Chapter 15 Social Studies–STEM Activities and Resources PDF

Chapter 15 Social Studies–STEM Activities and Resources: Enhancing the Content and Context for Learning Caroline R. Pryor Rui Kang Brandt W. Pryor Southern Illinois University Georgia College and State Educational research Edwardsville...

Chapter 15 Social Studies–STEM Activities and Resources: Enhancing the Content and Context for Learning Caroline R. Pryor Rui Kang Brandt W. Pryor Southern Illinois University Georgia College and State Educational research Edwardsville University Association Social studies topics and content provide rich learning opportunities for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learners that ground STEM concepts in real-world contexts. By drawing upon topics within each domain, teachers enable students to learn applied STEM concepts alongside civic and cultural concepts. Lessons that successfully engage students in both social studies and STEM topics are able to generate increased student interest, broaden and deepen learning, and better prepare students for entering society as engaged citizens. In these ways, integrated social studies and STEM activities provide powerful learning tools in the modern classroom. Furthermore, the development and implementation of such activities need not require a teacher to work alone. Many online resources that provide lesson plans are readily available for teachers to utilize. 262 Social Studies-STEM Activities  Chapter Outcomes When you complete this chapter, you should better understand and be able to explain the importance of integrating social studies and STEM lesson plans for instructors and students alike how integrating social studies and STEM activities may increase student interest in STEM effective ways to integrate social studies topics into STEM lesson plans why digital resources are an important tool for enhancing STEM and social studies lessons When you complete this chapter, you should be able to describe the benefits of social studies as a context for STEM learning identify STEM topics useful to augment social studies standards and topics select appropriate instructional and assessment strategies for social studies- STEM lessons use social studies activities and resources to enhance STEM lessons Chapter Overview This chapter begins with a brief introduction to a social studies-STEM (SS-STEM) curriculum followed by a more detailed section on emerging studies of this approach. Next, we illustrate how teachers may utilize a project-based inquiry approach described in this chapter to develop lessons in which social studies and STEM draw upon topics within each domain. More specifically, we provide (a) a table of ideas for SS-STEM project topics (e.g., surface water quality), (b) an example of major elements of an SS-STEM lesson plan (e.g., parabolas), (c) a table listing how sample topic areas might be used in curriculum units and lesson plans (e.g., Blueprint design methods to create a Dream House), and (d) additional readings that include helpful activities and resources for developing your own lesson plans (e.g., The Olympics). Social Studies-STEM Activities 263  “A social studies perspective is academically sound, interdisciplinary, and integrative.” — Robert Stahl, President (1994–1995), National Council for the Social Studies “Our society is mission oriented. Its mission is resolution of problems arising from social, technical, and psychological conflicts and pressures. Since these problems are not generated within any single intellectual discipline, their resolution is not to be found within a single discipline… In society, the nonspecialist and synthesizer are king.” — Alvin W. Weinberg, nuclear physicist, Reflections on Big Science (1965, p. 145) The social studies, which includes such disciplines as history, political science, geography, economics, anthropology, and psychology in the K–12 context, has historically carried the nation’s educational mission of preparing the next generation of its citizens to participate in a democratic society. Despite this core mission, social studies is often lower among the hierarchy of content areas taught in the school curriculum. In a standardized testing environment, social studies is placed below English and mathematics, courses with graduation consequences attached to them. In part, this placement is due to the challenge we face in the post-No Child Left Behind era in which we hope to engage students in pursuing careers in STEM, as we seek to meet the employment demands of these fields. In response, the federal government has dedicated budgetary funds to be invested in STEM education. As social studies education struggles to maintain its foothold in the K–12 curriculum, students receive less exposure to the importance of social-scientific connections. Many citizens either do not participate in civic duties, such as national elections or global interaction, or are unaware that their participation is critical to the vibrancy and continuation of a democratic state (Davis, 2003). This participatory challenge holds long- term potential impact on international relations, economics, productivity, and resource development (Weinstock et al., 2011). A collaborative effort to move from a discipline-based curriculum to an integrated, SS- STEM-linked curriculum anchored in STEM project-based learning (PBL) is a powerful response to the resource challenges educators are facing. In support of such integration, the National Research Council (2012) notes that one of the main purposes for STEM education is to equip the next generation of citizens with the necessary knowledge and skills to engage in public discussions on science-related issues and policies and to make informed personal and civic decisions. 264 Social Studies-STEM Activities  PBL: Benefits for Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning As noted in other chapters in this volume, PBL holds immense possibilities for developing investigatory skills, such as rational thought, examination of primary sources, and envisioning the potential of ideas and products. Etherington (2011) notes that a learner’s thinking- experiential processes are enhanced when PBL is interdisciplinary. Social Content—Context Matters Social studies provides a rich context for understanding the foundational ideas of a historical era and inquiring about the possibilities and potential responses to solving past or current social-scientific challenges. Sumrall and Schillinger (2004) wrote, “Social studies provide the obvious connections between the humanities and the natural and physical sciences,” adding that “the content knowledge [should be] the means through which vital information can be explored and confronted” (p. 5). For example, Zaslavsky (1994) developed the concept of ethnomathematics, defined as an interdisciplinary curriculum uniting multicultural and mathematical perspectives. To illustrate this approach, Zaslavsky noted that the study of African architecture as an example that can be incorporated into a mathematics unit on geometry and measurement. A possible interdisciplinary discussion could include topics such as why the typical shape of houses in ancient Africa tends to be round. This discussion could be extended to include concepts such as economic necessity, technological constraint, cultural beliefs, and social hierarchy. Zaslavsky argued that through ethnomathematics, students realize that mathematical ideas are often developed as a direct response to real needs and interests of human beings and therefore relevant to their lives and communities, not isolated facts and procedures to be memorized. Students from underrepresented cultures would take pride in their cultural heritage by learning their ancestors’ achievements and contributions to the development of mathematical knowledge (Pryor & Kang, 