Chapter 7 and 8: Political and Social Stratification PDF

OBJECTIVES Explain the concepts of politics, power, and authority Define legitimacy Differentiate the types of authority Distinguish the types of political structures or organizations and institutions that have existed over time Cite concrete examples related to the political concepts...

OBJECTIVES Explain the concepts of politics, power, and authority Define legitimacy Differentiate the types of authority Distinguish the types of political structures or organizations and institutions that have existed over time Cite concrete examples related to the political concepts tackled , What is Politics? Refers to activities through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live. It involves the dynamics of conflict resolution and cooperation, as well as the exercise of power  What is Power? Refers to the ability to do something in order to achieve a desired outcome. A person with power has the capability to control people or make them do something that they would not do otherwise The social Scientists emphasize the notion that power involves a relationship - there is one who exercise power and another who is subject to it. What is Authority? Is legitimate power A person who has authority has the right to exercise power. The exercise of authority means that the person who exercise power is obeyed by the people because he/she is recognized as the rightful or legitimate ruler or leader.  HISTORY Bands during the prehistoric period were only comprised of family members and their leadership structure was less complicated and simple. Since the concerns of bands were very basic, such as the collection of food or finding a place to settle in, the one who assumed the role of the leader did not hold his or her position permanently. He or she was recognized as the leader mainly because of the skills that he or she possessed, particularly in hunting. The establishment of larger communities such as tribes and chiefdoms paved the way for more complex forms of organizations where leadership was no longer simply based on skills. Other bases of ligitimacy of leadership came about. For instance, because tribes were mainly compromised of clans, the headman was actually the leader of his relatives which meant that the ties between him and his subjects were personal.  TRENDS Consequently, as societies further progressed from bands to nations, political structures and institutions evolved in different forms. Following are several trends that have been observed pertaining to the development of political structures and institutions throught the centuries: increased population density large surplus of resources and wealth greater social inequality less reliance on kinship relations as basis of political structures increased internal and external conflict increase power and responsibility of leaders increased burden on the population to support political leaders y LEGITIMACY Originated from the latin word Legitimare, which means "to declare lawful," and is broadly defined as "rightfulness." Confers an order or command an authoritative or binding character, thus transforming power into authority.  LEGITIMACY Max Weber studied the transformation of societies and observed that the bases of legitimacy of rule vary in different types of societies. He came up with three types of authority: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. For Weber, there must be an explanation or justification why certain people rise to positions of authority or superiority and why they are obeyed. Thus, the important question to be asked is what makes a rule or a law accepted and obeyed by people. The three types of authority identified by Weber are what he referred to as the "ideal or pure types."  Traditional Authority In many societies, authority is based on a system that is believed to have "always existed." This is what is referred to as traditional authority. Some people have this type of authority because they inherited it or they occupy a position that has been passed on to them. Examples of traditional authority are those exercised by elders in a tribe or an indigenous people's group, as well as by monarchs who have inherited their power and authority.  Charismatic Authority Charismatic authority is based on the presumed special and extraordinary characteristics or qualities possessed by a certain individual. People with charisma are also often seen as "born leaders" and "heroes". Charisma is generally considered a gift or an innate quality unique to a person, but there are also instances when it can be manufactured through the use of propaganda. However, charismatic authority is the most unstable type of authority as leaders may eventually "lose" their charisma when people's views regarding them change. Death or an illness may also diminish the level of charisma of a certain authority figure.  Legal-Rational Authority The most typical type of authority, in modern societies. Power and authority in a legal-rational context are legitimized by a clearly defined, set of written rules and laws. Leaders can rightfully wield authority if they obtain their positions according to established procedures such as elections or through appointment. Heads of governments such as presidents and prime ministers posses legal-rational authority. Among the three types of authority, a legal-rational system has the highest degree of stability. a h POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS Anthropologists define political organizations as "the groups within a culture that are responsible for public decision- making and leadership, maintaining social cohesion and order, protecting group rights, and ensuring safety from external threats." POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES Political and leadership structures have evolved as societies progressed over time. From the emergence of simple bands, tribes, and chiefdoms, to the establishment of modernnation-states, different types of political organizations and leadership structures emerged as social interactions underwent transformations. The earlier types of societies such as bands and tribes were basically dominated by personal and familial ties as these were comprised of families and clans. The leader was seen as the head of the community who ensured peace and security within society. He was seen as a patriarch or a patron and people depended on him for many things.  