Psychology 270: Research Methods Chapter 4 PDF

PSYCHOLOGY 270: RESEARCH METHODS Chapter 4: Psychological Theories P R O J E C T U P D AT E S DO NOT make any changes to your survey; DO NOT use the “preview” feature or complete the survey yourself Data collection: Participate in each others’ surveys by November 17 15 surveys, e...

PSYCHOLOGY 270: RESEARCH METHODS Chapter 4: Psychological Theories P R O J E C T U P D AT E S DO NOT make any changes to your survey; DO NOT use the “preview” feature or complete the survey yourself Data collection: Participate in each others’ surveys by November 17 15 surveys, each < 5 minutes, can be completed in multiple sessions Please pay attention, provide high-quality data P R O J E C T U P D AT E S Each survey will give you a 4-digit code to confirm your participation Enter the code into the Canvas quiz You can opt out of any survey for any reason—see bottom of the quiz for an alternate assignment O T H E R U P D AT E S Exam 2 results will be posted during reading week No office hours during reading week SONA alternate assignment due November 17 (SONA participation can occur until the end of the term) CH A PT ER 4 : PSYCH OLOG I CA L T HEOR I ES 1. Phenomena and Theories 2. The Variety of Theories in Psychology 3. Using Theories in Psychological Research 4.1: PHENOMENA AND THEORIES Define the terms phenomenon and theory and distinguish between them Explain the purpose of scientific theories Explain why there are usually many plausible theories for any set of phenomena 4.1: PHENOMENA Phenomenon: Results observed reliably in systematic empirical research; established answer to a research question Examples: Blindsight, bystander effect, fundamental attribution error, McGurk effect, other-race effect, placebo effect, mere exposure effect, serial position effect, spontaneous recovery 4.1: PHENOMENA How do we confirm that a phenomenon holds true and actually exists? Replication: Conducting a study again, either exactly as it was or with modifications, to be sure it produces the same results 4.1 : WHY MIGHT PH ENOMENA NOT R E P L I C AT E ? Original results were a Type I error Replication study differed in important ways from the original study Moderators Contexts where the phenomenon occurs differently Can be related to participant demographics, personality, location, etc. Example: How well do you perform on a task when you’re being watched? It depends on how good you are! 4.1: PHENOMENA Psychology has effects; other sciences can have laws Laws imply phenomenon is universal, psychology often has exceptions or moderating factors 4.1 : TH EO RIES Theories: Coherent explanations or interpretations of one or more phenomena Explain variables, structure, process, function, or other principles not observed directly Organize bodies of evidence, related phenomena Can have multiple competing or complementary theories describing the same phenomenon 4.1 : TH EO RIES Example: Zajonc’s drive theory Being watched creates physiological arousal, increases likelihood of dominant (most common) response Good at something—success (social facilitation) Bad at something—failure (social inhibition) Provides an explanation of both social facilitation and social inhibition 4. 1 : R E L AT E D I D E A S Perspective or theoretical framework: Broad approach, more general than a theory (e.g., Biological perspective, feminist perspective) Model: Precise explanation often expressed in equations Hypothesis: Explanation that relies on just a few key concepts, prediction about phenomenon 4. 1 : W H AT A R E T H E O R I E S F O R ? Theories organize phenomena in ways that help us think about them Parsimony or Occam’s razor: A theory should only include as many concepts as are necessary to explain or interpret Enables other predictions for new situations (example: applying social support theories to social media contexts) Generation of new research questions 4. 1 : M U LT I P L E T H E O R I E S Many phenomena can be explained by multiple theories Can be complementary (explaining different aspects) or competing Example: Social support theories Buffering model: Support is only (or mostly) helpful during times of stress Main effects model: Support is always helpful, not any more or less helpful during times of stress 4.1: PHENOMENA AND THEORIES Define the terms phenomenon and theory and distinguish between them Explain the purpose of scientific theories Explain why there are usually many plausible theories for any set of phenomena 4. 2 : VA R I E T Y O F T H E O R I E S Describe three dimensions along which theories in psychology vary Give examples of several different types of theories in psychology 4.2: FORMALITY Formality: The extent to which the components of the theory and the relationships among them are specified clearly and in detail Informal end: Theories that consist of simple verbal descriptions Formal end: Theories expressed in mathematical equations 4.2: SCOPE Scope: The Number and diversity of the phenomena they explain or interpret Early psychological theories were broad; tend to be imprecise and difficult to test Broad theories tend to be less formal than narrow theories 4.2 : TH EO RETICAL A PPROACH 1. Functional Theories (“why”): Explain psychology in terms of function or purpose Example: Evolutionary psychology and infant attachment 2. Mechanistic Theories (“how”): Focus on specific variables, structures, and processes, and how they interact to produce the phenomena Example: Social support and health 4.2 : TH EO RETICAL A PPROACH 3. Stage theories: Series of stages people pass through as they develop or adapt Examples: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Erikson’s psychosocial stages, Piaget’s stages of cognitive development 4. Typologies: Provide organization by categorizing people or behaviour into types Examples: Basic emotions, personality dimensions 4. 2 : VA R I E T Y O F T H E O R I E S Describe three dimensions along which theories in psychology vary Give examples of several different types of theories in psychology 4.3 : USING TH EO RIES Explain how researchers in psychology test their theories Explain how psychologist reevaluate theories in light of new results Describe several ways to incorporate theory into your own research 4.3 : TH EO RY TESTING A ND REVISION Hypothetico-deductive method: The way researchers use theory by using a set of phenomena, choosing a theory to work with, and developing predictions that can be observed Researcher chooses theory Makes a prediction that should be observed if theory is correct (HYPOthesis) Conducts an empirical study to test the hypothesis Re-evaluates theory in light of new results and revises (DEDUCTion) 4.3 : CO NSTRUC TING A TH EO RY Must known phenomena in detail and any existing theories New theory must provide a coherent explanation or interpretation of phenomena and have some advantage Often start with an existing theory 4.3: DERIVING HYPOTHESES Theories and hypotheses always have an “if-then” relationship: If this theory is correct, then this hypothesis should be true Can be rephrased as questions Best hypotheses distinguish between competing theories Example: Two theories of social support 4. 3 : E V A L U AT I N G T H E O R I E S If the hypothesis is supported, the theory is strengthened If the hypothesis is not supported, the theory is weakened Could identify exceptions or areas where the theory does not apply New evidence can only strengthen a theory, never prove it: New evidence or moderating factors could emerge 4. 3 : E V A L U AT I N G T H E O R I E S What does it mean when a theory-driven hypothesis is not supported? Type II error Poor research design Theory is incorrect or not applicable to this context Many studies needed to accurately assess a theory 4. 3 : I N C O R P O R AT I N G T H E O R Y Turn to the literature to identify existing theories of the phenomena you are interested in Usually more than one plausible theory; may be complementary or competing Even if informal or limited, this practice is helpful Remember that theories are more than just common sense: Beware of confirmation bias (Opposites attract? Birds of a feather flock together?) 4.3 : USING TH EO RIES Explain how researchers in psychology test their theories Explain how psychologist reevaluate theories in light of new results Describe several ways to incorporate theory into your own research LOOK ING AHEAD Friday: Chapter 11, Presenting your research November 13 and 15: No class, midterm break Complete data collection assignment by November 17 W HY WA S T HE B ROO M L AT E FOR WORK ? IT OVERS WEPT !