2013). An Example of a STEM PBL Activity The skills to apply and synthesize content area knowledge, such as historical-mathematical knowledge, can be seen in the activity suggested in Armstrong and Sodergren’s 2015 article “Refighting Pickett’s Charge: Mathematical Modeling of the Civil War Battlefield.” In it, the authors provide an example of using mathematical modeling in historical context (available at: https://sinews.siam.org/Details-Page/picketts-charge-what-modern-mathematics-teaches-us- about-civil-war-battle). They built mathematical equations based on historical data and then modified the equations to simulate changes in the charge at Gettysburg. They examined how those changes would have affected the historical outcome and experimented mathematically Social Studies-STEM Activities 265 with several different alternatives. Such a PBL activity potentially engages students as they learn how to (a) use mathematics to model real-life data, (b) apply inquiry skills to make conjectures as well as important decisions, and (c) use real-life contexts to analyze historical outcomes. In short, this type of “hands-on,” integrated content-area project is one of many topics that can provide the content-rich experience many believe would improve achievement (Maguth, 2012) and enrollment in additional STEM courses (Pryor, 2015). An Example of STEM PBL Methodologies An exemplar of a methodology that highlights STEM content (e.g., mathematics) to further civic competence can be seen in the 1993 Nobel Prize winning work of Douglass North and Robert Fogel in cliometrics, also called econometric history or new economic history. North and Fogel’s work suggests that methods developed in other fields (such as economics, statistics, or data processing) can be applied to the study of history (Chappelow, 2018; Fogel, 1966; Scheidel, 2019). This approach can be seen in the work of Diamond and Robinson (2010), who collected numerous examples for illustrating socio-scientific causality and used multi-modalities (e.g., narrative and quantitative statistical analysis) to demonstrate causal mechanisms. An interesting study in this collection by Acemoglu, Cantoni, Johnson, and Robinson investigated the long-term economic results of the French Revolutionary reforms. Here they compared areas of Germany that had been conquered by Napoleon with similar areas that had not had large- scale reforms (e.g., the abolition of feudalism). These researchers used urbanization as a proxy variable for economic prosperity, given that large agricultural surplus and transportation links are required to support an urban population. These studies show the power of cliometrics to enrich both the content and context of socio-scientific investigation. Similarly, Scheidel (2019) used this comparative method to answer the questions “How did the Roman Empire come about?” and “Once it fell, why did another empire never rise to dominate Europe as the Roman Empire had?” He makes his argument, based on geography, to explain why China in contrast has long been dominated by empires; as one matures, decays, and ultimately collapses, it is replaced by a new empire over pretty much the same territory. China lends itself to empire more than Europe it appears, because China is more open geographically. Europe is more divided by its terrain and lends itself more toward the formation of the multiple states that developed after the fall of the Roman Empire. Scheidel furthers the argument that the constant competition among these European states led them to innovate and to adopt innovations in order to be competitive. Chinese empires, on the other hand, had no real competition, merely peripheral states to the south and barbarians to the west. Scheidel makes the case that while many states competing against one another will tend to innovate, empires without competition focus more on maintenance. Hence, Scheidel’s book title: Europe 266 Social Studies-STEM Activities from Rome, which argued that the fall the Roman Empire allowed the development of the modern world. What example resources might be helpful in teaching integrative curricular ideas such as cliometrics? One approach is the use of visual enrichment found in the array of current technological tools such as a world mapper app. For example, researchers at worldmapper.org/Sasi Group (University of Sheffield) and Mark Newman at the University of Michigan created global maps to portray the worldwide distribution of GDP in various historical periods, such as 1 CE and 1960 CE, adjusted for purchasing power parity, by country. The world mapper app can also be used to portray the distribution of people worldwide based on their economic status, for example, those living on more than $200 per day in 2002. It is prescient, moreover, to understand that scientific and technological knowledge is not solely an end but a means to interpret and improve human well-being and is important for developing civic competence. The opportunities for practicing STEM skills to solve real-world social problems, however, are rare in a typical single-disciplinary curriculum. PBL, centered on an inquiry process for solving problems, provides rich learning opportunities. To further the pursuit of collaborative understandings of the content and context across knowledge, many U.S. states are transitioning to a common set of core standards in two areas: mathematics and English/language arts; a science core curriculum is also under construction. The common core initiatives in these fields favor in-depth treatment of core ideas and concepts cutting broadly across a wide range of disciplines (Heitin, 2013). Context 1. Real World: A social studies context shows how STEM innovation improves lives in our communities. 2. Broad and Rich: A social studies context provides students a broad and enriched curriculum. 3. Multiple Strands: A social studies context bridges connections to a range of STEM context areas. 4. More Student Engagement: A social studies context engages learners across content areas. Research on SS-STEM Integration The benefits of discipline or content integration has long been suggested in the literature of curriculum development (Davis, 2012; English, 2016; Fogarty, 1991). Lee (2007) wrote that an integrated curriculum is one in which knowledge and skills learned and used in one field are to be applied in (a) another field, (b) real life, and (c) new and changing environments. A focus on planning for integration, Lee (2007) furthers, can serve as a heuristic or prompt for teachers as they foster a connection between the content knowledge and ideas foundational to a particular content. Nuthall (1999a) suggested that integrating science and social studies is a Social Studies-STEM Activities 267 more natural portrayal of actual content, as students see the fit and application of one subject with the other. One example of such natural fit can be seen in the suggestion of Hottecke et al. (2012), who explained that historical case studies can be used to explicitly teach the relationship between history and the application of scientific findings. More often than not, however, these suggestions focus on integration of content areas of somewhat parallel knowledge (e.g., mathematics and engineering). Now emerging are studies that suggest the efficacy (and importance) of integrating content areas considered less synchronous (e.g. social studies and mathematics). Asynchronous Integration Many scholars (e.g., Bottomley & Osterstrom, 2010; Nadelson et al., 2009) have advocated for integrating subject areas such as engineering with social topics as a way to engage students. These authors suggest that due to the applied nature of engineering, which offers a concrete rather than conceptual target about how ideas can be used (e.g., practices or products), students can readily make connections