Introduction to Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

Introduction to Psychology PSYC 1200 (A01) This PowerpointTM presentation is the exclusive copyright of Ryan Langridge at the University of Manitoba. These slides and the accompanying lecture may only be used by students enrolled in PSYC 1200, A01, Summer 2023, at the University of Manitoba. Audio a...

Introduction to Psychology PSYC 1200 (A01) This PowerpointTM presentation is the exclusive copyright of Ryan Langridge at the University of Manitoba. These slides and the accompanying lecture may only be used by students enrolled in PSYC 1200, A01, Summer 2023, at the University of Manitoba. Audio and/or video recording in any format is not allowed without official permission of Ryan Langridge. Unauthorized or commercial use of these lectures, including uploading to sites outside of the University of Manitoba servers, is expressly prohibited. Violations of these and other Academic Integrity principles will lead to disciplinary action. © Ryan Langridge Behaviour and Health: Smoking • Tobacco use → One the most widely studied health behaviours • As of 2021, 12.9% of Canadian adults smoke cigarettes • Down from 2012 (19.9%)! • Smoking Cigarettes Associated with: • Lung, mouth, throat cancer • Heart disease • Pulmonary diseases (e.g., emphysema) © Ryan Langridge • Life expectancy between 7 – 14 yrs shorter Behaviour and Health: Smoking Media Exposure? • Exposure to movies featuring smoking associated with smoking in adolescence • This association occurs even when controlling for possible confounding variables (3rd variables) such as SES, personality, and parental or peer influences • Watching scenes that involve smoking increases the likelihood of smoking after viewing the scene • Increase in prevalence of smoking in movies from 1990-2007 associated with increases in adolescent smoking rates © Ryan Langridge • The opposite pattern is observed as prevalence of smoking in movies decreases → adolescent smoking rates decrease Behaviour and Health: Smoking Efforts to Prevent Smoking • Banning smoking in public places • Reduce the risk of second-hand smoke exposure • Increasing taxes on tobacco • Raises funds for healthcare and anti-smoking campaigns • Text/pictorial warnings on packaging • Pictures are more effective → > 40% of Canadian smokers report the graphic warnings motivated them to quit © Ryan Langridge Behaviour and Health: Psychosocial Influences Psychosocial Influences on Health: Poverty • Positive correlation between health and wealth • Wealthy individuals experience better access to health care, greater sense of control over their environment • Increased stress associated with poverty, discrimination, other social stressors leads to higher rates of depression, anxiety, and other health problems such as heart disease © Ryan Langridge Behaviour and Health: Psychosocial Influences Psychosocial Influences on Health: Prejudice and discrimination • Increased stress associated with poverty, discrimination, other social stressors leads to higher rates of depression, anxiety, and other health problems such as heart disease • Increased blood pressure, heart rate • Greater risk of unhealthy behaviours such as smoking and substance abuse • Prolonged stress response, increased levels of stress hormones © Ryan Langridge Behaviour and Health: Psychosocial Influences Psychosocial Influences on Health: Family and Social Environment • Long-term isolation can be as dangerous as smoking, obesity, high blood pressure • Social Resilience → Ability to keep positive relationships and to endure, recover from social isolation and life stressors • Helps protect from negative health consequences associated with loneliness and social isolation © Ryan Langridge Behaviour and Health: Psychosocial Influences Psychosocial Influences on Health: Family and Social Environment • Proven long-term health benefits of long-term partnership • E.g., Marriage associated with greater longevity, better mental/physical health • Likely also a result of the social support and combined resources • However… Increased marital/relationship issues associated with higher rates of depression and physical illness © Ryan Langridge Stress • Stress → A psychological and physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet those demands • Stressor → The event/stimulus • Can be acute (one-time) or chronic (consistent) • Stress Response → The experience in response to the event © Ryan Langridge Stress Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) • Appraisal → Cognitive act of assessing and evaluating the potential threat and demands of an event 1. Primary Appraisal: Perception of potential threat → “Is this a threat?” • No → No stress (phew!) • Yes → Physiological stress reaction, emotional reaction © Ryan Langridge 2. Secondary appraisal: “How do I cope with this threat?” • Adequate coping → No more stress (double phew!) • Inadequate coping → More stress Stress Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) © Ryan Langridge Stress Stress and Performance • Easy tasks → moderate/high arousal helps • Difficult tasks → low arousal helps • Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) • A range of emotional intensity in which a person is most likely to perform at their best © Ryan Langridge Social Facilitation (Chapter 13.1) Stress Physiology of Stress • General Adaptation Syndrome • Theory of stress responses involving stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion © Ryan Langridge Stress Physiology of Stress • Stress can be related to a variety of sources (e.g., biological, cognitive, social), however physical responses to stressors are generally similar • This general reaction originally described as the ‘fight-or-flight’ response • Fight or Flight Response → Set of physiological changes that occur in response to psychological or physical threats © Ryan Langridge Stress “Fight-or-Flight” Response Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis (HPA) “Master Gland” Hormones that prepare the body to respond to stressful circumstances Stress Pathways in the Brain and Body © Ryan Langridge Stress Oxytocin: Inhibits amygdala activity & release of cortisol “Tend-and-Befriend” vs. “Fight-or-Flight” • “Tend-and-Befriend” → Seeking out stable friendship networks for support • May be promoted by the release of oxytocin (influences social bonding, among other behaviours) • Some evidence to suggest that there are sex differences in the type of response to stress • Men more likely to respond with “Flight-or-Flight” than women • Women more likely to respond with “Tend-and-Befriend” than men • Influence of social norms, gender roles, etc? © Ryan Langridge Stress Oxytocin: Inhibits amygdala activity & release of cortisol Vasopressin: Also controlled by hypothalamus and pituitary gland, influences levels of stress hormones released by adrenal gland • During a (potentially stressful) marital interaction task: • Higher levels of oxytocin and vasopressin associated