s role in reinforcing existing social structures. 3. Neo-Marxist and British Cultural Studies: Media’s role in promoting hegemony but also the potential for resistance. 4. Framing Theory and Media Literacy: How people interpret media messages and the importance of critical media consumption. Conclusion Understanding mass communication theory involves recognizing the evolution of thought from early fears of media's power to the present-day acknowledgment of active audiences who use media to shape their realities. Each theory provides a unique lens through which to view the media's influence on society and culture. This guide will help you prepare for exams and discussions by focusing on the key trends, concepts, and questions surrounding media perspectives and mass communication theory. MODULE 3: Communication and Media in the Philippines Print in the Philippines Communication in pursuit of nationhood Catalyst of reforms and revolutions “Model of Democracy”, “Model of Communication and Mass Media” Key Moments of the Philippine Communication and Mass Media Heavy on western ideas and influences Media used in preservation of status quo Image-building and propaganda Free enterprise and commercialized-system as a double-edged sword The Spanish Colonial Rule (1521 - 1898) The Church and the State censored and punished what they deemed rebellious and subversive. Del Superior Gobierno (Gazette of the High Government) was the first ‘formal Philippine newspaper’ Focused more on news relating to Spain due to having ‘no news at all of local interest.’ Ended after fifteen issues. Majority of the papers in this era had a ‘colonial outlook’ and were rigidly censored. Native or vernacular press may have started in 1862 through El Pasig, published fortnightly in Spanish and Tagalog. Other examples include Diariong Tagalog (1882), the first Tagalog daily edited by Marcelo H. del Pilar and Francisco Calvo, survived for three months; El Ilocano (1889-96) by writer and nationalist Isabelo de los Reyes, deemed “the first newspaper that was genuinely native” because of its personnel and ideas. Communication and Media in the 19th Century Philippines La Solidaridad led the Propaganda Movement. Among its roster of writers were the ilustrados such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez-Jaena, and Antonio Luna Kalayaan was the official argan of the Katipunan (1896)  El Heraldo de la Revolucion was Emilio Aguinaldo’s own revolutionary argan after the proclamation of the Philippine Independence in 1898. El Noticerio de Manila (1899) had Catholic and Spanish viewpoints and defended the Spanish administration of the Philippines Filipino-American War on the Press Strict military censorship was enforced during the Filipino-American War, as well as Americans founding their own newspapers Censorships was to ‘eliminate propaganda against occupying forces’ Lasted until 1901 but passed Act 292 or the Sedition Act that criminalized advocating for independence; and the Libel Law of 1901 The case of El Renacimiento, a paper that published an editorial “Birds of Prey” against certain Americans mediating for big business, was charged with libel, resulting in $30,000 in damages and jail sentences for editor and publisher Teodoro M. Kalaw and Martin Ocampo. “Modern Era of Journalism” Change in journalistic style, more “modern” because of American-style journalism Japanese Occupation 1941-1945: imposed a systematic censorship, countered against the guerilla press. The end of the Japanese Occupation jump started the flourish of small newspapers against the pre-war notion that newspapers must be million-peso corporations. Post-War Era: “Never had the press been so free.” - Teodoro Locsin. Big publishers such as Manila Bulletin, The Manila Times reentered the newspaper scene and small militant newspapers perished. Martial Law under Marcos (1969–1986) Government Decrees and Censorship: ○ Order No. 2: Required permission from DPI to publish. ○ PD No. 33: Penalized materials critical of the government. ○ PD No. 90: Outlawed rumor-mongering. ○ PD No. 1737: Public Order Act, allowing the president to shut down subversive publications. Media Control: ○ Mass Media Council (MMC) and Media Advisory Council (MAC) oversaw mass media and enforced strict regulations. ○ Philippine Council for Print Media (PCPM) had the authority to impose sanctions. Crony Press: Marcos allies owned key newspapers; state-controlled media promoted government agendas.  