among SS-STEM content areas. Moreover, by positioning the topic of engineering with a social outcome such as economics, these researchers explain, students might consider environmental impacts when learning about topics such as the construction of bridges, roads, and housing. They can draw upon environmental considerations when analyzing variations among construction methods and evaluate the social impacts, such as economic costs and equity of these construction methods. Impact on Student Learning One early indication of the impact of an integrated curriculum is found in a study of a high school that had aligned STEM content with social studies across its curriculum. Here, Maguth (2012) found students who participated in this curricular construct graduated without the need for remediation in these subject areas. Hsiung et al. (2000), utilizing an integrated curriculum model for teaching science in three elementary schools, reported a positive effect on students’ learning and an increased interest in science. Similarly, Nuthall (1999b) noted that in the process of learning in an integrated curriculum, students found a “fit,” or role, for themselves within socio-scientific learning. Preservice Teachers’ Lesson Planning To provide a process for teaching preservice/inservice teachers about the efficacy of an integrated curriculum, Pryor (2015) developed an SS-STEM lesson planning process for social studies methods courses. An analysis of lesson plans developed by these preservice teachers found that participants were able to draw upon learning standards across the SS-STEM content areas and integrate various standards into their lessons. Participants noted, however, that 268 Social Studies-STEM Activities training and resources to implement this integration is crucial for planning integration. Still, we lacked information about the beliefs these participants held about content integration and wanted to learn more about how these beliefs might influence their attitude and intentions to develop and implement an SS-STEM integrated curriculum. Thus, Pryor and Pryor (2019) conducted interviews with preservice teachers and university professors of both social studies methods and STEM content areas and methods. Remarks from these interviewees suggested that both preservice teachers and their professors find the approach an (a) efficient use of learning standards and (b) innovation with potential to more highly engage students. This integrative planning process, participants reported, is not without barriers; that is, some hold the belief that developing an integrated lesson might “force” content they might otherwise not use into their lesson. These challenges, along with other unknown perspectives, led us to seek a more careful understanding of teacher beliefs. To gain a more in-depth understanding of what might motivate teachers to use this model, we next investigated the beliefs that influenced attitude and intentions of experienced teachers—those who had participated in teacher training programs across multiple states and regions and were now enrolled in a graduate program in curriculum development. Inservice Teachers’ Beliefs, Attitudes, and Intentions About STEM Integration Research has shown that we make decisions about our behavior based on two things (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010): Either we think the behavior is a good idea (attitude), or we think other people who are important to us would approve—or disapprove—of our performing the behavior (norm). Sometimes our attitude is more important in our decision-making, and sometimes norm is more important. It depends on the people and the specific behavior being studied. Occasionally, whether or not we can perform a behavior is not completely in our control due either to internal factors (e.g., lack of knowledge) or external factors (e.g., barriers). In such instances, investigating a third variable, perceived behavioral control, is important. Using Fishbein and Ajzen’s (2010) procedures (see Pryor, in press), researchers can learn the relative importance of each of these three variables for a specific behavior and group of people. Researchers can also learn about the beliefs that form each variable. In one study (Pryor et al., 2016), we examined a group of social studies teachers at a summer workshop who had received three hours of direct instruction on STEM integration, a new idea at the time. We studied whether or not the teachers would integrate STEM into their instruction in the coming year. We first asked teachers to tell us what outcomes they thought might result from their integrating STEM into their social studies instruction. We then asked teachers to respond to questions about the likelihood of their integrating STEM in the coming year and, if they did Social Studies-STEM Activities 269 integrate, the likelihood of each outcome resulting from STEM integration. We also asked teachers to evaluate each outcome. We used seven-point measures that were scored from +3 (likely or good) to -3 (unlikely or bad) through a midpoint of zero (neither). Teachers responded by circling the number closest to their opinion. We learned that they were only “slightly likely” to integrate STEM and that their intentions were formed solely by their attitude toward that behavior. Their attitudes were formed most directly by 11 beliefs about likely outcomes of the behavior and their evaluations of those outcomes. To learn more about these teachers’ beliefs, we separated the scores of teachers with favorable intentions from those with neutral or negative intentions. The high intenders then had an average score of +1.67, more than halfway between slightly likely and quite likely. There were four beliefs that high intenders believed most likely to result from their integrating STEM; all pertained to students: Enriched learning experiences Increased student motivation Students gaining a rich understanding of subjects Students learning that their education applies to the real world The high intenders believed in these outcomes more strongly than did the low intenders. The high intenders also evaluated each outcome more favorably than did the low intenders. Stronger outcome beliefs and more favorable outcome evaluations led to the high intenders having significantly more favorable attitudes toward STEM integration, as well as stronger intentions. The teachers didn’t like all the outcomes they thought might result from STEM integration, however. They unfavorably evaluated these three outcomes: Reduction in social studies content Spending more time on planning new lessons Integration would not work with some students The high intenders, however, didn’t see any of these being even quite likely, much less extremely likely, to result from STEM integration. Also, none of these were evaluated by high intenders as extremely bad or even quite bad. The weak beliefs with mildly unfavorable evaluations made very minimal contributions to attitude. The utility of this approach is that it helps educators focus on the most important beliefs about an innovation and identify the resources to support it. 270 Social Studies-STEM Activities Inservice Teachers’ Lesson Planning Lastly, because little is known about the actual quality of lessons plans generated by an SS- STEM approach, Colaninno et al. (2019) evaluated four curriculum units, each composed of 10–12 lesson plans, developed by inservice teachers. Of these unit plans, only one integrated plan had been required; however, additional such plans were permitted. Participants were graduate-level teachers in a curriculum development course who had semester-long instruction on integrating learning standards across asynchronous content areas; teachers worked in small groups to develop these units. An Initial Study of Lesson Planning To evaluate these plans, Colaninno