Lecture One: Mass Communication and Its Functions PDF

Lecture One: Mass Communication and Its Functions ​ Approaches of Studying Mass Communication: -​ There are three main approaches followed when it comes to studying mass media and communication, which are: 1)​ Functional Approach: It emphasizes/focuses on studying the...

Lecture One: Mass Communication and Its Functions ​ Approaches of Studying Mass Communication: -​ There are three main approaches followed when it comes to studying mass media and communication, which are: 1)​ Functional Approach: It emphasizes/focuses on studying the ways users consume and use mass media and communication channels. It also focuses on knowing the negative and positive effects that come from social media consumption. 2)​ Critical Approach: It uses techniques, such as, deconstruction of message and analysis of texts, in order to understand and interpret messages and content that audiences find in different media contexts. 3)​ Empirical Approach: It uses techniques of social sciences, such as, experiments and surveys, to understand the cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioural effects of mass media on users. __________ ​ Functional Analysis of Mass Media and Communication: -​ The functional approach of studying mass media states that something is best understood by examining how it is used. -​ And as for the mass media and communication field, this means examining the use of the audience to media and their interactions with it. -​ It is possible to conduct a functional analysis in the field of mass media and communication through two main analysis levels, which are: 1)​ Macro-level Analysis: -​ It involves considering the functions performed by the mass media and how it affects the entire society. -​ It involves looking at the functions of mass media from a wider scope or perspective. -​ It focuses on analyzing the intentions of mass communicators. -​ It emphasizes/focuses on studying the purposes of different media content. 2)​ Micro-level Analysis: -​ It involves having a closer look at the individual receivers of media content, and asking them to report how they use mass media. -​ The end results of these two forms of analysis are often similar in: 1)​ Knowing if the consumers use the media content as intended by its communicator or source. 2)​ Knowing if the consumers use the media content in a way that is not anticipated by its communicator or source. __________ ​ Function of Mass Communication in the Society: A)​ Surveillance (‫)مراقبة و متابعة‬: -​ This refers to the function and role of media in the field of news and information reporting. -​ There are mainly two types of surveillance in the field of media, which are: -​ Warning/Beware Surveillance → It informs users of potential threats, whether these threats are immediate or chronic/long-term threats. -​ Instrumental Surveillance → It informs users useful and helpful information regarding their daily lives. -​ There are several consequences related to relying on surveillance as a media function, which are: 1)​ News travels much faster than anticipated. 2)​ Society members get used to receiving machine-processed, hand-me-down, or second generation information (‫)بيعتمدوا على عنصر ثانوي يمدهم بالمعلومات من غير ما يحاولوا يبحثوا هما عنها‬. 3)​ Society members become highly dependent on others for news and information, which leads to putting too much trust and credibility towards media outlets.  4)​ Media surveillance can sometimes create unnecessary anxiety. B) Interpretation (‫)الشرح والتفسير‬: -​ Mass media does not only supply its users with facts, but also provide information on the significance and meaning of certain events. -​ Media organization first select events that are to be given time and space, then select how much prominence should be given to these events ‫يحددوا أولوياتهم و هما ناويين ينشروا ايه‬. -​ We can understand from this process that news stories that make their way to be covered in the media are judged by various gatekeepers who determine its importance compared to other news stories. -​ Interpretation functions can be found in printed media through editorial pages of newspapers, which include interpretations, comments, and opinions that can provide readers with perspectives and understanding on stories being covered. -​ Another example of interpretation functions can be the discussions of implemented governmental actions or policies that are held with media receivers. -​ Interpretation functions come in different forms, editorial cartoons ‫ الكاريكاتير‬are the most famous. -​ There are several consequences associated with interpretation as a media function, which are: 1)​ Audiences are exposed to a large number of opinions and points of view of different topics, which helps them evaluate these topics or issues before coming up with their own opinion. 2)​ The media makes a wide range of expertise available for users and individuals, which they may not have thorough interpersonal communication. 3)​ However, dysfunctionals may occur depending on this function. As there is no guarantee that these expert opinions are accurate or valid. 4)​ Individuals that rely heavily on media and expert opinions can lose their critical thinking abilities. 5)​ It can lead to audience passivity and dependence on other people or sources to think for them. C) Linkage (‫)التجميع و ربط أطراف المجتمع ببعضهم‬: -​ Mass media has been able to join different elements of the society together that are usually not connected. -​ For example, social media platforms were able to connect sellers of certain products or services to buyers. -​ The media was able to connect the needs of certain people with the desires of other people who wish to help them or make their problems eliminated. -​ Another form of linkage that is shown in the media is the geographical linkage, where groups of people who are separated geographically can share their common interests on media channels and form a sense of community. -​ Best examples of linkage in the media are shown in WebMD, Ebay, and Facebook. -​ There are several consequence associated with linkage as a function of mass media, which are: 1)​ It can sometimes have harmful consequences including, the spread of hate, propaganda, or even terrorism through media sites and channels. D) Transmission of Values (‫)نقل الثقافات والتقاليد المجتمعية‬: -​ Also known as “The Socialization Function”. And socialization refers to the ways an individual comes to adopt the behaviours and values of others. -​ Mass media portrays our societies, and by users consuming mass media, they can learn how to act and what important values to adopt. -​ When individuals grow accepting the mass media portrayals of a certain society, they grow up to accept its values. Then a social value can be easily transmitted from one generation to another. -​ Media can instill/teach certain values and behaviors in its audience. However, there is a significant number of consequences faced when media acts as an agent of socialization, which are: 1)​ Value transmission from media to audience can help stabilize society.  2)​ Common values and experiences get passed down from generation to generation, which can help form bonds between members of the society. 3)​ On the other hand, values and cultural information that are selected by large organizations may encourage the status quo (‫)تشجيع األوضاع المجتمعية الراهنة و االستمرار عليها‬. -​ Television also has a great potential in socialization. However, writers have warned of possible dysfunctions that might occur if television becomes the most important channel of socialization. As some TV shows or programs may contain violence, and it has been argued that individuals who watch too much violent content on TV can be taught to accept it and think of it as a legitimate problem-solving method. It also might become pervasive and encourage fearfulness to certain people. E) Entertainment: -​ Entertainment is one of the obvious functions of mass media. -​ Television is primarily devoted to entertainment, giving it ¾ of daily broadcast and running time. -​ Entertainment function of media has continued to grow over the years, and the emergence of mobile media has amplified/increased its growth. -​ The internet has enlarged the options of entertainment to audience members and changed how they define entertainment, especially with the emergence of social network sites. -​ There are different consequences associated with entertainment as a function of mass media , which are: 1)​ Entertainment has become available for a larger number of people with relatively low costs. 