POLITICAL DYNASTY AND POLITICAL CLIENTELISM Political Dynasty are believed to have always existed even in advanced democratic states. A "dynasty" refers to a succession from rulers from the same line of descent. Thus, relatives who stay in power-specifically, members of one family who continuously hold elective political positions--are considered members of a political dynasty. Meanwhile, political clientelism (or clientelistic politics) is defined by Susan Stokes as "giving material goods in return for electoral support." The relationship involves two parties: the patron (politician) and the client (voter). These two political trends continue to be a challenge to the Philippine political system. I l  ONSET OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The onset of the Industrial Revolution brought about significant changes in the economic, social, and political life of societies. Most significant of these changes was the rise of the modern nation-state. The terms "nation" and "state" are often used interchangeably in everyday life. However, the distinctions between these two have to be recognized. A nation consists of a distinct population of people bound together by a common culture, history, and tradition who are typically concentrated within a specific geographic region. The state, on the other hand, is a political unit that has sovereignty-the legitimate and ultimate authority of the state-over an area of territory and the people within it. In an attempt to clarify the distinction between the nation and the state, it has been pointed out that the nation has two aspects--a cultural community and a political community. However, not all nations are recognized as states. Likewise, a state is not equivalent to a single nation and may in fact be composed of several nations. For example, Taiwan asserted its independence from China and established its own government. However, many states have not recognized Taiwan's status as an independent state and some consider it as a province of China. Thus, a state is a political unit that encompasses several communities, has a bureaucracy, and has leaders that possess legitimate power.  ONSET OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION In contrast to the leaders of bands, tribes, and chiefdoms, leaders of sates have more responsibilities such as the main enapreservand order, securing starte territory, engaging in international relations, and preserving social control. Weber observed that the processes of rationalization and bureaucratization that happened in Western European societies were a consequence of industrialization. The expansion of economic activittes led to the rationalization of economic function of individuals which n turn paved the way for growth of bureaucracy. The term bureaucracy means "ruled by officials." For Weber, the bureaucracy is characterized by "rationality, rule-governed behaviors, and impersonal behavior."  POLITICAL LIBERATION This refers to the emergence of liberal-democratic regimes that are characterized by a representative form of democracy where political office is gained through formal, competitive elections in many Western societies. Thus, institutions such as political parties emerged. Principles such as political equality and electoral choice also developed. This led to the emergence of an impersonal and legally-based type of leadership and this soon became the norm in many European societies. However, not all societies around the world went through the same processes experienced in the West. For example, in the Philippines, the attempt to establish political institutions patterned after the American model did not necessarily bring about the type of liberal democracy existing in the United States. Scholars agree that this is largely due to a variety of factors, including the type of political culture that exists in societies.  POLITICAL CULTURE Refers to the pattern of orientation to political objects such as parties, government, and constitution, expressed in beliefs, symbols, and values. People generally acquire values and attitudes about politics and political institutions through the process of political socialization. Since societies have varied characteristics, the effects of certain processes and how institutions work may also differ. For example, the features of an ideal type of bureaucracy conceptualized by Weber were not necessarily observed in all societies. Since the bureaucracy was assumed to be a rational institution, the exercise of authority within the bureaucracy was expected to be impersonal. However, impersonality in the exercise of authority is something that is not present in all bureaucracies. Even in politics, the persistence of clientelism, which was typical in tribes and chiefdoms, indicates that the ties between a "patron" (or one who gives benefits) and a "client" (the recipient of the benefits) have not ceased to exist in some societies. Clientelistic behavior has also been observed even in the conduct of democratic elections. For example, in some areas in the Philippines, voters still tend to choose candidates whom they have personal ties with, particularly those who have served as their benefactors, and have provided them yarious forms of assistance such as paying for their medical expense. providing them jobs, and giving scholarships to their children. OBJECTIVES Examine stratification in society from different perspectives; Identify characteristics of the systems of stratifications; and Suggest ways to address local, national, and global inequalities.  