et al. (2019) were guided by Denzin and Lincoln’s (2005) keyword in context framework to identify which elements of a typical lesson plan format (e.g., outcomes, assessments, targets, procedure, resources) should be targeted for evaluating a lesson’s inclusion of integrated learning standards and which of these lesson plan elements in turn enriched the lesson’s foundational content knowledge as described by a lesson’s learning objectives. Key words found in these lesson plans were the data researchers used to construct categories (variables) for evaluating the lesson plans of these four curriculum units: (a) cohesiveness (the degree of fit between content areas), (b) content appropriateness (standards based), (c) richness (use of activities and resources), and (d) assessment (alignment with standards and objectives). Lesson Planning Strengths and Challenges These data suggest strengths and challenges teachers encounter as they co-develop integrated lesson plans. The most highly rated category of teacher planning skill is content cohesiveness, suggesting that teachers have a familiarity with the process of mapping a curriculum’s scope and sequence. In the case of sequencing integrated lessons, however, teachers must also consider how to process sequencing lessons outside their main content area as they collaborate with teachers across domain areas. The second most highly rated category is content appropriateness—that is—do the lesson topics align with content standards? Here, the categorical data suggest that teachers (see the Rationale section under Parabolas: Elements of One Lesson Plan below) demonstrated clarity in describing a rationale for the use of a particular standard, but they struggled to align these standards with clear learning objectives when a standard fell outside their main content area foci. In short, teachers appeared to know what they wanted to teach (e.g., a civil war battle) and could identify a standard (rationale) for teaching a topic but lacked skill in independently translating out-of-domain-area learning standards into objectives. Social Studies-STEM Activities 271 Two categories of lesson planning were less well developed: richness of activities and resources and assessment and alignment with standards and objectives. In reviewing the keyword data, both of these categories lacked a range and frequency of descriptor vocabulary. For example, while mathematics teachers were facile in planning to teach students how to express conjecture about exemplar attributes when analyzing which elements “fit” the determinants of a parabola, they were less able to describe what resources to use for student practice or what assessment modalities to include to evaluate student work. These data suggest the quest for a “richer” (i.e., an integrated) curriculum may be co- dependent on two aspects of teacher preparation: first, the need to provide a wide range of easily accessible resources for teacher use and, second, teacher professional development that helps teachers analyze assessment strategies across content domain areas. A Richer Curriculum These selected studies suggest to us that an integrated lesson holds a range of possibilities for students to experience a richer curriculum, one in which lessons draw on knowledge across a breadth of learning standards (English, 2016). This perceived richness has two main benefits: the potential for increasing (a) student engagement in learning content-area knowledge (Pryor et al., 2016; Pryor & Pryor, 2019) and (b) critical thinking about socio-scientific issues (Davis, 2003; Heath, 1990; Hopkins, 1937). A rich curriculum deepens and contextualizes content, offering students a pathway to explore and explain complex topics and conceptualize the link between them (Heath, 1990; Pryor & Pryor, 2019). The importance of students’ engagement in STEM, particularly prior to their high school years, Tai et al. (2006) note, is critical to their decision to then enroll in high school- level STEM coursework. Therefore, as we seek to increase the number of students who will enroll in STEM courses, it is important to provide curricula that will enhance engagement. We believe therefore that the rationale and opportunities exist for social studies and STEM educators to develop an interdisciplinary PBL approach to curriculum development (Pryor & Kang, 2013) The Process of Developing an Integrated SS-STEM Curriculum: Planning, Strategies, and Assessment In the following section, we outline the key elements and steps of an integrated planning process. We first describe approaches to lesson planning from the perspective of both STEM and social studies teachers. In Figure 1, we note that these approaches may be reciprocally used. In Table 1, we provide suggested topics for SS-STEM projects. Then, we portray an 272 Social Studies-STEM Activities example that centers around the mathematical concept of parabolas to form an integrated SS- STEM curriculum unit. We conclude this section with Table 2, which includes a list of activities and resources for teachers’ use, with links to sample lesson plans. The Foci of SS-STEM Integration Our research findings (e.g., Pryor et al., 2016, Pryor & Pryor, 2019) suggest that although teachers vary in their (a) use of content and/or context within a lesson, (b) selection of particular standards to guide an activity, and (c) choice of resources, teachers within the same content area typically share common foundational foci when developing an integrated lesson. 1. Mathematics teachers tend to select an asynchronous learning standard (e.g., social studies standards: time, continuity, and place, ncss.org) as the social context to enhance processes such as computation (i.e., the primary focus). 2. Social Studies/History teachers (i.e., the primary content area) tend to draw on the content component of an asynchronous learning standard to illustrate (a) historical outcomes (e.g., science standard: ecosystems, interactions, energy, and dynamics, ngss.org), or (b) research skills (e.g., technology standard: research strategies to locate information, iste.org). Standards Teachers and students can seek national learning standards for SS-STEM learning at these resources: National Council of the Social Studies (NCSS.org) National Science Teaching Association (NSTA.org) International Technology and Engineering Educators Association (ITEEA.org) National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM.org) Begin With a Backwards Design The backwards design process of curriculum mapping (e.g., planning) of Wiggins and McTighe (1998) posits that the first step in planning is to identify expected project outcomes (e.g., portfolio, a video, a written critique). Identifying outcomes provides the clarity needed to augment the wide range of topics used in an integrated curriculum unit and ensuing lesson plans (Oliva, 2008; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016). Next, a planner should describe broad curriculum goals (e.g., “Students will gain an understanding of the composition and functions of energy” or “Students will gain an understanding of the causes of the Civil War”). Note that in order for these curriculum goals to then serve as the overarching guiding topic at the lesson plan level, the goal will need to be rewritten into observable or measurable terms; thus, the goal can be rewritten as a specific learning target, used here as the term objectives (e.g., “Name three elements of an energy source” Social Studies-STEM Activities 273 or “Name three railroads used by the North”). Curriculum goals function as a framework from which a number of lesson plan objectives are then developed (e.g., “Be able to explain or critique a rationale”; see Oliva, 2008). Since an integrated curriculum employs secondary objectives that amplify curriculum goals, it can be expected that