2)​ Entertainment that is carried out in mass media must appeal to a mass audience, which can result in it being designed to appeal to the lowest common denominator of taste (‫)أكثر االذواق تدني‬. 3)​ Entertainment media and its similar formats of media has turned audience members into watchers and listeners rather than doers. __________ ​ How Do People Use Mass Media?: -​ When we move from the macro-analysis of media to the micro-analysis, the functional approach of studying media and uses of individuals to if is called “Uses and Gratification Model” -​ The “Uses and Gratification Model” posits/states that audience members have needs that are satisfied by media and non media sources. -​ We can classify the “Uses and Gratification Model” into six main categories, which are: Cognition ‫االدراك‬: 1)​ It is the act of coming to know something. 2)​ When a person uses a mass media to obtain certain information, then this person is using the media channel or the medium in a cognitive way. 3)​ Cognition is the parallel to the surveillance function in the macro-level analysis. 4)​ There are two types of cognitive functions in the mass media and communication field, which are, keeping up with current events, and learning about things in general and satisfying curiosity. Diversion ‫التحويل‬: 1)​ One of the basic needs of human beings is diversion. 2)​ It can come in different forms, including stimulation, relief from boredom, relaxation, escaping daily life problems, and emotional releases of energy. 3)​ Seeking emotional or intellectual stimulation is a motivation in humans’ nature to maintain the minimal level of their intellectual activity. Psychologists labeled stimulation activities as “lucid behaviours ‫”سلوك نقائي‬. 4)​ The media has taken action to this human need to avoid boredom in many creative ways. 5)​ However, too much stimulation can be undesirable, as humans can be negatively affected by sensory overload, where too much information and stimulation can be present in their environment. 6)​ When faced with sensory overload, people tend to seek relief. And the media can be one source for relief.  7)​ The choices of media for relaxation can vary from one person to another, since any media material can be used for relaxation by audience members. Emotional Release ‫التحرر العاطفي‬: 1)​ The use of media for emotional release can be one of the most complex manifestations ‫ اصعب المظاهر‬of the emotional function of media. 2)​ On one hand, it is obvious that media content like drama or horror films have generated massive crowds, however, the use of mass media for emotional release can sometimes come in more subtle forms. For example, soap operas and how they bring comfort and assurance to their viewers, or even superhero films where individuals root or identify with its heroic character, etc. This process/function enables people to vent frustrations related to their daily lives. Social Utility ‫المنفعة االجتماعية‬: 1)​ Psychologists identify a set of social needs for humans, including the need to strengthen ties with family and others in the society. The media function that addresses these needs is known as “Social Utility”. 2)​ When audiences discuss a certain TV show, they are using media as a conversational currency ‫أداة تواصل‬, where media platforms provide a common ground for the audience to generate social conversations and discuss topics relevant to them, or things they saw or heard with others. 3)​ Media can also be used as a means to overcome loneliness. 4)​ Some audience members can sometimes go as far as developing feelings with media characters, which can be known as “Parasocial Relationships”. Affiliation ‫االنضمام‬: 1)​ This is the individual counterpart of the linkage function. 2)​ Psychologists have recognized that the central need of all human beings is the need for affiliation. This refers to the desire to feel a sense of belonging and involvement with a social group. 3)​ The internet is the primary medium that fulfills this need to certain people.  Expression ‫التعبير‬: 1)​ Self expression refers to an individual's need to express inner thoughts, feelings, and opinions. 2)​ The internet has opened up new vistas/opportunities for users for self expression. Withdrawal ‫االنسحاب‬: 1)​ At times, people can use mass media to create a barrier between themselves and other people or activities. 2)​ In these cases, attending/paying great attention to mass media content can be defined as a social behaviour that is not interrupted. And in these cases, other tasks might be put off or avoided entirely. 3)​ People can use mass media to create a buffer zone ‫ منطقة عزلة‬between themselves and others. __________ ​ Mass Media and Its definitions -​ What is the definition of the word “Medium” in the media field? A medium is a channel ‫ وسيط‬through which a message travels from its source to the receivers. This definition includes: 1)​ mechanical devices that transmit/deliver and sometimes store messages, such as cameras and microphones. 2)​ The institutions that use these devices to transmit messages. 3)​ People, policies, organizations, and technologies that contribute or go into producing and distributing mass communication. -​ What is the meaning behind the word “Media Vehicle”? A media vehicle is a single channel or component of mass media, such as a newspaper, radio station, magazine, TV channel, etc. __________ ​ Characteristics of Media Organizations -​ Describing the characteristics of media organizations was a lot easier before the internet came along. As the internet has made the distinction between machine-assisted interpersonal communication and mass media become fuzzy. -​ Nowadays, some websites on the internet engage in mass communication, and others don’t. -​ For example, websites of newspapers like NYT, with over 19 million subscribers, or other news outlets are considered mass media organizations with distinct characteristics. Meanwhile, a random blog with around 15 or 20 followers is considered more of a machine-assisted interpersonal communication method. -​ However, there are five main features that have been traditionally used to define mass media organizations, which are: 1)​ Mass communication relies on complex and formal organizations to be produced. 2)​ Mass communication organizations depend on multiple gatekeepers. 3)​ Mass communication organizations depend on a great amount of money to operate. 4)​ Mass communication organizations exist to make profit. 5)​ Mass communication organizations are highly competitive. -​ For the formal and complex organizational structure: 1)​ It refers to the requirements needed to operate a mass media organization, which are: control of money, management of personnel, coordination of activities, and application of authority. 2)​ As accomplishing all of these tasks requires a well-defined/strong organizational structure that is characterised by specialization, division of labor, and focused areas of responsibility. 3)​ In mass media organizations, decision-making takes place at several levels of management. 4)​ In mass media organizations, the channels of communication are formalized ‫التواصل بين العناصر العاملة داخل المؤسسة يكون رسمي‬. 5)​ In mass media organizations, many decisions regarding what to include in coverage are made by groups ‫زي مثال فريق اإلعداد‬. 6)​ In mass media organizations, decisions are made by several individuals at an ascending level ‫ من تحت لفوق‬- ‫ نحو تصاعدي‬and communication follows predictable patterns within the organizations. -​ As for the web, a formal organization structure can be found within some web operations but not with others. -​ As websites nowadays can be maintained, produced, and managed by either a small group or a single individual, therefore, decisions do not have to be filtered through hierarchy. -​ However, many websites that attract a large number of audience (EX: NYT) have organizational structures that resemble the traditional structures of mass media organizations. -​ For the gatekeepers: 1)​ Another factor that characterizes the traditional mass media organizations is the presence of multiple gatekeepers. 2)​ A gatekeeper is a person or a group of people who have control over what material reaches the public. 3)​ Some gatekeepers can be more obvious than others. 