WHAT IS STRATIFICATION? Social stratification refers to the division of large social groups into smaller groups based on categories determined by economics. Members of the society are arranged in a hierarchy based on their access to or control over basic economic resources. Social stratification gives rise to inequality in society, as members are distinguished by their membership in and relation to social groups and categories. Sociologists relate social stratification to social standing. In larger traditional societies and in several countries today, the common bases of social stratification include wealth, property, access to material and cultural goods, and access to political power. Race, gender, and religion are other identifiable bases of social stratification; and the influence of social stratification on politics and social relations differs from society to society. Related to the concept of social stratification and inequality is social exclusion. This refers to the process by which individuals are cut off from full involvement in the wider circles of society. People who are socially excluded due to poor housing, lack of employment, inferior schools, or limited transportation, may lack opportunities for self-improvement. For instance, homeless people are among the most marginalized in society, and their situation deprives them of the most basic amenities such as adequate shelter, food, and security. In the Philippines, the homeless are the most vulnerable and exploited groups in society and often have limited social, political, and economic opportunities. S SYSTEMS OF STRATIFICATION Sociologists distinguish between two primary systems of stratification, namely the closed and open systems. Closed systems impose rigid boundaries between social groups and limit interactions among members who belong to different social groups or occupy different levels in the social hierarchy. This system is also resistant to change, particularly in the social roles of its members. On the other hand, stratification in an open system is based on achievement, allowing more flexibility in social roles, increased social mobility, and better interaction among social groups and classes. Caste systems are closed stratification systems because people are unable to change their social standing. Caste systems promote belief in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher spiritual power rather than the promotion of individual freedom. People born into a caste society are socialized to accept their social standing. People are born into their social standing and will permanently remain in it throughout their lives. A caste system, therefore, promotes social inequality. People are assigned occupations regardless of their talents, interests, or potential. There are virtually no opportunities to improve one’s social position. For instance, in the Hindu caste tradition, people were expected to work in their caste's occupation and can only marry according to their caste. Reinforced by cultural values, accepting this social standing was considered a moral duty in India. SYSTEMS OF STRATIFICATION At present, the caste system in India has been officially dismantled, but certain rural areas continue to practice the tradition. However, in larger cities of India, people have more opportunities to choose their own career paths and marriage partners. One factor that contributed to the growing social mobility in India is the economic change brought about by increased opportunities for employment and the introduction of Western employment practices such as merit-based hiring. In South Africa, meanwhile, the previous caste system was largely based on race and the notion that white South Africans or Afrikaners were superior to black South Africans. In 1948, the South African government instituted apartheid, a system of racial segregation which lasted until 1994. Under this system, the rights and activities of black South Africans were curtailed, and the rule of white citizens was emphasized.  MERITOCRACY Meritocracy is another system of stratification that is determined by personal effort and merit. Social standing and advancement in this system is determined by how well a person performs his or her social role. High levels of effort will result in advancement, while insufficient effort will lead to an individual losing his or her social status. Meritocracy, however, remains an ideal and is only implemented in certain areas such as business and industry as well as certain positions in the civil service. Society, in general, still remains strongly influenced by other factors such as inheritance and the pressure to conform. e a THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL STRATIFICATION In the context of sociology, social stratification can be examined using three different theoretical perspectives, namely functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.  FUNCTIONALISM The functionalist perspective examines how the different aspects of society contribute to ensuring its stability and continued function. Functionalists believe that each part or aspect of society serves an important purpose. They also believe that social stratification is based on the intrinsic value of social activities or roles. The Davis-Moore hypothesis, introduced by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore in 1945, proposed that a social role that has a greater functional purpose will result in greater reward, and that stratification represents the inherently unequal value of different types of work. In short, certain tasks in society are more valued than others, and the individuals who are able to perform highly valued work are rewarded with greater income, prestige, and power in society. This fact motivates members of society to seek high-value positions and strive to perform better in their assigned roles. Social stratification is then necessary because it motivates individuals to be more efficient and productive in their tasks.  