Chapter 2: Research Enterprise (PDF)

 Essentials of critical thinking I. Ask questions Intellectual curiosity : don't think everything at face value.. 2 Defin...

 Essentials of critical thinking I. Ask questions Intellectual curiosity : don't think everything at face value.. 2 Define the problem. 3 Examine the evidence. 4 Analyze biases and assumptions 5. Avoid emotional reasoning. 6 Don't oversimplify. Consider 7 alternative interpretations 8 Tolerate Uncertainty (better to say "I don't know" Essence of scientific method Assumption : even - GoalsInclude : measure - describing and understanding variables - prediction , application, control two steps : Formulating hypothesis Should be - unbiased , reliable , valid employ operational definitions - 2) Testing the hypothesis - conceptualize the problem Define operationalize hypothesis - or Collect data analyze Results conclusions - , , , Interpret research Conclusions and revise theory - Advantages : Clarity and precision , Intolerance and error Data collection 1. Direct observation - take training-clear what you are looking for-using direct measure. 2 Interviews reliable) one on one Questionnaires (mental tests) Psychological tests (must be Valid and - - - 3. Physiological recordings - monitor and measure real-time Parameters - data on heart rate , brain activity , muscle Contractions  Archival records - medical records , Census data , whether reports Research Methods Experiment - Manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed Hypothesis-researchers prediction (watching Ty violent - increased childa aggression in ↑ variable Sample - Participants in the Study (60 Kindergarten Students ( Independent variable The condition the researcher varies Signing people to different groups ex : Watching TV ! - - 2 * random assignment (putting students in random grasettingavoid biases violent eular Confound= Inherent within a group Dependent variable - affected by manipulation of the IY. results dependent the Independent - are on the either Ty aggression among Kindergarten children after watching - program - How does x (14) affect Y (DV) ? (30 Kids) Experimental group - "Special treatment-watch violent TY control group - wasregular TV - no "special treatment" IV Type of Candy - > DV memory Hyp-consuming Chocolate will lead to better memory compared to plain sugar Candies experimental who received the chocolate candies (20) group - Control group - received the plain sugar Candies (20) Experimental designs different condition is Exposinggroup to two measure design > - repeated Manipulate more than one Independent variable - allows for study interactions between variables Omg Zig Drug DrugOmg 2mg EX 2mg RT. R T. Time omg of MOTR T. R T. Day use more than one dependent variable more complete picture of Eve R T R T obtains.. - a effect of independent variable  Strengths Conclusions about and affect be drawn - cause can Limitations - artificial nature of experiments - ethical and practical issues Descriptive/correlational Methods Methods-us d when a researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study Naturalistic observation - watching things happen in their natural environment without interfering. Observing animals in the wild to see how they behave without disturbing or changing their behavior. case studies Diving deep Into particular person situation to really what's like going - or a gasp on. Zooming in on a specific individual or event to uncover details and connections that help understand behaviors Surveys Ask people questions to find out what they feel/ think. - Statistics - mathematics used to organize , summarize , and interpret numerical data obtained in either experimental or correlation studies. Two types-descriptive , inferential Descriptive - used to organize and describe data Central tendency Finding average score in set of data. Figuring out the most common/representative - value of the data , (mean , median or model variability-checking how much data points differ from each other. Range/spread of scores in a set of data to see how similar they are. correlation - two things are connected or related. Changes in one variable to changes in another variable , understand how factors Influence each other. Measures of central technology Scores : 24423666546 # of scores : N = Il FrequentScore: Mode = 6  Middle Score : Median = 4 Average : Mean =: X 4.4 M , X : population mean which measure of central tendency most accurately depicts the typical score ? 22344456666 Mode = 6 Median : 4 Mean : 4. 4 Typical Score ? 25 * Median would be the most desiative of the data set Measures of variability 22344456666 ? spread of distribution = Range 4 highest #-lowest # = 6 - 2 = Standard Deviation how far average the scores are from the for group (population mple - an mean a -Meantheaveragea am mean mean SD * o cost a #X- X = Deviation score * M S Correlation /descriptive Statistics) r = 89-Correlation Coefficient W = -. 89 = Inverse When two variables are related to each other , they are correlated correlation - numerical index of degree of relationship - expressed as a # between O and I be positive can or negative - - #'s closer to 1) + or -) indicate stranger relationship Perfect correlation - perfect straight line - Scattered data-data points scattered around a straight line , correlation is not perfect - overall shape of data suggests linear trend Correlation is strong a ,. Correlation Strength - Scatter Increases , correlation decreases - Variables weaken - Correlation close to 0 is a weak or near-zero relationship. Positive vS Negative Correlation - Positive = variables Increase - Negative = variables more in opposite directions. Predicting with correlation - helps predict value of one variable based on the other. - Accuracy of predictions depend on the strength of correlation - more scatter , less precise predictions will be. Limitation - Conclude Cannot cause and. effect eg Income ↑ self-esteme. ↑ Education Self-esteem ↑ Income ↑ Education Relationships between Income and self-esteem may be meditated by years of education Descriptive statistics Cigarets Anxiety 10 16 20 24 20 38 30 32 40 32 99 73 %. mode 20 32 95 44 %. median 20 28 68. 26 % * Mean 24 26 SD 11 7 Statistics O Inferential : laws of probability used to Interpret the data - draw conclusions as to whether or not the resultsSupport the hypothesis  Interpret data and draw Conclusions - Are the results due to chance Statistical Significance : exists when the probability of the findings being due to chance is very low Ho Regect null Most - Wull Hyp : No effect = due to chance & alpha =. 051 tail or 2 tail depend on prediction S inte Eos ristent - Olz tail - Alternative Hip : Prediction 5/100 would get value due to chance error % area under 2 tail-civicle by half curve S% = 0. 25 Research concerns Problem Solution confounding variables - random assignment ; large samples Experimenter bias double-blind - bias sampling data adjust accordingly - examine and Distortions in Self-report clata : - Social desirability bias , response set, memory error, misunderstand question - Placebo effect Control groups ; Single blind Ethics in psychological research The question of deception The question of animal research controversy among psychologists and the public - Ethical Standards for research : the American psychological association (APA) (CPA) Ensures both human and animal subjects are treated with dignity