4)​ More complex organizations have more gatekeepers. -​ As for the web, gatekeepers are less numerous, however, this does not mean that they are non-existent. -​ For example, some newspapers have someone who scans the viewers’ comments on their websites and removes offensive or libelous content. -​ Social media platforms such as Youtube and Facebook exemplify/adopt a feature that is unique to the web, which is that they rely on the audience to do the monitoring of offensive and inappropriate content. -​ However, gatekeeping is not a principle feature that is available on many internet sites, which can have both positive and negative consequences. As individuals can have more freedom to post whatever they want without fear of censorship. But, there is no guarantee that the content available online is accurate or worthwhile. As rumours, vitriol, and tasteless content abound/spread on the internet, there are no editors to sort out credible content from the lies. -​ For the large operating expenses: 1)​ Traditionally, it has taken a great deal of money to get into the mass communication media business, and even more money to keep this business going. 2)​ Once the mass media organization is operating, the expenses can be sizable. -​ As for the internet, it has reduced the start-up and operating costs needed for the media business, however, this does not mean that web operations don’t need cash to grow and prosper. -​ For the competition for profits: 1)​ Mass media organizations exist to make profit.  2)​ Although there are some exceptions, such as public broadcasting services, the majority of newspapers, TV channels, and radio stations strive to produce profits for their owners. 3)​ Broadcast stations are licensed to serve public interest, and newspapers claim watchdog functions for their readers, however, if these businesses do not make money, no matter what their goals are, they are going to fail and go out of business. 4)​ Profits for mass media organizations ultimately comes from the consumer. 5)​ Newspapers, TV channels, and radio stations can also make profit by selling advertisers the attention the audience gives them. 6)​ Major TV networks compete with one another for ratings, and they spend millions of dollars to promote their programs. -​ As for the web, many websites exist to make profit as well. However, other websites do not share the profit motivation. As some exist to serve the public, like governmental websites, some exist to give their owners prestige and attention, like blogs. And in this case competition will not be much of a factor. __________ ​ Models of Mass Communication -​ The Traditional Model of Mass Communication: 1)​ This model suggests that mass communication is a “one to many” flow of communication. 2)​ It suggests that information from the environment, both news and entertainment information, is filtered through a media organization, like a newspaper or a TV network, where this information gets decoded, interpreted, and selected to be finally encoded into a message ‫ تختار و‬،‫ تفهم‬،‫تفكك‬ ‫ توزع في هيئة رسالة للجمهور‬that is reproduced and distributed through the media channel. 3)​ Gatekeepers are responsible to check and evaluate the information, then once through the gate, the message is reproduced and distributed to the audience so they can receive it, decode it, and interpret it on their own. 4)​ Sometimes, the behaviour of the audience is monitored and is used as feedback to help shape future messages. 5)​ Under the traditional model of mass communication, there is very little direct interactions between the source of message and the receivers ‫المصدر‬ ‫بيوصل الرسالة لوسيط و الوسيط يوصلها للجمهور‬. -​ The Internet Model of Communication: 1)​ It represents a new arrangement that makes several different levels/flows of communication, including: -​ One Source to One Receiver Communication -​ One Source to Many Receivers Communication -​ A Few Sources to A Few Receivers Communication -​ Many Sources to Many Receivers Communication 2)​ In this simplified model, content/messages are not only provided by organizations, but also by individuals. 3)​ In this model, there are no organizational gatekeepers. 4)​ In this model, a single individual can perform the decoding, interpreting, and encoding functions. 5)​ The traditional mass media communicator no longer initiates the process, nowadays instead, the receiver chooses the time and manner of interaction when receiving a certain message. -​ Another area of contrast between the two mass communication models is that the internet model messages that flow to each receiver are not identical. Each receiver can have different choices for content and messages on the internet. In addition, nowadays with the internet, it is possible to customize the information you receive. -​ Traditional model of communication is characterized as the “Push Model”, as the sender pushes the information to the receiver. -​ The internet model of communication is characterized as the “Pull Model”, as the receiver pulls the information he/she wants only. -​ With the internet model of communication, individuals and organizations are linked through a computer-mediated environment, which makes interactions and feedback much easier. __________ ​ Emerging Media Trends: -​ Audience Segmentation ‫ تجزئة الجمهور‬: 1)​ Audiences are becoming less “mass” and more “selective”. 2)​ There has been fractionalization/segmentation in the mass audience.  3)​ There has been several reasons for this change including: -​ Time has become a scarce commodity ‫عملة نادرة‬. People’s time is becoming less available for the media, as if the audience decides they are going to spend time with the media they will look for content that fits their specific interests. -​ Nowadays, there is more media than ever to choose from. Which can make the audience of a single media vehicle reduce. -​ Convergence ‫ نقطة تقارب‬: 1)​ Convergence is defined as the process of coming together and uniting for a common interest or focus. 2)​ This term has gained popularity in recent years and has become the centerpiece of discussions regarding future media trends. 3)​ There is multiple type or process of convergence, including: -​ Corporate Convergence: It started around the 1980s. Where companies that provided media content, such as movie studios, decided to acquire distribution channels, such as TV stations. As digital technologies emerged, synergies/companies turned into convergence, as a vision of one company delivering every service imaginable. -​ Operational Convergence: It occurs when several media companies in one market combine their separate operations into a single effort. There are obvious advantages to this type of convergence, which are, saving money, not hiring a new staff for each medium operation, each medium can start promoting its partner. However, there are also disadvantages, including, it may be synonymous/linked to cutbacks and using smaller staff, can cause fewer independent and diverse forms of journalism, and it can be good for media companies, but not for customers.  -​ Device Convergence: Refers to combining the functions of two or three devices into one mechanism. However, the fact that a single device combines the features of more than one device does not mean that the consumers will buy it. Also, there is always the danger that convergence will result in the production of a piece of equipment too complex for consumers to operate. Device convergence is also manifesting itself in a different way. As all media seems to be converging, as the internet is the major distribution channel. -​ Increased Audience Control ‫ الجمهور يتحكم في المحتوى بشكل أكبر‬: 1)​ Nowadays, audience members are becoming more in charge of what they want to see and hear and when they want to do it. 2)​ Recent technological advances have given more and more power to the consumer. 3)​ Power has shifted from the source to the receiver. -​ Multiple Platforms ‫ انتشار و ازدياد منصات االعالم‬: 1)​ “Everything, Everywhere” has become the new mantra/slogan at many media companies as they try to adapt to the changing world of media technology. 2)​ Their strategy became to make content available online to consumers, using a number of delivery methods to reach a number of receivers’ devices. 3)​ For example, TV channels have expanded their delivery methods to include online streaming services. 