FUNCTIONALISM Additionally, stratification is further defined by the fact that highly demanding jobs that require more skills to perform can only be performed by a few, select individuals, Thus, highly skilled and greatly-rewarded workers, such as doctors and engineers, tend to be few. These individuals are well-educated and highly trained, and their employment leads them to occupy higher positions in the social hierarchy. On the other hand, other less-demanding jobs such as office workers can be performed with minimal training and skills and are thus done by members of the majority in society.  FUNCTIONALISM In 1953, Melvin Tumin proposed an alternative perspective on the significance of employment on social stratification. He criticized the Davis-Moore hypothesis and said that it was unable to consider situations where individuals of little talent or skill are able to access better opportunities or occupy higher positions in society, citing the example of media personalities who attain great social status but do not possess traits that would characterize them as productive citizens. Another phenomenon that defies the conventional functionalist view is inequality which is seen in unequal opportunities for education or employment due to race or gender. Tumin sees social stratification as being defined by the lack of opportunities for the less-privileged sectors of society. Social stratification then becomes a hindrance that prevents qualified people from occupying significant social roles.  CONFLICT THEORY Conflict theory takes a critical view of social stratification and considers society as benefitting only a small segment. Conflict theorists believe that stratification perpetuates inequality, and they draw many of their ideas from the works of Karl Marx. Marx believed that social stratification is influenced by economic forces and that relationships in society are defined by the factors of production. He considered society as being divided between two groups: the bourgeoisie or the capitalists who own the factors of production such as resources, land, and businesses; and the proletariat who are the workers that provide the manual labor needed to produce goods. The bourgeoisie belongs to the upper classes of society and gained wealth due to the profits from their businesses. Meanwhile, the proletariat belongs to the lower classes, lacks power and influence, and experiences great hardships. Marx believed that the inequality prevalent in societies causes workers to experience alienation, isolation, and great misery due to their powerless status. The inequalities brought about by social stratification lead to class conflict.  SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Symbolic interactionism refrains from looking into the larger structural factors that define social stratification and contribute to inequality and poverty. Instead, it examines stratification from a micro-level perspective and attempts to explain how people's social standing affects their everyday interactions. Social stratification, for symbolic interactionists, often leads people to interact with others within their own social class - people who have the same background, interests, and way of life. Social stratification, therefore, is a system that groups people together. Symbolic interactionists also observe that people's appearance reflects their perceived social standing. Housing, clothing, and transportation indicate social status, as do hairstyles, taste in food, music, or accessories, and personal style. The theory of conspicuous consumption refers to buying certain products to make a social statement about status. Carrying pricey but environment- friendly items or driving a luxury car could indicate a person's social standing. Some people buy expensive items even though they will never wear or use them. All of these symbols of stratification are deemed worthy of examination by interactionists.  SOCIAL MOBILITY Social mobility is the ability of individuals or groups to change their positions within a social stratification system. It also refers to how individuals progress from a lower to a higher social class, or even how individuals lose their status and occupy a much lower social position in society. A major factor that influences mobility is economic status, particularly the accumulation of wealth. There are two main types of social mobility. Upward mobility refers to an upward movement in social class. Examples of upward mobility in society are people who have gained wealth and individuals who rose to fame or power like politicians and celebrities. Other means by which individuals experience upward social mobility is through education, employment, or marriage. Downward mobility refers to the lowering of an individual's social class. This may be brought about by economic setbacks, unemployment, illness, and dropping out of school.  SOCIAL MOBILITY When considering how people from different generations experience social mobility, the phenomenon can be classified as either intragenerational or intergenerational mobility. Intragenerational mobility focuses on the experience of people who belong to the same generation. For example, siblings may come from the same family and background but depending on their choices and actions, one sibling may be considered more well-off than others. Intragenerational mobility also considers the changes in a person's social standing throughout his or her lifetime. A factory worker or a janitor who takes time to attend night classes and earn a degree may find himself or herself eventually employed in a different and much more rewarding profession, leading to a better life in the future.  SOCIAL MOBILITY Intergenerational mobility, on the other hand, refers to the changes in social standing experienced by individuals belonging to different generations. An example of this may be a successful businessman who was raised by lower-income parents, or a powerful politician who traces his or her roots to generations of poor immigrants. Patterns of intergenerational mobility can reflect long-term social changes. Large-scale changes in society can result in the improvement or decline of the conditions and status of a large group of people. This is known as structural mobility. The Industrial Age, for instance, resulted in massive upward mobility that benefitted many countries and improved the lives of people across social classes and groups. Economic crises such as a recession and the loss of jobs, however, can bring about economic decline resulting in the downward social mobility of large groups of people.  