a synergy or fusion among curriculum content topics will occur (Beane, 1991,1996). Thus, the clarity provided by a backwards design process can help a teacher identify and coordinate curricula, including goals and objectives, pedagogies, and resources and assessments needed to support this innovation (Parkay & Hass, 2000; Sowell, 2000). Assessments of Learning Objectives When enacting a learning project, the curriculum designer is expected to begin with a detailed project assessment plan, including making decisions about what assessment evidence is considered acceptable and when each type of evidence is to be collected. Multiple sources of evidence are expected to be used to evaluate learning, including not only evidence from traditional types of assessment such as quizzes and tests but also from interviews, observations, open-ended prompts, performance tasks, and research projects. Standardized test scores are less reflective of twenty-first- Assessment Assessment methods should century skills such as critical thinking, negotiating, and align with the range of content collaboration that students develop from participating in STEM areas for learning outcomes and PBL. Assessment of STEM PBL therefore needs to be authentic be compatible with STEM PBL. They may include performance and related to the design of the project. Students’ performance assessments and portfolios/e- could be determined using rubrics to evaluate developed portfolios. artifacts and creative materials (Bell, 2010). Students should be Other examples: summaries encouraged to engage in self-evaluation and critique and and reflections; lists, charts, and graphic organizers; visual provide constructive feedback through a peer evaluation process representations of information; (Colley, 2008). These processes will cultivate reflective thinking collaborative activities; self- assessment; and peer skills and enhance students’ awareness of their development of assessment. meta-cognitive knowledge and strategies. Trauth-Nare and Buck (2011) emphasized the importance of using formative assessment in order to maximize students’ learning potential, especially to promote critical-thinking skills during PBL. Formative assessment, according to these researchers, is a form of assessment for learning as opposed to assessment of learning. Formative assessment should be an integral part of instruction and occur multiple times during the implementation of a learning project. Assessment should be used to direct or redirect instruction and to modify or adjust learning strategies. 274 Social Studies-STEM Activities Approaches to SS-STEM Lesson Planning The first consideration in developing an SS-STEM lesson is to identify the primary content-area focus of the lesson (see Figure 1). The second step is to determine a secondary content-area focus, which can then serve to either (a) augment and enhance (i.e., illuminate and expand) the primary focus or (b) contextualize (i.e., place the primary content area in a relevant setting; Pavlekovich et al., 2012). Third, in addition to planning for common core skills (e.g., inquiry, reading level; see http://www.corestandards.org/), a teacher will also need to seek resources to complement these foci, such as activities, materials, and assessments. Lastly, planning should provide for lesson evaluation; however, as described above, many believe that a more efficient approach to both curriculum/unit and lesson planning is one in which a teacher begins the planning process with the end in mind and thereby ensuring that their planning approach aligns well with the project goals. We continue to believe in the importance of teachers’ identification and use of key discipline- specific content knowledge and skills that students will need before they benefit from an integrated curriculum (Burghardt et al., 2010). The approaches described below, as might be used reciprocally, synergize content so that connections among them are visible and engaging to students. Moreover, since the approaches (as shown in Table 2) are intended as heuristic platforms for planning for interdisciplinary engagement, they may be selectively employed as teachers plan/imagine a nexus of emerging student interests. In other words, a teacher, in any phase of the planning process, could provide space for teachers and students to recognize a newly formed awareness of interdisciplinary connections and modify their plans as engagement directs. The following approaches serve as a framework—a focus—to begin planning integrated lessons. An SS-STEM Approach: Augment and Enhance If the lesson focus is social studies, then STEM standards could serve to augment and enhance the content of social studies. For example, in discussing the young Abraham Lincoln’s journey as a flatboat captain and his efforts to ferry goods on the Mississippi River, Pryor and Kang (2013) showed how a social studies teacher could augment a class discussion by integrating STEM content. Here, a teacher could note that Lincoln, in his effort to save the goods on his small boat from capsizing on the river’s milldams, invented a buoy system to raise boats over the milldam and bring goods safely to shore; Lincoln later received a U.S. patent for this innovation. The power of this integration is the surprise of many—that a young Abraham Lincoln was also a STEM innovator! Social Studies-STEM Activities 275 Figure 1. An SS-STEM Approach to Lesson Planning Step 1: Identify Learning Objectives STEM Content Step 2: Identify Social Studies as Common Core Assessments of Context Skills Learning Integrated STEM Objectives Approach Social Studies Content Step 3: Determine Reciprocal Planning Alignment Approach-STEM Math or Social Studies Science Integrated Social Technology Engineering Studies Approach Step 4: Align Common Core Objectives with Skills Content Standards Step 5: Begin Lesson Pedagogical Planning A STEM-Social Studies Approach: Contextualize STEM teachers often seek a context for their content area foci or a framework in which the content—such as mathematics or engineering—can highlight its practical application (Bottomley & Osterstrom, 2010). For example, a lesson on percentage (and ratio) might include a discussion about the nature of economic structure (e.g., should taxes rise?). Learning that economies expand or constrict depending on how governments create economic policy (a social studies standard) can help students understand that their personal earnings is not the 276 Social Studies-STEM Activities sole factor in learning to have control over their finances. An important factor in economic control is how one distributes funds across a personal budget—a budget that might change as governmental policies shift (e.g., a rise in percent of income tax or cost of consumer goods). A discussion of the social-economic impact of government regulation provides students a purpose for understanding percentage. Social studies can provide a motivating context for mathematical computation, for as students learn to compute percentage, they can also learn what of the funds they receive or earn they might need to save or can spend (see Bottomley & Osterstrom, 2010; Burghardt et al., 2010 for additional discussion). Activities and Resources A sample of content-area topics that teachers might select for SS-STEM integration can be seen in Table 1 (Pryor & Kang, 2013). For example, Table 1 lists the topic of ethnomathematics, defining it as an interdisciplinary curriculum uniting multicultural and mathematical perspectives. What are some broad topic areas that hold potential for engaging students in an SS-STEM curriculum? Here is an example drawn from the 2008 Environmental Protection Agency’s science fair project: The project topic is surface water quality. Here the project integrates knowledge in biology (e.g., micro-organisms, algae growth), chemistry (e.g., contents of fertilizers and cleaners), physics (e.g., gravity, velocity), and mathematics (e.g., slope). This project simultaneously can be used to examine social issues such as the consequences of human actions on the environment (e.g., use of fertilizers and cleaners) and how climate changes influences water quality (e.g., how pollutants are carried into waterways after a rainfall). Following discussion of these example topics, and using evidence they have gathered, students can then make a recommendation or suggest a solution for improving local water quality. In this case, STEM knowledge becomes a powerful means for protecting the environment and securing healthy lives. (Pryor & Kang, 2013, p.132) In Table 1, we present broad topic areas that are often useful in developing an SS-STEM curriculum. Each of these topics can then be developed into a series of lesson plans. Note that in developing a topic or its application in a curriculum unit, not all lessons necessarily need to be interdisciplinary (English, 2016; Fogarty, 1991). A mathematics or science lesson on calculating velocity might be enhanced by a social studies context, such as how understanding principles of velocity has helped develop particular ships or planes. A teacher might not need to adopt an entire social studies standard to provide the baseline context in which principles of velocity are applied (Pryor, 2015). Moreover, when a mathematics or science teacher is using velocity as a topic area or as a complete Social Studies-STEM Activities 277 curriculum unit, integrating social studies into one or more lessons within this unit might engage a wide range interests among students (e.g., students interested in the historical or practical application of a topic). Table 1 Sample Topics for SS-STEM projects Connections with Social Project & Sources Connections with STEM Studies Themes GeoMath Science, Technology, and Statistics/Scatterplot (Hinde & Ekiss, 2005) Society, Global Connections Technology Community Analysis Culture/Cultural Diversity Geometry/Measurement (Moll, 1992) People, Place, and Environments Statistics/Quantitative Production, Distribution, and Analysis Consumption Fractions/Ratio Science, Technology, and Society Mechanics/Engineering Surface Water Quality People, Place, and Environments Biology/Micro-organisms (Environmental Protection Science, Technology, and Society Chemistry/Fertilizers/Cleaners Agency, 2007) Civic Ideas and Practices Physics/Gravity/Velocity Mathematics/Slopes A Tale of Two Cities Culture/Cultural Diversity Geometry Shapes (Leonard, 2004) Time, Continuity, and Change Measurements (area, perimeter) Congruence, Similarity Proportions/Ratios Let Monarchs Rule People, Place, and Environments Life Cycle (Shimkanin &Murphy, 2007) Ethnomathematics Culture/Cultural Diversity Geometry Shapes (Zaslavsky, 1994) Time, Continuity, and Change Measurements (areas, perimeter) People, Place, and Proportions/Ratios Environment Congruence, Similarity Science, Technology, and Society Note. Adapted from Pryor & Kang (2013). The full citations of the works listed in this table are included in the Additional Readings & Resources section at the end of this chapter. An Example of an Integrated Curriculum Unit: Parabolas We portray here an example of how a small group of teachers used the overarching topic of quadratic graphs and functions to develop the STEM-SS Curriculum Unit: Parabolas; below, we list major elements of one of the lesson plans drawn from this unit (see SIUE STEM Center http://www.siuestemcenter.org/curriculum/). Additional lesson plan topics used in the parabola unit are found in Table 2, along with a sampling of similar units. 278 Social Studies-STEM Activities Parabolas: Elements of One Lesson Plan Rationale. This unit is designed for high school students in Algebra 1 or Algebra 2. Our goal is to provide a real-world learning context by integrating social studies with STEM. We provide contextualization by using the St. Louis Arch as an exemplar. The unit focuses on inquiry-based learning to foster students’ abilities to make conjectures and use mathematical language. Goal. Students will learn the history of the St Louis Gateway Arch and explore the possibilities that the Arch is an example of a real-world parabola Illinois Common Core Standards. SS.IS.3.9-12 Develop new supporting and essential questions through investigation, collaboration, and using diverse sources. SS.H.4.9-12 Analyze how people and institutions have reacted to environmental, scientific, and technological challenges. NCTM Standards for Mathematical Practice SMP3 Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others. Objectives. Students will be able to 1. develop a conjecture about the design of the St Louis Gateway Arch, created by Architect Eero Saarinen, to determine if it is a parabola. 2. justify their conjecture about a parabola and support their conjecture with evidence. Resources. Videos: Historical context and the mathematical/physics challenges of building the Saint Louis Arch. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KIPkRINpnzk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d83UBP54h54 History Links: Arch Facts and the biography of architect Eero Saarinen. https://www.nps.gov/jeff/planyourvisit/arch-faq.htm https://www.nps.gov/jeff/planyourvisit/architect.htm Assessments: Selections Useable for Multiple Lesson Plans. 1. Students will complete a worksheet to show evidence for their parabola conjecture. 2. Students will describe the proof of their conjecture and compare their proof with those of other students. 3. Students will present the historical context for how a parabola might have been used historically in global settings. 4. Students will re-design their conjecture about parabola design to portray how social need might influence design. 5. Students will re-design their conjecture to portray the use of a parabola in future civic endeavors. Social Studies-STEM Activities 279 Sample Curriculum Unit and Lesson Plan Topics In Table 2, we present examples of broad topic areas that teachers have used as the basis for developing an integrated curriculum unit, including lessons plans that are both single- domain area (mathematics only) and integrated lessons (mathematics and history). The SS-STEM Virtual Classroom Resource In Additional Readings and Resources, we provide a sample of materials drawn from the Social Studies-STEM Virtual Classroom Resource (http://www.siuestemcenter.org/curriculum/), which also includes extensions of the activities, resources, and assessment methods for the units presented in Table 2. This electronic repository is designed so that it can be updated by professors and teachers. Table 2 Sample Applications of Topic Areas in Curriculum Units and Lesson Plans Curriculum Topic Area Lesson Plan Sequence Assessment Unit Title Quadratic Parabolas Exploring quadratic GeoGebra graphs Functions graphs/parabolas Functions through graphing Conjecture worksheet History of St. Louis Arch Conjecture worksheet Standard Form Teacher observation Vertex Form Teacher questioning Graphing quadratics Worksheet/Quadratics Catapult project Observation/Record data Characteristics of quadratics Desmos graphing Forms of quadratic equations Written argument Forms of quadratics selfies Project presentation Real-world Arch argument Community presentation Spatial Geometry Dream House Scale factor Scale problems Scale drawing (Blueprints) Scale grid Using floor planner website floorplanner.com Floor planner design House design Unit rates and ratios Unit rate problems Comparing price/unit rates Unit rate problems Area floorplanner.com Calculating area Partner blueprint project Surface area Practice problems Calculating the cost of paint Blueprint design Global Growth and The Olympics Flags Create flag/symbols Acceptance Olympics then