4)​ Networks are trying to make their content available on as many screens as possible. -​ Mobile Media: 1)​ Modern mass communication involves people looking at screens and consuming messages and content from them.  2)​ For the past couple of decades, the two main screens were TV and computer screens. 3)​ Nowadays, a parade of smaller screens have joined the parade of transmitting media messages and content. 4)​ Mobile media can access the internet through programs called applications. 5)​ Media outlets are using mobile media applications for a new source of revenue. 6)​ Mobile media is another manifestation of the “Everything, Everywhere” concept. __________ ​ All About News In Mass Media -​ How do we decide what information is news and what is not news?: 1)​ By finding out the news value of this information. 2)​ News values are formed by traditions, organizational policies and economics, and more recently by digital revolution. 3)​ Most journalists agree that there are around five core news elements/news values that characterize newsworthy events. -​ What are the five news elements/news values? 1)​ Timeliness ‫التوقيت‬: -​ News has to be new. -​ Yesterday's news is old news. -​ News is perishable ‫ فانية أو غير قيمة طوال الوقت‬and stale news is not interesting to audience. -​ The digital revolution added a new premium/level of increase on timeliness. As websites operate 24/7, bloggers and social media platforms like twitter can provide first hand information ‫معلومة بدون وسيط‬. News no longer has to wait for the morning or evening broadcast to be aired and known to the audience. As a result, the shelf life of news has become even shorter. 2)​ Proximity ‫القرابة‬: -​ News happens close by. -​ Audience members will be more interested to know about news happening in their neighborhood, town, or county (geographical proximity). -​ However, proximity can mean more than a measure of distance. People can also relate to news that coincides/matches their psychological and personal interests (psychological/emotional proximity). -​ Social media sites have given a new dimension to proximity, as a user can choose to receive their news feed from a specific group of people. In other words, a person can define and choose people with whom they define/gain psychological proximity. Traditional media does not offer audience members this degree of precision. 3)​ Prominence ‫الشهرة‬: -​ The more important and well-known a person is, the more value he/she will have as a new source. -​ That is the reason why activities of presidents, and government officials attract so much media attention. -​ Even the infamous ‫ المشاهير سيئ السمعة‬have a news value. Many criminals can be given media attention and media coverage. 4)​ Consequences ‫المؤثرات‬: -​ Events that affect a great deal of people have a news value. (EX: Gas Prices Increase) -​ The internet has given the audience more influence/control over determining the consequences of certain news material. -​ News media can monitor the “clickstream” of the audience to see what stories or information the audience are choosing to consume on their websites.  -​ Stories that rank higher in terms of viewership and engagement are apparently important to many people and assume added consequence. -​ However, there is a negative aspect to this, which is that some stories that generate lots of clicks can be bizarre and sensational ‫غريبة و مثيرة‬, rather than serious. These stories wind up taking greater media coverage than they might otherwise have received. 5)​ Human Interest ‫اإلنسانية‬: -​ They are stories that arouse emotion in the audience. -​ These stories can be bizarre, ironic, uplifting, or dramatic. -​ These types of stories majorly concern ordinary people, who find themselves in circumstances with which the audience can identify. -​ Another news element/news value that can be added to the previously mentioned five is “Economics”. -​ As economics play a large role in deciding news stories and material that get great media attention and coverage. -​ As some news stories or news events can cost more money to cover than other stories. Therefore, after spending a huge amount of money pursuing a certain story, the news organization might run it even though it can have very little news value, simply to justify its costs to the organization’s management. -​ Also, the cost of using new technology can be reflected on what type of stories are covered. __________ ​ News Reporting in the Digital Age -​ The digital revolution have made significant changes in the field of news reporting, and we can witness that through: 1)​ More Sources Being Available for News 2)​ Blogs 3)​ Citizen Journalism 4)​ Hyperlocal News 5)​ Converged Journalists 6)​ Advancements in News Reporting Tools -​ More Sources for News: 1)​ The internet increased the number of available news sources.  2)​ Audience can now examine news sites like NYT.com and CNN.com, news aggregators ‫ منصات تجميع األخبار‬that offers a digest of news from other news sources like Google, specialized news sites that offers content with a tight focus like Wall Street Journal, and blogs. -​ Blogs: 1)​ Blogs present a new source of news. 2)​ Blogs present a news source that is free from economic, corporate, political, or advertising considerations and pressures. 3)​ There are blogs on the internet that are devoted to political, technology, or entertainment news, and countless other topics ‫ممكن المدونات تكون مدونات متخصصة في نوع معين فقط من األخبار‬ 4)​ There are several benefits that comes with considering blogs as a news source, which are: -​ In countries that exercise excessive/countless control over the media, blogs can offer an alternative version/view on events. -​ Blogs have an agenda setting effect ‫مؤثرة في األجندات اإلعالمية‬. As they can concentrate the attention of the traditional media on selected events and keep those events in the news cycle. -​ Blogs provide a check on traditional media. However, traditional media is not used to such level of scrutiny. Therefore, there is always this fraction/division between bloggers and traditional journalists. -​ Blogs represent an additional outlet for reporters to explain why they reported a certain story in a certain way or how they framed a story in a certain way, or why they quoted certain sources, etc. -​ Through blogs, audiences are given a chance to judge the principles by which the journalists work. -​ Blogs have made it possible for everyone to be a newsperson or a “citizen journalist”. -​ Citizen Journalism: 1)​ The term “citizen journalism” refers to the possibility for everyone to become a newsperson. 2)​ It is now possible to share content or news material on the media by utilizing an easy-to-use phone video camera and high speed internet access. 3)​ One of the reasons behind the popularity of citizen journalism in mainstream media is that it is free. As the media industry is faced with declining audiences and shrinking revenues, using citizen input can be a simple way to cut costs and eliminate some personnel.  4)​ However, professional journalists argue that citizen reporters are not journalists, but merely witnesses who happened to be in the right place when news broke out. They also believe that legitimate journalism requires balance, fairness, and a sense of ethics, and other traits that are not necessarily present in amateur reporters. 5)​ On the other hand, citizen journalism is shown to be empowering the audience. As news organizations no longer have monopoly/absolute control over what gets reported and how. -​ Hyperlocal News: 1)​ Hyperlocal News are news items of interest to a relatively small number of people (EX: ‫)جريدة المعادي اليوم‬. 2)​ Hyperlocal is one of the emerging terms that has a wide range of use. 3)​ Hyperlocal coverage concentrates on stories on a particular community in a defined geographical area. 4)​ Hyperlocal coverage can be found on websites. 5)​ Publishers of hyperlocal news hope that the focus on topics that traditional media ignore will help them attract the audience that generally does not consume news. 6)​ Facebook contains a lot of hyperlocal news. -​ Converged Journalists: 1)​ The print journalist and the video journalist have converged to produce the 21st century news correspondent. 2)​ A backpack journalist is a “do it all” reporter, who carries around a small digital camera, a laptop, and a satellite phone that enable him/her to a news story for print, TV, and online media all together. 