SOCIAL INEQUALITY Societies are usually characterized by divisions. Social divisions reflect an unequal distribution of status, wealth, and power within society and result in individuals and groups occupying different positions of influence and power. Social inequality may be expressed differently from society to society but is often seen in distinctions in class, gender, religion, ethnicity, and age. Different theories and perspectives strive to explain the factors that bring about social divisions and inequality. t  SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND POVERTY Social class and stratification are important concepts in understanding social inequality. Social classes are derived from the inequalities brought about by the possession and control of resources, as well as access to opportunities for education and employment. Karl Marx considered class as an essential characteristic based on the economic structure of society. Max Weber, however, defined stratification through the concept of status which he defined as the esteem or 'social honor" given to certain individuals or groups. In his discussion on status, Weber focused on the concept of "market position," which refers to the ability of individuals or groups to engage in economic activities. Their success in economic transactions is determined by personal power, knowledge, skills, and the scarcity of resources.  SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND POVERTY Warner, Meeker, and Eels suggested that class is influenced by cultural factors such as lifestyle and consumption patterns. Lifestyle choices have increasingly defined individual identities and are a growing basis for social prestige apart from occupation and wealth.  SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND POVERTY For instance, individuals may decide to embrace a vegetarian lifestyle and this choice is reflected in their behavior and certain actions such as the non-consumption of meat. A number of individuals have gained distinction in society for advancing the vegetarian lifestyle and have become "celebrities" in their own right. The concept of class is evident in many industrialized societies, which are generally divided into the upper class, middle class, and lower or working class. The upper class is usually composed of the rich, well-born, powerful, or a combination of these. They usually wield the greatest political power. The middle class-the most contested of the three categories-refers a group of people who fall socioeconomically between the lower and upper classes.  SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND POVERTY Lower class, or working class, refers to those employed in low-paying wage jobs with very little economic security. They are also sometimes called blue-collar workers. The term underclass is also utilized to refer to the segment of society that is not only affected by poverty but is also subject to social exclusion. The underclass often experiences impediments that hinder them from participating in society. Income, affluence, and poverty are also important factors that define social inequality. Those belonging to the upper class in society have larger and steadily increasing incomes compared to the lower classes, who have low incomes. The distribution of wealth and income remains highly unequal in many societies, and recent developments such as globalization have contributed to the growing gap between the rich and the poor. Poverty is most prevalent in developing countries.  SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND POVERTY In the Philippines, government statistical data show that poverty incidence in the country was about 21.6 percent in 2015. Among the regions, those in Mindanao have the greatest incidence of poverty. The Fourth Quarter of 2017 survey of the Social Weather Stations found that 44 percent of families consider themselves poor. The British charitable organization Oxfam International, in a commissioned survey released in 2018, states that eighty-two percent of the wealth generated in 2017 went to the richest one percent of the global poincrease in their wear billion people wen rising the poorest half of the world saw no increase in their wealth. Additionaly, poverty and declining incomes were most promounced in certain groups such as ethnic minorities, women, and the uneducated.  Poverty is defined according to two types. Absolute poverty refers to the lack of basic resources like food, clean water, safe housing, and access to health care nceded to maintain a quality lifestyle. The World Bank specifically defines absolute poverty as living on less than Ƹ1.25 daily. It is measured by comparing personal or household income or expenses with the cost of buying the necessary goods and services. Relative poverty, meanwhile, applies to those who may be able to obtain basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living compared to the rest of society. Finally, subjective poverty is a type of poverty that is defined by how an individual evaluates his or her actual income against his or her expectations and perceptions.  GENDER INEQUALITY Gender inequality is another important aspect of social inequality. Gender refers to the culturally imposed characteristics that define masculinity and femininity. Gender is different from sex, which refers to biological and anatomical differences that distinguish males from females. Sex is an unchanging aspect of a person's identity while gender, being a social construct, is a fluid concept that changes depending on the mores, norms, and values espoused by a particular society.  