Corruption: Members of the press were bribed with money, gifts, and access to lucrative business deals. Alternative Press Emergence: Protest newspapers and independent columns criticized the regime; many journalists faced harassment, arrest, or closure of operations. Post-Martial Law and People Power (1986) People Power: Public boycotted state-controlled press, supported “mosquito press” (small, independent publications). Alternative Media: Religious publications and underground presses distributed banned articles, known as "Xerox journalism." Aquino Government and 1987 Constitution Communication Rights: 1987 Constitution enshrined communication-related provisions; allowed limited foreign ownership in advertising. Ownership Regulations: Major newspapers returned to pre-Martial Law family ownership, preserving vested interests. 1990s and Contemporary Issues in Philippine Media Professionalization and Ethics: ○ Philippine Press Institute (PPI) promoted ethical standards and journalism training. ○ Associations like People in Communication (PIC) and Philippine Communication Society (PCS) pushed for higher standards. Technology and Information Growth: ○ Rapid developments in communication, including distance education and new ICT pathways for media graduates. ○ Journalism and communication studies expanded as launching pads for political leadership and social influence. Film in the Philippines Early Film Development and Colonial Influences American Propaganda Tool: According to Deocampo (2013), film was used in the American war against Spain to spread imperialist ideologies, promoting U.S. dominance. Debate on First "Filipino" Film: ○ Contrary to popular belief, Dalagang Bukid by Jose Nepomuceno is not considered the first Filipino film.  ○ This redefines the idea of a "national cinema" in the Philippines, challenging official 1994 celebrations marking Philippine cinema's 75th year. Spanish Influence on Early Cinema: ○ Early Philippine cinema was influenced by Spanish cinematic traditions, appropriating Spanish styles as a step toward Filipino nationalism. ○ The process of "indigenization" began, using film both as a colonial tool and as a step toward local identity. American Influence: ○ Filipinos showed strong interest in American films, using Hollywood as a model for local productions, blending Hispanic, Anglo, and Filipino cinematic styles. Rise of Cinema as a Medium Early Cinema: Defined by the initial introduction of film, marked by the "arrival and advancement of cinema." Native Agency in Film: Deocampo emphasizes the importance of considering biographical and historical contexts in film production, highlighting the balance between individual creativity ("agency") and societal influence ("structure"). Alternative and Independent Cinema Independent Cinema: Includes genres like animation, avant-garde, and experimental film, sometimes blending into mainstream cinema (e.g., "mainstreaming indie" and "indiefying mainstream"). Cinema as Revolution: Independent cinema challenged norms and introduced new Filipino identities. "Zero Point" and the Era of Colonial Rule Historical Contexts (Deocampo, 1982): Covers the Philippine-American War, American rule, Commonwealth period, World War II, and post-war Philippines. Film as Visual Newspaper: ○ Early American cinema depicted events like the Spanish-American War, dramatizing U.S. success and reinforcing the Philippines as both a conquered territory and a "cinematic fantasy" for American audiences. ○ Actual war scenes and manipulated newsreels were shown to enthusiastic audiences, cementing cinema’s role in imperialist propaganda. Challenges and Early Setbacks of Philippine Cinema Technical Limitations: Film competed with Vaudeville and other stage acts, hindered by technical issues, patent litigations, limited subjects, and lack of standardization. Rise of War Films: Movies depicting Philippine colonization gained popularity by portraying "exotic" battles, using sensational settings and names for appeal.  