3)​ These reporters can also be called “Mobile Journalists” or “MoJos”. -​ Computer-assisted Reporting: 1)​ In the past, elite media organizations would send reporters to locations where the news/events happened to cover them. 2)​ Nowadays, journalists can sit at their desks and access documents and databases and government records and expert resources. 3)​ Journalists can now bring information to their desks that they previously went to look for. 4)​ In order to make use of these new news reporting tools, reporters must be able to learn and gain new skills, including: web search, downloading and analyzing data files, using geographic mapping softwares. And all of these skills are called “computer-assisted reporting skills”. __________ ​ Categories of News and Reporting -​ News can be broken into three broad/main categories: 1)​ Hard News 2)​ Soft News or Features 3)​ Investigative Reports -​ Hard News: 1)​ Hard news makes up the bulk of news stories. 2)​ They consist of basic facts, including the who, what, where, when, why, and how. 3)​ It is the news of important and public events, like governmental actions or international events. 4)​ Hard news holds a significance for a large number of people. 5)​ Hard news can be seen in the first page of a newspaper, or the lead story in a TV or radio broadcast. -​ Hard News in Print Media: 1)​ The standard technique to report hard news in print media is the traditional “Inverted Pyramid” form. 2)​ The main facts of the story are delivered in the first sentences, also known as “The Lead”. 3)​ Following the lead, less important facts follow, then to the least important facts at the end. 4)​ This news structure aids: the reporter, who composes/presents facts quickly, the editor who can lop off/erase the last few paragraphs of the story to make it fit the page without damaging the story, and the reader who can tell a glance if interested in all, some, or none of the story. -​ Hard News in Broadcast Media: 1)​ In broadcast media, there is consideration of the limited time of the broadcast. 2)​ In broadcast media, the information level stays the same throughout the story. 3)​ In broadcast media, there is no time for less important facts. 4)​ In TV or radio broadcasts, we can use either a hard or a soft lead to our news story. 5)​ A hard lead includes the most important information, providing us with basic facts on the story. 6)​ A soft lead aims to get the viewers’ attention. It may not convey/deliver much information. It is supported by the body of the story which provides new information and explains the lead. -​ Hard News in Online Media: 1)​ The writing style in online media is highly variable. 2)​ A newspaper can post the printed-version of the story on its site, with minor edits only. 3)​ While others can the headline with a couple of sentences that highlight the main points to the reader, and provide a link in case the reader wants to know the full story in detail. 4)​ The inverted pyramid model is used through integrating images and videos with texts. 5)​ Some newspapers can add links to additional information related to the story. -​ Soft News: 1)​ “Soft News” or “Features” cover a wide territory of content. 2)​ It is interesting to the audience. 3)​ Soft news relies on human interest as their main news value. 4)​ Soft news appeals to people’s curiosity, sympathy, or even amazement. 5)​ Soft news can be about places, people, animals, events, or products. 6)​ Features are entertaining to the audience. 7)​ Many TV and print media vehicles are based on soft content. -​ Techniques for Reporting Soft News/Features in Print: 1)​ Features rarely follow the inverted pyramid model ‫ال تتبعه‬. 2)​ The main points of features are held to their very end. 3)​ Some features are written in chronological order. While some can start with shocking elements and then proceed with explanations. -​ Techniques for Reporting Soft News/Features in Broadcast Media: 1)​ It can use/benefit from a variety of formats. 2)​ Some can use a humorous lead, and some can delay the main points until the end. 3)​ Sometimes a simple narrative structure is used ‫رواية أو سرد بسيط وتقليدي‬. 4)​ The interview format is popular when the feature is about a well-known personality. -​ Investigative Reports: 1)​ Investigative reports unearth/discover significant information about matters of public importance. 2)​ Investigative reports depend on using non-routine information gathering methods.  3)​ Investigative reports' primary concern is exposing corruption. 4)​ However, there can be to unfortunate connotations/consequences that appear with investigate reports which are: -​ It encouraged some reporters to look at or identify themselves as self-appointed guardians to the public good, allowing themselves to use questionable techniques to uncover indiscretion. -​ The emphasis on exposing political corruption has distracted the attention from the fact that investigative reports can cover other topics and perform valuable public service. 5)​ Investigative reports require a great deal of money and time. 6)​ For this reason, broadcast investigative reports are usually packed in documentaries ‫عنصر من عناصر األفالم الوثائقية‬, or even make a 10-15 minute segments in a news magazine program. __________ ​ News Flow -​ One of the main characteristics of traditional media is the presence of many gatekeepers. -​ And this fact is seen in the stages of gathering and reporting of conventional print and broadcast media. -​ News reporting is a team effort and a lot of these team members can serve as gatekeepers. -​ Online news nowadays has fewer gatekeepers. __________ ​ Broadcast Media -​ There are two main sources of news for broadcast media, which are staff reports and wire services. -​ Special wire services ‫ خدمات وكاالت األنباء‬cater to TV channels and radio stations. -​ Many newsrooms subscribe to syndicated news services. -​ For local news, local reporters are assigned to cover news nearby. -​ At the location stations, the news director oversees the overall news operation. -​ While in large stations, most directors spend their time doing administrative work. -​ At location stations, most news directors perform other functions and roles such as being an anchorperson. -​ The next in command after the director is the executive producer, who supervises all the producers in the newsroom. -​ Producers are typically assigned to the early morning, noon, evening, and late night newscasts. However, the evening newscast is the most important for every news station. -​ An executive producer does the following roles: 1)​ Decide which stories are to be covered, who covers them, and how they cover them. 2)​ Decide the order of news stories appearing in the broadcast. 3)​ Determine the amount of time to be given to each story. 4)​ Write copies of certain stories. 5)​ Integrate live reports into newscasts. -​ An assignment editor assigns and monitors all activities of reporters, camera crew, and other people in the field ‫التغطية الخارجية‬. -​ An assignment editor works closely with news producers. -​ As for the speed of newscast, it is a very important element, that is why there is a pressure on the assignment editor to get the crew to the story in the shortest time possible. -​ In broadcast media, there are also “glamour jobs”, such as on-air news anchors and reporters. -​ In many stations, anchors usually do the field reports but most of the time they perform their work in the studio preparing upcoming newscasts. __________ ​ Online Media -​ The news flow in online media departments is similar to the news flow in traditional media. -​ Top executives decide how the website will be structured, and how many specialties ‫ أخبار متخصصة‬the website will cover. -​ Editors decide what content will be used for the website, which stories will have add-on audio or video files, where stories will be placed, and how often will stories be updated. -​ Reporters revise and update stories when appropriate. -​ For online news departments that are affiliated with a broadcast or a cable network, they will use the audio and video files that appeared in their parent network but with different edits. -​ Other stories can be written from the wire copy or from what has appeared on screen/what has been written for the screen. __________ ​ Media Similarities in News Coverage: -​ All professional journalists the same values and journalistic principles, including: 1)​ Honesty, which is a crucial element for print, broadcast, or online journalism. Journalists should not invent fictional characters or make up quotations and add them to news material. 