and now History/Venn diagram Math track and field Calculations/Distance Athlete biography research Poster Athlete biography Biography Olympian character traits Group presentations Ramp design and launch KWL force/motion Anthem pride Timeline events Note. Lesson plans can be found at http://www.siuestemcenter.org/curriculum/ 280 Social Studies-STEM Activities Technology for Co-developing an Integrated Curriculum We suggest that teachers expand their use of technology by incorporating interactive media platforms designed for students and teachers to work together across content area domains. These platforms provide teachers (and students) a forum in which they can augment, contextualize, discuss, highlight and personalize, and ultimately enrich their curricula. Create videos We provide here several user-friendly platforms as pathways for teachers to co-develop videos for instructional activities. Videos may be (a) embedded within a PowerPoint, (b) shown face- to-face in class, (c) created for independent student viewing, or (d) followed by interactive use among students (and teachers) across one or more content area classes. Using technology to integrate SS-STEM can prompt an examination of assessment options. For example, a student might create a video in which they show and explain their written work either to (a) the teacher, (b) small groups, (c) peers, or (d) the entire class. To assess this activity, participants could post responses when viewing a student’s video explanation, providing the student feedback from both peers and the teacher. Benefits Another benefit of using interactive media to co-develop content domain videos is that teachers of one subject area can create videos in which they explain an element of a topic that can be shared with teachers of another content area. For example, a 7th-grade mathematics teacher might know that the social studies teacher is just starting a unit on the Civil War era. The mathematics teacher wants to provide context for teaching a formula for velocity—practical knowledge if you are sending supplies to various parts of the country. The social studies teacher could then explain the advantage of the industrial/technological advances held by the North’s use of a vastly developed railway system. Velocity can then be learned as a topic that, once translated into a mathematical formula, can augment the understanding of a historical event. Using technology is an efficient means for teachers to discuss content area information. Teachers within a school district are familiar with their local curriculum, the school community, and students’ interests. As this understanding is helpful in identifying and targeting student achievement goals, it is a natural next step to use media to personalize and support these interests and needs. For example, given that the recursive nature of video is a powerful learning tool (Wood & Ponsford, 2014), teachers might want to develop videos that augment a gap in a skill or process (e.g., writing of a descriptive paragraph about a STEM innovation or process). The opportunity to review a video and learn a process or hear an idea discussed provides a “just in time” space that might not otherwise be available (or privately available) to students. Social Studies-STEM Activities 281 Key Understanding How can a mathematics teacher use a social studies teacher’s three-minute video as context for understanding a formula for calculating velocity? How can a social studies teacher use a three- minute video of a mathematics teacher’s calculations to show that velocity—speed in transportation—was a war-time advantage for the North? Video Production Sites Table 1 lists a number of topics that could be used to provide context for STEM or augment content for social studies. The sites below are a sample of interactive media platforms for teachers and students to augment/contextualize and then assess an integrated curriculum Platform 1. Screencastify (https://www.screencastify.com/), a recording platform that provides recording, editing and sharing of video on Chrome. Resources for teachers to use this site are found at https://www.screencastify.com/education/resources. Open this site in the browser/tab. Platform 2. Loom, another recording platform, is found at https://www.loom.com/education. Loom allows for video and messaging, allowing student to collaborate with each other and their teacher and respond to a video in real time. Platform 3. Flipgrid (https://info.flipgrid.com/) is a Microsoft site that fosters discussions among students, especially when using video as a discursive prompt. Flipgrid allows students to upload their own video as a response to discussion questions and prompts. These videos are available to be viewed and commented on by other students, encouraging ongoing discussion Other products (e.g., Goreact.com) are also available platforms for recording and evaluation. Activities and Resources Activities and resources for SS-STEM interdisciplinary learning can augment learning standards in the social studies and STEM content areas incorporate a range of student learning modalities use a range of learning and teaching models, such as the backwards design instructional planning model and the 5E instructional model Conclusion Teaching using an integrated SS-STEM approach posits several benefits for students. Most notable of these is the opportunity to engage students in a “richer” curriculum, one in which the component elements of a content area function reciprocally as complementary foci for socio- scientific investigation (Kelley & Knowles, 2016; Moore, 2015). Drawing across content-area 282 Social Studies-STEM Activities standards as they seek to reduce the fragmentation of curriculum, teachers using this approach find their lessons more highly (a) engage students in learning (Pryor et al., 2016) and (b) broaden student interest in aspects of content often less visible or concomitantly discussed (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016). To highlight a PBL approach to this integration, we provide suggestions for lesson planning using a model for selecting curriculum topics and an SS-STEM approach. This model portrays lesson topic examples, noting the synergy of drawing on an augment/enhance approach or a contextualize approach. Lastly, along with sample curriculum topics, we also include lesson plan ideas, activities and resources, as well as electronic links and media platforms for a use in developing an integrated SS-STEM lesson. Reflection Questions and Activities 1. List three reasons why social studies can enhance the context for STEM learning. 2. Identify three social studies standards (see the National Council of the Social Studies, www.socialstudies.org) that can be aligned with one or more STEM content areas. 3. Describe three resources (book, chapter, journal article) that discuss the use of social studies as a context for STEM Learning 4. List and annotate three resources useful in developing a social studies-enhanced STEM lesson (e.g., Library of Congress, LOC.gov). 5. Explain at least three assessment methods that are appropriate for an SS-STEM integrated lesson. 6. How will including social studies within a STEM lesson provide students an enhanced learning environment? 7. What specific outcomes might result if social studies is included within a STEM lesson? 8. Will including social studies within a STEM lesson involve extra time and research? 9. Where can you find resources and activities to enhance your STEM Lessons? 10. How will you know if social studies has enhanced a STEM Lesson? 