Gender is particularly important in determining the gender role of individuals, which refers to specific tasks and behaviors expected of a person by virtue of his or her sex. Gender identity is another important concept which refers to how a person identifies himself or herself as belonging to a particular gender. Patriarchy refers to the socially sanctioned and systematic domination of males over females, and this is expressed in various aspects of society. For example, men are the traditionally recognized head of the family and when couples are married, the woman usually takes on the family name of her husband. Though a number of recent social changes have gradually led to greater gender equality, patriarchy still prevails in many societies.  The increased awareness of gender inequality also gave rise to studies that proposed varied views on the nature of gender inequality in society. Functionalists stress the notion that gender differences and the sexual division of labor contribute to social stability and integration. However, feminist approaches reject the idea that gender inequality is natural. Liberal feminists explain gender inequality in terms of social and cultural attitudes. They believe that sexism and discrimination can be countered by political, social, and economic reforms like giving equal access to both men and women. Radical feminists, on the other hand, argue that men are responsible for the exploitation of women through patriarchy. From this perspective, nothing short of a "sexual revolution" could transform society and end gender inequality. Black feminism, another feminist strand, identifies factors such as class and ethnicity, in addition to gender, as essential for understanding the oppression experienced by non-white women.  The increased awareness of gender inequality also gave rise to studies that proposed varied views on the nature of gender inequality in society. Functionalists stress the notion that gender differences and the sexual division of labor contribute to social stability and integration. However, feminist approaches reject the idea that gender inequality is natural. Liberal feminists explain gender inequality in terms of social and cultural attitudes. They believe that sexism and discrimination can be countered by political, social, and economic reforms like giving equal access to both men and women. Radical feminists, on the other hand, argue that men are responsible for the exploitation of women through patriarchy. From this perspective, nothing short of a "sexual revolution" could transform society and end gender inequality. Black feminism, another feminist strand, identifies factors such as class and ethnicity, in addition to gender, as essential for understanding the oppression experienced by non-white women. ETHNICITY AND RACE ISSUES Ethnicity is the feeling of affinity or loyalty towards a particular population, cultural group, or territorial area. The term is complex because it has both racial and cultural overtones. It is a form of cultural identity, although it operates at a deeper and more emotional level. Race, on the other hand, refers to a group of people who share a common ancestry. It refers to physical or genetic differences among humankind that distinguish one group of people from another such as skin and hair color, physique, and facial features. Race is a scientifically and politicallv controversial term. Scientific evidence suggests that there is no such thing as "race" in the sense of a species-type difference between people. The prevalence of cultural stereotypes regarding certain "races" often influence political action, such as the introduction of discriminatory policies and practices such as segregation.  Racism refers to a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the superior treatment of one racial or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of another racial or ethnic group. Displacement and scapegoating are psychological mechanisms associated with prejudice and discrimination. In displacement, feelings of hostility become directed against objects that are not the real origin of these anxieties; those at the receiving end become scapegoats. Prejudice involves holding "stereotypes" or preconceived views that are often based on faulty generalizations about members of a race or particular ethnic or other groups. Prejudice also manifests as close- mindedness or an inflexible way of thinking regarding certain ideas and beliefs in society. Discrimination, meanwhile, refers to actions or behavior of members of a dominant social group that negatively impacts other members of society that do not belong to the dominant group.  In the Philippines, which is comprised of many ethnolinguistic groups, ethnicity can be a source of conflict. A prominent example of this fact is the armed conflict in Mindanao where Muslim groups are fighting for their right to have more autonomy or establish a Bangsamoro or a Moro state. Other groups, especially indigenous groups like the Lumads, experience greater difficulty in accessing resources, and availing of education, employment, and health services. These groups also suffer from other stereotypes and discriminatory attitudes from fellow Filipinos. Indigenous peoples have been repeatedly subjected to displacement, although there are now laws that are supposed to protect their rights.  In the Philippines, which is comprised of many ethnolinguistic groups, ethnicity can be a source of conflict. A prominent example of this fact is the armed conflict in Mindanao where Muslim groups are fighting for their right to have more autonomy or establish a Bangsamoro or a Moro state. Other groups, especially indigenous groups like the Lumads, experience greater difficulty in accessing resources, and availing of education, employment, and health services. These groups also suffer from other stereotypes and discriminatory attitudes from fellow Filipinos. Indigenous peoples have been repeatedly subjected to displacement, although there are now laws that are supposed to protect their rights.  