2)​ Accuracy or fact-checking. 3)​ Balance, as every story has two or more sides, and a journalist should not publicize or promote any of them. Information must be offered on all sides of the story and in a neutral way. 4)​ Objectivity, meaning transmitting news with no bias, comments, or correlations. 5)​ Credibility, as people should never doubt the integrity of a journalist, which can occur because of excess reporting. __________ ​ Theories of Mass Psychology -​ There is no single theory that can capture the complex nature of the human interaction/relationship with media content. -​ Theories and constructs are used to isolate/specify specific phenomena and complex ideas into research questions (‫)يتناولوا حاالت أو مبادئ معينة من إطار عالقة اإلنسان باإلعالم و يدرسها بشكل خاص‬ -​ Early theories in mass psychology focused on understanding the problems attributed/related to new technologies, instead of focusing on the benefits that these technologies deliver. -​ Through time, media research and theories have evolved to become more nuanced ‫ أصبح أكثر دقة‬by clarifying definitions, updating measures, improving ecological validity, and exploring broader views that are all related to media with its different types of audience, uses, contexts, and outcomes. -​ Cognitive and Affective Effects and Processes (‫)التأثيرات و العمليات المعرفية والعاطفية‬: 1)​ Early media research and theories emerged in response to the widespread adoption of mass media ‫تبني أو اهتمام الناس بوسائل اإلعالم‬, such as radio and TV. 2)​ Another reason for the surge of academic attention to the field of media messaging is the interest in learning about the persuasive power of propaganda. 3)​ Therefore, scholar for fields different that media psychology, primarily from the field of communication sciences, have developed media effects theories ‫نظريات لدراسة‬ ‫ تأثير اإلعالم على الجمهور‬that explored audience attitudes and perceptions. 4)​ However, media psychology was not officially recognized as a distinct discipline ‫علم‬ ‫ متخصص‬until the 1980s. 5)​ Media effects research often incorporated theories from psychology. 6)​ Nowadays, media psychology has become more prominent/well-known, responding to the psychological implication of digital media, mobile and personal technologies, as well as decentralized information ‫عدم مركزية المعلومات‬. -​ The Hypodermic Needle Theory: 1)​ Also known as “The Magic Bullet Theory” or “Direct Effects Model”. 2)​ It is one of the first theories that was employed to understand the effects of mass media on the audience's attitudes. 3)​ It was situated/existed within the behavioural framework of the 1930s. 4)​ The theory was linear ‫على خط واحدة‬, as it assumed that mass communication has a universal effect on all passive audience (‫)تأثير واحد على كل الجمهور المتلقي‬. 5)​ The theory also believes that mass communication alters the perceptions of passive audiences by injecting media content into their minds ‫يغيروا مفاهيم‬ ‫ووجهات نظر المتلقي بالمحتوى اإلعالمي‬. -​ Cultivation Theory: 1)​ Garbner’s cultivation theory was also based on a “direct effects” perspective and it posited/argued that TV exposure shaped individuals’ perceptions of social reality. 2)​ Cultivation theory proposes that the repetitive messages and images individuals see on TV, as it is the dominant form of mass media, can create a skewed/exaggerated ‫ غير متزنة‬worldview consistent with the reality portrayed in media. 3)​ Therefore, heavy TV viewers were more likely to adopt the perspectives and values shown on TV and extend these beliefs and attitudes to society. 4)​ This view/theory can be illustrated/shown in the “Mean World Syndrome”, predicting that heavy consumption of violent TV content would make the world seem like a dangerous or unsafe place, which can potentially bias public policy decisions. 5)​ The Hypodermic Needle Theory proposed immediate and short-term effects. Meanwhile, The Cultivation Theory proposed long-term effects, which create homogenization ‫ كتلة متجانسة‬from diverse views, due to the TV’s mainstreaming effects and dominance in cultural storytelling. 6)​ While the cultivation theory has faced multiple replication challenges, research continues to evaluate the exposure effects of media consumption patterns on targeted beliefs and populations, often including moderators that account for individual differences. -​ Two Step Flow Theory: 1)​ It is one of the first theories to challenge the “direct effects” perspective/model. 2)​ This theory assumes that media content does not affect people equally ‫مش‬ ‫بتأثر على كل الناس بنفس الدرجة أو بنفس الطريقة‬. 3)​ This theory assumes that the media content effects on people are conditional, because people selectively focus ‫ بيختار ايه بالظبط يركزوا معاه‬and are influenced by others based on different social and psychological needs and beliefs. 4)​ Katz and Lazarsfeld proposed this theory in 1955. 5)​ Katz and Lazarsfeld proposed that media messages initially reach opinion leaders, who then pass them on to their followers.  6)​ This theory highlighted the importance of interpersonal communication in shaping media effects. 7)​ This theory/model has been used to understand the impact of social media influencers on attitudes and behaviours, often creating reciprocal effects ‫التأثير يحدث بشكل متبادل‬. -​ Agenda Setting Theory: 1)​ Agenda Setting Theory explains how media influences the public opinion about regarding relative importance of issues through emphasis and attention ‫بتأثر على الطريقة اللي بيقدر بيها الناس األخبار‬. 2)​ This theory was proposed by McCombs and Shaw in 1972. 3)​ The central idea of this theory is that “elements that are emphasized by the mass media come to be regarded as important to the public (‫المواضيع اللى بتاخد‬ ‫)حيز كبير من التغطية اإلعالمية الناس بتشوفها مهمة أكتر و العكس‬. 4)​ The salience ‫ البروز‬of objects and their attributes on the media agenda, which is defined by news coverage, public issues, political leaders, and other elements, influences the salience of these objects on the public agenda. 5)​ Consequences of agenda setting in the field of media include: -​ Increased social consensus ‫زيادة توافق اآلراء‬. -​ Priming of attitudes and opinions and behaviours ‫التوحيد‬. 6)​ Agenda setting theory proposes that the most potent ‫ محتمل‬effects can occur when an issue is personally relevant. (‫)التأثير أقوى لو الموضوع من األساس مهم أو قريب من الناس‬ However viewers often feel a need to obtain more information to reduce uncertainty, to change their attitudes, and to take action. -​ Priming Theory ‫التمهيد وتكوين الصور الذهنية بعد التعرض للمحتوى‬: 1)​ Often seen as an extension to the Agenda Setting Theory. 2)​ Priming describes that the effects of exposure to one stimulus is seen in response with subsequent one (‫)التعرض أو التأثر من محفز ما يؤثر على استجابتنا للمحفزات األخرى‬. 3)​ Priming influences attention, as people rely on their memory to process information. As exposure increases accessibility and cognitive shortcuts ‫استعداد بشكل حسي أو إدراكي الستقبال معلومات أكثر‬, unconsciously influencing judgments and interpretations.  4)​ A stimulus intensity ‫ قوة المحفز‬and its recency ‫ حداثته‬are two primary factors that influence the extent of priming effects on behaviour and cognition. -​ Information Processing Theory: 1)​ The dissatisfaction of previous behavioural models ‫ نظريات دراسة السلوك‬led to the development of the Information Processing Theory. 2)​ This theory describes how individuals process and manipulate information. 3)​ This model consists of three main components, which are: -​ Sensory Input ‫المدخالت الحسية و تأثيرها‬ -​ Working Memory ‫الذاكرة و تأثيرها‬ -​ Long-term Memory ‫الذاكرة طويلة المدى‬ 4)​ This theory emphasizes/focuses on the active nature of cognitive processing ‫الطبيعية النشطة والحيوية لحواس اإلنسان و إدراكه‬, and the role of attention in controlling the flow of information for optimal process. -​ Cognitive Load Theory: 1)​ It is an extension to the Information Processing Theory. 2)​ It examines the limits of working memory capacity ‫حدود تخزين الذاكرة للمعلومات‬, which affects learning and information processing. 3)​ It posits/proposes that individuals have limited cognitive resources ‫حدود‬ ‫لقدراتهم المعرفية أو الفهمية‬, and when these resources are overwhelmed, learning and comprehension suffer. 