Exploitation: Films like Rout of the Filipinos (1899), produced by Thomas Edison's studio, dramatized events to favor American imperialism, often prioritizing fiction over fact to appeal to American audiences. Imperialist Agenda in Cinema Prejudiced Promotions: American film catalogs and marketing materials contained biased perspectives, depicting Filipinos as inferior. Cinema as a Tool of Deception and Power: Early American cinema fueled imperialist and racial superiority themes, fetishizing the "Other" and supporting U.S. power in the Pacific. Komiks-to-Film Adaptations Komiks as a Source: ○ Early komiks adapted traditional Filipino stories, reshaping myths, epics, and literary forms into a new, illustrated format. ○ Komiks blended visual and literary properties, helping to popularize certain narratives for adaptation in cinema. Film as Target: ○ Transitioning stories from komiks to film led to an evolving narrative style and iconography, creating a distinct Filipino cinematic identity. Roles of Filipino Artists: ○ Appropriators: Incorporated foreign fantasy elements. ○ Localizers: Adapted fantasy into Filipino contexts, creating native settings. ○ Indigenizers: Infused folklore, vernacularizing genres with distinctly Filipino elements. Radio in the Philippines Pre-Marcos Era (Early Radio Development) Introduction of Radio: Brought by American entrepreneurs in the 1920s during U.S. colonial rule, aimed at “Americanizing” Filipino consciousness. Cultural Integration: ○ Filipinos incorporated local elements like music, balagtasan (poetic debates), and Tagalog language in broadcasts as a form of resistance to foreign influence. World War II Propaganda: Radio became a battleground for propaganda between Japanese forces and Filipino resistance groups. Post-Independence Growth: Radio stations expanded from 5 to 33 in a decade after WWII, reflecting rapid growth. Golden Age of Radio (Post-Independence)  Ownership by Elite Families: Most radio stations were owned by political and economic elites. News and Commentary Increase: 1960s saw a surge in airtime dedicated to live news coverage and political commentary, influencing public discourse. Marcos Era (Radio Control and Censorship) Martial Law and Media Control: ○ Marcos placed all media under the control of the Press Secretary and Secretary of National Defense, shutting down all non-government stations except the government-aligned Kanlaon Broadcasting System. ○ The number of stations fell drastically with heavy censorship, effectively suppressing dissent. Protest Radio Emergence: ○ After Benigno Aquino’s assassination in 1983, Catholic station DZRV aired extensive coverage, triggering heightened public awareness and protest. ○ DZRV covered events leading to the EDSA Revolution, from Aquino’s funeral to the snap elections, serving as a crucial channel for anti-Marcos sentiment. EDSA Revolution and Radyo Bandido (1986) People Power and Radio's Role: ○ Key figures like Butz Aquino and Cardinal Jaime Sin rallied Filipinos to EDSA through broadcasts. ○ Radyo Bandido (DZRB) continued anti-Marcos coverage, supporting the movement until Corazon Aquino's inauguration was broadcasted on February 25, 1986, contrasting with Marcos’ inauguration aired only on TV. Post-Martial Law Era and Ongoing Challenges Violence Against Journalists: Radio journalists frequently faced threats due to critical reporting, especially against provincial politicians. Challenges for Journalists: ○ Widespread issues included the influence of the military, judicial weaknesses, and “envelopmental journalism” (bribery in reporting). ○ Marcos' era left a legacy of challenges that still affect media freedom and journalist safety. TV in the Philippines Television in the Philippines (Early Development and Marcos Era) Growth and Elite Control:  ○ By 1968, six stations operated in Manila, primarily controlled by elites and one government channel. ○ Key families involved were the Lopezes, Sorianos, Elizaldes, and Roceses, dominating TV media. Political Impact of TV: ○ The rise of political media in the 1960s paralleled advancements in broadcast technology, inciting public rallies and protests. Martial Law Censorship: ○ Upon declaring Martial Law, Marcos shut down TV stations owned by political rivals. ○ Broadcasters faced pre-censorship, intimidation, detention, and violence, leading to the formation of the Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng Pilipinas (KBP) in 1973 to protect broadcast standards and rights. TV's Role in the EDSA Revolution Turnaround Broadcasts: ○ Rebel broadcasters and defectors aired pro-revolution content. Channel 4, initially under Marcos’ control, switched sides, becoming a key platform for People Power. Interruptions of Marcos Coverage: ○ Rebels cut short the inauguration of Marcos at Malacañang, showcasing media’s power shift during the revolution.