with positive interactions including acceptance, support, self-disclosure, and faster healing of minor wound • Lower levels of oxytocin and vasopressin associated with hostility, withdrawal, and distress slower healing of minor wound • Intranasal injection of oxytocin promoted more positive, constructive behaviour during discussion about marital conflict © Ryan Langridge Stress Immune system → Protects body from infectious disease Immunity and Illness • Our immune system is interconnected with our nervous system • Stress and immune responses can interact • Acute stressors tend to activate the immune system (good!) • Chronic stressors tend to suppress the immune system (bad!) • Blood samples taken during stressful period of time (medical school final examinations) show reduced immune responses • Psychoneuroimmunology → Study of the relationship between immune system and nervous system functioning © Ryan Langridge Stress The Brain and Disease • Stress impairs the body’s ability to respond to vaccinations • Complicates long-term treatment relying on vaccine administration (e.g., AIDS, HIV) • Stress levels affect cancer progression • Norepinephrine supports cancer cell growth • Cortisol magnifies norepinephrine’s influence on cancer cell growth • Suggests that our mental reactions to stressors may be able to influence our body’s response to serious illness © Ryan Langridge Stress Personality and Heart Disease • ‘Type A’ Personality • Describes people who tend to be impatient and worry about time, are easily angered, competitive, and highly motivated • More likely to experience a heart attack than (although there are likely other contributing factors…) • ‘Type B’ Personality • Describes people who are more ‘laid-back’ and characterized as being patient, easygoing, and relaxed © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being • Coping → Processes used to manage demands, stress, and conflict • Can include: • Problem-focused coping → 1. Define the problem, 2. Work toward a solution • Emotion-focused coping → Finding ways to reduce negative effects of emotions • Positive Psychology → Uses scientific methods to study human strengths and potential (emphasis on positive emotion) © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Positive Coping Strategies • Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions (Fredrickson, 2001, 2003) • Positive emotions help people broaden their thought processes and build new intellectual, social, and physical resources • Positive emotions can affect how we perceive and think about the world • Positive emotions → Expand attentional focus to encompass a broader part of the environment, increase creativity and flexible thinking (important for coping!) • Negative emotions → Narrow attentional focus © Ryan Langridge • Positive emotions increase the rate at which our heartrate returns to normal following a fearful stimulus, E.g., Watching a positive video after a scary movie clip Coping and Well-Being Optimism and Pessimism • Optimism • Tendency to have a favourable, constructive view on situations and to expect positive outcomes • Correlated with better physical health, lower rates of coronary heart disease © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Optimism and Pessimism • Pessimism • Tendency to have a negative perception of life and expect negative outcomes • Correlated with increased mortality rate (19%, Maruta et al., 2000) • Pessimistic Explanatory Style → Tendency to interpret and explain negative events as internally based and as a constant, stable quality • Negative Affectivity → Tendency to respond to problems with a pattern of anxiety, hostility, anger, guilt, or nervousness © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Resilience → Ability to effectively recover from illness or adversity • Factors/circumstances that may help contribute to resilience: • Financial and social resources • Opportunities for rest and relaxation • Generally positive experiences, circumstances • But, a person’s personality and emotional characteristics (e.g., optimism) will also contribute to their resilience © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Post-Traumatic Growth • Capacity to grow and experience long-term positive effects in response to negative events • E.g., automobile accidents, sexual and physical assault, combat, and severe and chronic illnesses • Often associated with feelings of vulnerability, followed by increased feelings of inner-strength, appreciation, spirituality, and develop more meaningful and deep relationships • Growth occurs during coping (not caused by the original event) © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Meditation Associated with reduced levels of anxiety and lowered blood pressure, and promotes healthy, compassionate behaviour • Any procedure that involves a shift in consciousness to a state in which an individual is highly focused, aware, and in control of mental processes. • Farb et al. (2007): • When trained meditators focus on thoughts and bodily reactions to a word (Experiential focus) in an fMRI → Increase in areas related to perception of bodily senses, and decrease in activity in the medial prefrontal cortex (related to self-reference) • Suggests this type of activity can help ‘separate’ ourselves from our own selfnarratives © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Yoga → Directed breathing while moving body into specific poses • Associated with lower levels of physical and mental stress, more connections between the frontal cortex and areas responsible for emotional responding • Suggests top-down control of attentional and emotional responses Exercise → Can cause increases in dopamine, epinephrine, and BDNF • Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) → Protein that promotes survival, growth, and formation of new synapses in the brain • Exercise supports development of new nerve cells in the hippocampus (memory) © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Perceived Control • Learned Helplessness • Learned suppression of avoidance or escape behaviour in response to unpleasant, uncontrollable circumstances • The person or animal learns their actions cannot remove the stress, and generalizes the feeling of helplessness to other situations • Similar thinking is characteristic of depression, anxiety disorders © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Learned Helplessness: What’s going on in the brain? • When a stressful event is perceived as controllable: • Brainstem produces a stress response (e.g., increased heart rate, blood pressure, etc.) • This response is inhibited by the Frontal Lobes (decreased stress) • When a stressful event is not perceived as controllable: • Brainstem produces a stress response that is uninhibited by the Frontal Lobes (stress) © Ryan Langridge Coping and Well-Being Compensatory Control • Psychological strategies people use to preserve a sense of non-random order when personal control is compromised © Ryan Langridge