4)​ This theory is frequently applied in the fields of media design and media writing, in order to test and facilitate an ease in comprehension of media and media use. -​ Cognitive Dissonance Theory (‫)التنافر المعرفي‬: 1)​ American psychologist Festinger invented the cognitive dissonance theory in 1957. 2)​ This theory describes the experience of psychological discomfort ‫تجربة اإلحساس‬ ‫ بعدم الراحة أو عدم االتزان النفسي‬when people encounter beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours that conflict with their own. 3)​ This theory proposes that people are always motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance, and this can happen in one of two ways, which are:  -​ Altering their own beliefs. -​ Taking a step to achieve consistency by removing, ignoring, or discounting the source of conflict. 4)​ This theory has been used to explore attitude change in response to dissonance and media consumption behaviours, such as avoiding content of contradicting beliefs and seeking out belief-congruent messaging and media content. -​ Selective Perception and Selective Attention Theory: 1)​ Selective perception ‫ االستيعاب االنتقائي‬represent a cognitive bias ‫انحياز في عملية اإلدراك‬, where individuals filter and interpret information in a way that confirms/support their current beliefs, attitudes, and interests. 2)​ People are most likely to pay attention to information that aligns/reinforces their existing/preconceived notions. 3)​ People are likely to downplay or pay less attention to information that contradicts their existing beliefs. 4)​ Selective Perception influences how individuals perceive and make sense of media content. 5)​ While selective perception can be described as an interpretation bias, selective attention describes the cognitive process of focusing attention on specific stimuli, while filtering out irrelevant and distracting information. 6)​ Selective Attention Theory proposes that people manage their limited attentional resources ‫ قدراتهم االنتباهية‬by prioritizing salient stimuli for processing information. 7)​ Social media algorithms take advantage of selective attention by curating information that is consistent with users preferences and choices, creating filter bubbles. -​ Mood Management Theory: 1)​ Early research in media psychology had a cognitive emphasis (‫)ركز اكثر عن استيعاب الجمهور و إدراكهم للمعلومات‬. 2)​ Research’s attention to the emotional experience of media users increased only in the last few decades. 3)​ There is no universally shared definition of emotion, however, there is a general agreement that emotions play an important role in media creation, media selection, and media experience. 4)​ Mood management theory proposes that people make media consumption choices that help regulate their mood. 5)​ Mood management theory is based on hedonic motivation ‫دوافع االستمتاع‬, and it assumes that people are motivated to alleviate their negative states and seek positive ones. 6)​ In this theory, a person’s exposure to media is dictated by their current emotional states and the implicit expectations of emotions afforded by the media experience ‫والتوقعات لما سيوفره له المحتوى من احاسيس و مشاعر أكثر ايجابية‬. 7)​ In contrast to a rational or conscious choice of media, this theory assumes that the decisions may be less deliberated ‫ محسوبة‬and more instinctive ‫ محسوسة‬as individuals consume media to manage their moods. 8)​ Empirical evidence supports the choice of positively-valenced media among people experiencing positive moods and the selection of uplifting media and avoidance of sad content among those reporting negative effects ‫الناس المبسوطة بتحب‬ ‫تشوف محتوى سعيد و الناس الزعالنة بتحب تشوف محتوى سعيد بردو عشان يبسطهم‬. However, studies have also suggested a more complex picture, showing age and gender-specific variations as counter-hedonic choices. One explanation of counter-hedonic selection says that media selection is not just hedonically driven but related to needs and feelings that encourage self-reflection, personal growth, and meaning. __________ ​ Studies Commonly Constructed In Media Psychology: -​ In psychological science research, a construct refers to an abstract concept or idea ‫ فكرة مبدئية‬that is not directly observable, but is used to explain a certain psychological phenomena. -​ A construct provides a common language and a shared meaning, by summarizing behavioural patterns that can be defined and operationalized to allow for data collection, analysis, and comparison..(‫بيشرحلنا ظواهر سلوكية ونفسية معينة بطريقة تخلينا نقيسها وناخد‬ ‫)منها معلومات أكتر لبعدين‬ -​ Constructs can be defined by: 1)​ Natural, discrete, and intrinsic ‫ جوهرية وطبيعية‬qualities such as age. 2)​ Socially constructed qualities ‫ متبناه من المجتمع‬such as beauty and race. 3)​ Scientifically useful qualities like socioeconomic status. 4)​ Complex constructs/arrangements ‫ البناءات أو المبادئ المعقدة‬like depression.  5)​ Attitudes composed of clusters of related features, however, not causal ‫مجموعة من المواقف أو التصرفات المرتبطة ببعضها لكنها ليست سببية لبعضها‬. -​ Constructs serve as building blocks for constructing theories (‫)المبادئ بتساعدنا نطلع بنظريات‬, as they specify theoretical and nominal definitions that provide clarity for analysis and allow researchers to link their studies to the work of others. __________ ​ Examples on Constructs Found In Media Psychology Research: -​ Addiction: 1)​ Addiction is a complex behavioural pattern with specific diagnostic criteria ‫هو سلوك نفسي مركب له معايير تشخيص محددة‬. 2)​ The word “addiction” is frequently used to represent problematic media use. 3)​ There is a criteria for measurement and validity ‫ قواعد لقياس و تأكيد‬of various media addictions ‫لحاالت إدمان وسائل اإلعالم‬, which can be under debate. However, common criteria are: -​ Compulsive use despite negative consequences. -​ Preoccupation ‫االنشغال الدائم بوسائل اإلعالم‬. -​ Loss of control. -​ Difficulty reducing involvement. -​ Aggression: 1)​ Psychologists define aggression as “any range of behaviours intended to cause harm or injury to others, either physically or verbally”. 2)​ The relationship between media violence ‫ محتوى العنف المنشور على وسائل اإلعالم‬and aggression has been extensively researched and debated, highlighting challenges of defining, standardizing, and measuring of abstract concepts. -​ Body Image: 1)​ “Body Image” refers to an individual’s perception, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes toward their own body, including its appearance, size, shape, and functionality. 2)​ “Body Image” is a construct that has been the subject of extensive research on media representation, photo alteration and filters, and social comparison.  3)​ “Body Image” can be measured in different ways, as scales are designed to reflect specific topics ‫له وحدات قياس مختلفة حسب كل دراسة أو بحث‬, such as body appreciation and body image dissatisfaction. -​ Depression & Anxiety: 1)​ Depression is a mental health construct that encompasses/emphasizes a persistent feeling of sadness, low mood, or loss of interest and pleasure in activities. 2)​ Depression often presents with anxiety, which is a construct that refers to excessive or persistent worry, fear, or apprehension. 3)​ Mental Disorders such as depression, anxiety, and addiction have been topics of considerable concern when it comes to social media and video games use. 4)​ Depression and anxiety are clinical diagnoses, and accurate measures reflect specified diagnostic criteria. -​ Personality: 1)​ A personality refers to “a unique set of characters, traits, or patterns of behaviour that define an individual’s distinctiveness and consistency across different situations”. 2)​ “The Big Five Model” or “The Five-factor Model” is one of the most common approaches regarding personality research in the media psychology field. 3)​ The model conceptualizes personality as a collection of five stable traits, and each trait is measured by a group of behavioural tendencies. -​ Self Esteem: 1)​ “Self Esteem” is described as “an individual’s overall evaluation and perception of their self worth and value”. 2)​ Self esteem involves beliefs and feelings about one’s competence ‫قدرات‬, attractiveness, and significance. 3)​ Self esteem can influence people’s mental well-being and functioning. 