OTHER MINORITY Other groups that may be considered belonging to the minority include persons with disabilities (WDs), the elderly, certain religious groups, and communities living in isolated areas. The inequalities and discrimination experienced by these soups do not fall neatly within the category of class, gender, ethnicity, and race. flowever, their experiences indicate that inequality exists in many forms and may be expressed in various ways in society.  Primaty issues involving these groups include lack of access to resources and opportunities. A number of minorities also experience discrimination and even violence. PWDs find it very difficult to gain employment in certain industries and are often treated differently from their more able counterparts. solated communities are often denied basic services such as infrastructure, electricity, and adequate and clean water supply. The elderly also experience difficulties with regard to employment and often find it difficult to meet their needs without assistance. Certain religious groups have to deal with being subjected to stigma or isolation because other members of society perceive their beliefs and behavior as "peculiar" or "dangerous." Religious discrimination is not limited to fringe beliefs of so-called sects. Even mainstream religions can be discriminated against. An example is Islam, whose adherents face discrimination and even outright hostility because of the perceived notion that their religion espouses violence and terrorism.  GLOBAL INEQUALITY Just as society is defined by inequality and division as seen in the existence of varied social classes, the world is also defined by extreme differences in wealth and poverty. Global stratification refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige on a global basis, highlighting patterns of social inequality and resulting. in people having vastly different lifestyles and opportunities both within and among the nations of the world.  There are a variety of theories that explain global inequality. Market-oriented theories such as modernization theory claim that cultural and institutional barriers to development explain poverty in low-income countries. This theory believes that poverty can be eliminated by overcoming or adjusting cultural values like negative attitudes regarding work, limiting government intervention in economic affairs, and encouraging high rates of savings and investment. The nations of East Asia, for example, have successfully made the transition from low-income to high-income economies primarily through increased savings, an aggressive work ethic, and the fostering of a market economy. On the other hand, modernization theory has been criticized as mainly ethnocentric as well as implicitly labeling low-income economies as backward. Dependency theories claim that global poverty is the result of exploitation of poor countries by wealthy ones, thereby creating a cycle of dependence.  For dependency theorists, low-income countries are trapped in a cycle of structural and economic dependency on high-income countries. Low-income countries depend on high-income countries for infusion of economic capital. High-income countries also provide markets for raw materials coming from low-income countries. This relationship does not benefit the poorer nations, since they are not given the chance to be economically independent and attain development on their own. However, dependency theorists still argue that even though the economic fate of poor countries is ultimately determined by wealthy ones, some development is possible within dependent capitalist relations. Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore had high rates of dependency during the initial stages of their development but were able to attain economic development due to government reforms, astute economic planning, and implementing cultural changes that encouraged economic growth. The world-systems theory, meanwhile, focuses on the relationship among the 'core," "peripheral," and "semiperipheral" countries in the global economy. This theory also focuses on long-term trends in the global economy and global commodity chains that erase national borders. Finally, state-centered theories emphasize the role of governments in fostering economic development. These theories draw on the experiences of the newly-industrialized countries in East Asia like Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea.  The stratification of nations, in absolute terms, indeed highlights the growing inequality worldwide. According to Credit Suisse in 2017, almost half of the world's wealth is now owned by just one percent (1%) of the total population. In 2013, the wealth of the one percent richest people in the world amounted to USS 110 trillion, which is 65 times the total wealth of the bottom half of the world's population. Oxfam expressed concerns that if left unchecked, this wealth concentration will lead to "opportunity capture," which means that the lowest tax rates, the best education, the best health care, and political representation are claimed by the children of the rich. This can create dynamic and mutually reinforcing cycles of advantage that are transmitted across generations. This, however, will perpetuate the cycle of inequality and lead to a growing rift between the rich and poor. Social stratification involves the categorization of large social groups based on their control over basic resources. It therefore involves structural inequality associated with membership in each of these social categories or groups. Stratification systems are either closed, where there is little change in social position, or open, where there is movement and interaction between the layers. A caste system is a closed system in which social standing is based on ascribed social status or birth. Class svstems are open systems where achievement plays a role in determining social position. People fall into social classes based on wealth, income, education, and occupation. A meritocracy is a system of social stratification that confers standing based on personal worth, rewarding effort.