11. Will other teachers and administrators hold positive beliefs about including a social studies standard in STEM lessons? Further Readings Additional Readings from Table 1: Environmental Protection Agency. (2007). Ideas for science fair projects on surface water quality topics for middle school students and teachers. http://water.epa.gov/learn/resources/upload/ 2007_12_08_learn_science-projects.pdf Hinde, E. R., & Ekiss, G. O. (2005). No child left behind… Except in geography? GeoMath in Arizona answers a need. Social Studies and the Young Learners, 18(2), 27–29. Social Studies-STEM Activities 283 Leonard, J. (2004). Integrating mathematics, social studies, and language arts with “A Tale of Two Cities.” Middle School Journal, 35(3), 35–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2004.11461429 Moll, L. C. (1992). Bilingual classroom studies and community analysis: Some recent trends. Educational Researcher, 21(2), 20–24. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X021002020 Shimkanin, J., & Murphy, A. (2007). Let monarchs rule. Science and Children, 45(1), 32–36. Zaslavsky, C. (1994). Africa counts and ethnomathematics. For the Learning of Mathematics, 14(2), 3–8. https://doi.org/10.2307/40248107 Additional Resources for the Olympics Unit Research Olympic History: Then: http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/athens_games/history.htm Now: http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/athens_games/modern.htm Write Newspaper Articles—Olympics: Read Write Think Printing Press: http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/student-interactives/printing-press-30036.html http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/athens_games/reporterstep2.asp Additional Resources for the Parabolas Unit Describe the history of the Saint Louis Arch/Planning your visit to the Arch: https://www.nps.gov/jeff/planyourvisist/arch-faq.htm https://www.nps.gov/jeff/planyourvisit/architect.htm Explain changing elements of a quadratic equation in standard and vertex forms from the graph of the equation: Geogebra Classic: https://www.geogebra.org/classic?lang=en Geogebra Graphic Calculator: https://www.geogebra.org/graphing?lang=en Conjecture: Is the Saint Louis Arch a Parabola? Introduction to the Arch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KIPkRINpnzk Additional Resources for the Dream House Unit Building a Dream House Floor Planner: Two- and Three Dimensional e-Version of Manipulative Floorplans for Use With Space, Dimensions, and Shapes: www.floorplanner.com Description and Vocabulary Titled “Math Antics,” Explains Unit Rates and Ratios: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQ2nYUBVvqI 284 Social Studies-STEM Activities Additional Readings and Resources by Content Area: Science History of Early Flight: Charles Lindbergh: http://www.charleslindbergh.com/history/paris.asp This site provides both historical and STEM information. The history of the STEM content used to develop early flight is described, along with the historical context in which this innovation was founded. Dare, E. A., Ellis, J. A. & Roehrig, G. H. (2018). Understanding science teachers’ implementations of integrated STEM curricular units through a phenomenological multiple case study. International Journal of STEM Education, 5(4). https://stemeducationjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s404594-018-0101-z This article provides details on current reforms in K–12 STEM education, calling for integration between science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in the K–12 curriculum. Integration of STEM disciplines at the K–12 level offers students an opportunity to experience learning in real- world, multidisciplinary contexts; however, there is little reported research about teachers' experiences in engaging in integrated STEM instruction. Will, M. (2020). Effective teaching in grade school is a make-or-break factor for future STEM success. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2018/05/23/early-grades-science-the-first- key-stem-opportunity.html This article stresses the importance of integrating science and STEM lessons into the elementary classroom and suggests that teachers need college programs to support their STEM knowledge. Article portrays one teacher’s use of STEM. Mathematics Armstrong, M. J. & Sodergren, S. E. (2015). Refighting Pickett’s charge: What modern mathematics teaches us about civil war battle. Social Science Quarterly, 96(4), 1153–1168. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12178 This article describes a mathematical model for refighting Pickett's Charge at the Battle of Gettysburg. The authors used computer software to build a mathematical model of the charge. The model estimated the casualties and survivors on each side, given their starting strengths. They used data from the actual conflict to calibrate the model’s equations. The authors report that they “then adjusted the equations to represent changes in the charge, to see how those affected the outcome. This allowed us to experiment mathematically with several different alternatives [text drawn and modified from website].” Also see an example of mathematical modeling in context: https://sinews.siam.org/Details-Page/picketts-charge-what-modern-mathematics-teaches-us- about-civil-war-battle Grade 7 Mathematics. (n.d.). https://www.engageny.org/resource/grade-7-mathematics-module- This website features a full curriculum dedicated to seventh grade math and common core alignment. It includes teacher resources, student resources, videos, tutorials, and worksheets. Social Studies-STEM Activities 285 Larson, R., & Boswell, L. (2019). Big ideas math: Modeling real life. Big Ideas Learning. This is a textbook used for teaching seventh grade math. It is aligned to the common core standards. The teacher edition offers further resources and tips given by the book’s author Laurie Boswell. Social Studies Transportation: Primary and Secondary Source Material: The following websites offer examples of the historical context and development of the Model T Ford, boat, rickshaw, wagon, canoe, quadricycle, etc. https://www.loc.gov/collections/worlds-transportation-commission/about-this-collection/ https://www.thehenryford.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/default-document- library/impactofmodeltdigikit.pdf?sfvrsn=0 http://www.thehenryford.org/ http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/hf/default.asp https://detroithistorical.org/sites/default/files/lessonPlans/ON%20THE%20ASSEMBLY%20LINE.pdf https://www.pbs.org/video/american-experience-ford-assembly-line/ Cliometrics and the Application of It in New Economic History: Fogel, R. (1966). The new economic history: Its findings and methods. The Economic History Review, 19(3), 642–656. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0289.1966.tb00994.x Goldin, C. (1995). Cliometrics and the Nobel. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9(2), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.9.2.191 Engineering and Technology A description of flight and its application in the Charles Lindbergh era: https://www.teachengineering.org/content/cub_/activities/cub_airplanes/cub_airplanes_lsson06_activit y1_planeoverhead.pdf Video: Introduction to Flight Design and Lindbergh: https://www.pbs.org/video/ken-kramers-about-san-diego-lindbergh-flight-air-and-space-museum- balboa-park/ Paper Airplane Designs Handout: https://www.teachengineering.org/content/cub_/activities/cub_airplanes/cub_airplanes_lesson06_activi ty1_handout2.pdf Paper Design Instructions: https://www.teachengineering.org/content/cub_/activities/cub_airplanes/cub_airplanes_lesson06_activi ty1_sample.pdf 286 Social Studies-STEM Activities Flight Distances Worksheet: https://www.teachengineering.org/content/cub_/activities/cub_airplanes/cub_airplanes_lesson06_activi ty1_worksheet.pdf Flight Overhead Transparency: https://www.teachengineering.org/content/cub_/activities/cub_airplanes/cub_airplanes_lesson06_activi ty1_planeoverhead.pdf English, L. 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