4)​ Self esteem is frequently used as a construct when evaluating the emotional implication of social media use. -​ Social Comparison: 1)​ Social comparison is a universal behaviour that describes the evaluation of one’s relation to others to gain information about oneself or determine social standing (‫ مما يؤثر على االعتقاد في النفس ومكانتها االجتماعية‬،‫)النظر للنفس من خالل التعامالت مع الناس‬. 2)​ Social comparison has different levels of influence, orientation ‫توجيه‬, and context that are associated with either negative or positive outcomes. 3)​ Upward Social Comparison ‫ مقارنة النفس بما هم أعلى منها‬is often cited/considered as a negative effect of social media content on young women. -​ Well-being: 1)​ “Well-being” is a complex and subjective construct that describes the state of mental and physical health of an individual. 2)​ Well-being derives from two main sources, hedonic and eudaimonic (‫)الراحة والرفاهية‬. 3)​ Hedonic well-being emphasizes qualities of pleasure and positive emotions. 4)​ Eudaimonic well-being reflects long-term growth, self-fulfillment, and achieving meaning in life. 5)​ Both, hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being, are components that reflect how people experience and evaluate their lives. 6)​ The hedonic perspective is reflected in several theories in the field of media studies; however, there is an increasing attention among researchers on how media and technology can influence factors like self-reflection and empathy that contribute to eudaemonic well-being. __________ ​ How Violence is Portrayed In Media, And How It Influences Aggression: -​ Experimental Studies on Violent Content in Media and Their Effects on Aggression: 1)​ Early experimental studies suggested that watching violent content on TV, film, or even video games, could cause an increase in aggression when assessed after short-term exposure. 2)​ In typical media violence experiments, participants are randomly assigned to watch certain violent media content, then subsequent/following aggressive behaviours are assessed.  3)​ Over the past six decades, experimental studies found effects of violent media content on aggression across a wide variety of participants from different ages, gender, personality types, and consuming different media types as well. 4)​ Some experimental studies found statistical interactions with personal factors, suggesting that some types of people may be more or less susceptible/sensitive to brief media violence effects. However, these findings were relatively rare. 5)​ Some studies have failed to find significant effects of media violence on aggression levels of individuals, which could often be results of poor sampling or poor methodologies used. However, given the statistical nature of behavioral and medical science research, even well-conducted studies can achieve null/invalid results. 6)​ In general, meta-analyses of experimental studies of TV, film, and video game violence violence effects have demonstrated that exposure to violent media content is a causal risk factor for later aggressive behavior. 7)​ Many experimental studies have assessed/evaluated the theoretically important process underlying media violence. Studies have included mediating process variables, such as aggressive thinking, aggressive feelings, aggression arousal. Empirical studies have supported the claim of video games also increasing the dehumanization of opponents. 8)​ Other experimental studies have found that media violence exposure leads to desensitization ‫ إنخفاض التأثر بالعنف أو بالمحتوى العنيف‬to physiological and behavioural levels. -​ Cross-sectional Studies: 1)​ Cross-sectional studies assess the association among variables that should or should not be correlated with each other, based on theoretical predictions ‫تدرس االرتباطات بين العناصر التي يمكن في العادة أن تكون مرتبطة أو حتى غير مرتبطة‬. 2)​ A major strength point regarding cross-sectional studies is that it can study real world measures of violent/aggressive behaviours ethically/from an ethical perspective. 3)​ Individually, cross-sectional studies cannot provide strong causal evidence that a specific variable (ex: exposure to violent media content) causes changes in another variable (ex: aggression levels for individuals). However, cross-sectional studies, individually and collectively, can provide studies on causal theoretical models ‫ تختبر النظريات اللي ناقشت سببية المواضيع‬by providing falsification opportunities and by testing and ruling out alternative explanations.  4)​ From early to recent cross-sectional studies, the research consistently yields/supports the positive associations between media violence exposure and aggression. As multiple meta-analyses over the long history of media violence research have supported these conclusions. 5)​ Media violence exposure is often assessed using self-report measures of favorite or most frequently watched media show or program or film or game (‫)المتفرج هو اللي بيمأل األختبار عن نفسه وعن المحتوى اللي بيتفرج عليه‬, which is assessed later for violent content by researchers and experts. 6)​ Aggression is often measured a trait-level variable ‫عنصر صفة انسانية‬, via observers of the individual, reports of aggressive or violent behavior, or documented history of aggressive or violent behaviour. -​ Longitudinal Studies and Evidence: 1)​ Longitudinal studies provide stronger causal conclusions than cross-sectional studies. 2)​ Relevant variables (ex: media violence exposure and aggression) are assessed at two or more reasonably separated points in time (‫)كل عنصر منهم بندرسه على وقت مختلف و نفهمه لوحده االول‬. Then one can test whether media violence exposure at one point in time, and violent or aggressive behaviour, at another point in time, after statistically controlling the variable, aggression or violence, in the first measurement. 3)​ Dozens of longitudinal studies confirm the positive link between media violence exposure and later aggression. __________ ​ News Coverage of Violence: -​ News reports of real-life violence can also lead to negative consequences and effects on viewers. -​ A study has shown more than 70% of 100 news channels examined led newscasts with crime-related stories, which demonstrates the prevalence ‫ غلبة أو أنتشار‬of violence reported in the news. -​ Sensationalism ‫ اإلثارة‬has always been an important part of news reporting. -​ News outlets often dramatize and overemphasize violent crimes. -​ Selective news reporting of crimes and violence on TV is problematic, as it could lead viewers into believing that criminals are more numerous and more dangerous than they typically are. -​ Some research link news reports of sensational violent behaviour to increased societal-level violence of viewers. However, newer and better research methodologies are needed to confirm or disconfirm this hypothesis. __________ ​ Negative Effects of News Coverage of Violence -​ News violence can have multiple effects on audience members, such as: 1)​ Eliciting/influencing negative emotions and reactions. 2)​ Causing greater anxiety and negative feelings for viewers, as discovered by experimental studies. 3)​ Specifically impacting children and adolescents. -​ Studies have shown that more exposure to TV news is associated with children estimating a higher number of murders in a nearby big city. -​ Studies have shown that watching news coverage of acute mass violence ‫العنف الجماعي‬, Was positively associated with anxious emotional reactions and perceived personal threat among US adolescents. -​ Crime appearing normal on TV news coverage can lead people to view the world as a dangerous and hostile place. -​ Exposure to terrorism news stories has been positively linked to the increase of fearful beliefs, stereotypical opinions, and support of policies that are harmful to stereotyped groups. __________ ​ News Coverage of Violence and Desensitization: -​ A 2008 study surveyed adults from several US communities to assess news consumption habits and crime perceptions, the study found that exposure to local news reports was negatively associated with perceptions of severe violent crimes, suggesting a habituation effect. -​ A 2020 study randomly assigned undergraduates to watch five news clips of terrorist acts or a news report on terrorism, the participants in both groups revealed negative affective reactions to the content. However, there was a finding of a decline in negative effects for participants who watched more clips. Which means that participants' emotional reactions declined with repeated exposure.