Chapter 10.pdf

11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn.   (/account/dashboard) DIGITAL TEXTBOOK Chapter 10: (/resource Racialized Canadians and Immigrants  Notes ce/20/nodes/655/annotations) Search...  Media (/resource/20/nodes/655/student  × files) (/r —Sir George-Étienne Cartier (1814–1873), Father of Confederation https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 1/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Canada sees itself as more of a mosaic than a melting pot. Chapter author: David Este and Christa Sato anada is one of the world’s most ethnically diverse nations. It is also a country that tends to be highly accepting of cultural diversity, and the majority of Canadians pride themselves on that fact. Each new wave of immigrants adds to the richness of the Canadian way of life. Immigrants make positive contributions to our nation’s economy, and they help to define us. Canada is, as has often been said, a mosaic rather than a melting pot. Nothing can be taken for granted, however. The formal acceptance of racial and cultural diversity can be contrasted with the fact that many racialized minorities report that they frequently experience discrimination and unfair treatment. Perhaps nowhere was this more evident than during the 2015 federal election when the Conservative Party sought, unsuccessfully, to focus attention on so-called culturally barbaric practices and Muslim women in Canada who chose to wear the niqab. The challenge ahead is clear. It is not to divide, but to find better ways to help new Canadians settle, raise children, and begin to make their imprint on the Canadian mosaic, free from discrimination of any kind. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 2/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. In this chapter, you will learn how to… describe the history of Canadian immigration policy identify the trends in immigration policy that have led to the increasing ethnic and racial diversity in Canadian society explain current issues related to the settlement and integration of immigrants and refugees in Canada list recent changes in immigration policy that are hampering immigration settlement and integration explain the unique barriers to integration encountered by racialized Canadians, including second-generation Canadians identify the knowledge and skills that can help social work practitioners provide support for immigrant and racialized individuals and their communities Key Concepts Racism Head tax Anti-Semitism Internment Anti-Black racism Immigration policy Immigration classes https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 3/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Racialized minorities/Racialized groups Hate crimes Charter of Rights and Freedoms Family reunification Needs assessment Stage-of-Migration Framework Focusing Question Canada needs immigrants. They contribute to economic growth and enrich Canadian society in many ways. What can social workers do to welcome newcomers and help them to settle, integrate, and contribute to the Canadian mosaic? A Brief History of Race Relations in Canada Most Canadians take great pride in the ethnic and racial diversity of their country. Indeed, in comparison to many other countries, there is much to feel good about. However, we need not look Racism The belief that there are human groups with particular (usually physical) characteristics that make them superior or inferior to others. Racist behaviour can too far back into Canadian history to see be not only overt, such as treating some that ethnic conflict and racism are not people according to their race or colour, completely foreign to the Canadian experience. Moreover, problems in this area continue to the present day. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read but also covert, such as society systemically treating groups according to some form of discriminatory judgement. 4/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Racism persists and even thrives in Thompson Learn. Head tax Canada, according to Lincoln Alexander A flat fee that each Chinese immigrant (1922–2012), a former lieutenant governor had to pay in order to enter Canada. The of Ontario, former chair of the Canadian tax was levied between 1885 and 1923. Race Relations Foundation, and the first Black member of Parliament: As Canadians, we are not doing a very good job. We’re not making the grade. We get a failing grade when police officers in Saskatoon drive Aboriginal men to the outskirts of town and leave them in sub-zero temperatures without winter coats. We get a failing grade when 600 Chinese [citizens] arrive by ships off the coast of British Columbia looking for sanctuary in Canada only to be met with fear and even hatred. . . . We get a failing grade when our schoolyards become a war zone for some visible minority youth because they’re bullied on a regular basis, sometimes with fatal results. We get a failing grade when new immigrants, especially non-white immigrants,. . . subsidize Canada’s economy to the tune of 55 billion dollars each year. . . because skills acquired in their homelands are not recognized in this country (Alexander, 2001). To begin with, then, let us briefly review the historical background that contributed to this troubling state of affairs. (For an exploration of the tensions between Aboriginal peoples and the dominant white Canadian culture, see Chapter 9.) Chinese Immigration and the Head Tax Between 1881 and 1884, some 15,700 Chinese workers were brought to Canada from China to work as contract labourers on the Canadian Pacific Railway (Isajiw, 1999). After its completion, however, a series of laws were put in place to exclude or limit the number of Chinese and South Asian https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 5/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. immigrants to Canada: the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885; the head tax of $50 on Chinese immigrants set in 1885 (raised to $100 in 1901 and to $500 in 1904, an average two-year wage for a Chinese person in Canada); the Immigration Act of 1910 (which established “undesirable” classes of immigrants); and the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1923 (which admitted to Canada only certain specified classes of Chinese people and almost stopped Chinese immigration completely). William Lyon Mackenzie King, then deputy minister of labour, claimed in 1907 that it was “natural that Canada should remain a white man’s country.” The head tax was eliminated in 1923, but other laws, that made it nearly impossible for Chinese men to bring their families to Canada and forced many to be separated from their wives and children for years at a time, remained in place until 1947. In 2000, the Canadian government was faced with a lawsuit by Chinese Canadians demanding compensation for the head tax and other racially motivated measures aimed at limiting immigration from China in the first half of the twentieth century; however, it was unsuccessful. In 2005, the federal government signed a $2.5 million deal with the National Congress of Chinese Canadians and 14 other Chinese-Canadian groups to set up education projects to commemorate those who had paid the tax. On June 22, 2006, Conservative Prime Minister Stephen Harper formally apologized in Parliament for the head tax. Anti-Semitism Anti-semitism refers to prejudice against, hatred of, or discrimination against Jews as an ethnic, religious, or racial group. A person who holds such positions is called an antiSemite. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 6/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. The history of Canada contains various examples of anti-Semitism on the part of our own government. During World War II, for example, it refused entry to the St. Louis, a ship carrying Jews desperate to be admitted to Canada. During and immediately after the war, the government was reluctant to admit European Jews as refugees to Canada. When asked how many Jews would be allowed in after the war, a senior immigration official issued his famous reply: “None is too many.” Anti-Semitism is a form of racism, and its beliefs and practices are still widespread today. Japanese Canadians and Internment During World War I and World War II, the Canadian government instituted a policy of internment of members of ethnic minority groups whom it defined as “enemy aliens.” Immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with which the Allies were at war, were relocated to prison camps in World War I. For the same reason, Japanese Canadians were uprooted from their homes and held in similar camps during World War II. In both cases, the basic human rights of these minority groups were violated. During World War II, the homes, businesses, and property of Japanese Canadians were confiscated, and their lives were turned on end (Isajiw, 1999). Many historians claim that the forced eviction of Japanese Canadians from the Pacific Coast in early 1942 was the greatest mass movement in the history of Canada. It was not until 1949, four years after Japan had surrendered, that the majority of displaced Japanese Canadians were allowed to return to British Columbia. By then, most had begun new lives elsewhere in Canada. It took more than four decades, until 1988, for the Canadian government to announce a comprehensive settlement with surviving members of the https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 7/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Japanese wartime community. It also formally apologized. Japanese Canadians and the government announced compensation packages that included $21,000 for each individual directly wronged during this period. The head tax was meant to discourage Chinese people from entering Canada after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. In this photo, Lee Fum Suey shows his immigration certificate confirming that he paid his head tax. African Canadians’ Experience of Racism The first account of the presence of Black people in Canada was in 1605. Mathieu da Costa, a Black man, is reported to have been travelling with the French explorers who landed in Nova Scotia (formerly Port Royal) in that year. Later, Remembering Africville Today, Canada is a country that prides itself on its multiculturalism and ethnic diversity. But in the 1960s, a different attitude was evidenced by a community the French brought Black slaves to named Africville in the north end of Canada. Slavery was officially introduced Halifax. in Canada by the French in 1628 and was Africville was the result of segregation: continued by the British until 1833–1834, not only were its Black residents when it was abolished throughout the separated from the white residents of British Empire. The next significant migration was that of the “Black Loyalists,” who arrived in Nova Scotia in 1784 following the American War of Independence. Halifax, but their community was also on the outskirts of town. To add insult to injury, between 1964 and 1969 Africville was bulldozed for expansion. Houses were demolished, and residents scattered. Hundreds of Black people who had https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 8/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM fought for their freedom on the side of the British against the Americans were brought to Nova Scotia. They were emancipated and were promised Thompson Learn. In 2010, Halifax mayor Peter Kelly apologized to former residents of Africville and their families, and committed the city to rebuilding the Seaview Baptist United Church, which education, employment, and citizenship, had been the focal point of Africville. The but were essentially left to fend for church now serves as a museum that pays themselves. Many were forced back into tribute to the community. slavery through abject poverty. The situation forced them to ask the British government in England to send them to Africa, and in the late 1790s, many of them were shipped to the British colony of Sierra Leone. In response to the need for cheap labour, however, the British deceived and brought Maroons (runaway slaves) from Jamaica to work on the fortifications at Citadel Hill in Halifax. The Maroons refused to be controlled as slaves by white Nova Scotians, who used them as forced labourers. Many were also shipped to Sierra Leone (Mensah, 2010; Walker, 1995). Another group of Black people taken to Nova Scotia consisted of refugees from the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States. Most Black Nova Scotians are descendants of these refugees. Between 1820 and 1860, Black people used what is known as the Underground Railroad to escape slavery in the United States. As fugitives, slaves, and freedmen, they formed sizable settlements, particularly in southwestern Ontario and the Maritimes. More recently, immigration from the Caribbean and Africa has accounted for the majority of Black Canadians. Anti-Black Racism The existence in Canada of anti-Black racism, racism toward Black people, should not be minimized. Canada actively practised slavery until the nineteenth century (Sheppard, 1997). Even the Black Loyalists who entered Canada as free persons were subject to racist policies. Black Canadians were https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 9/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. subject to legislation that enforced segregated schools and communities and that limited property rights. In 1939, Canada’s highest court found that racial discrimination was legally enforceable (Walker, 1997). Not until 1953–1954 did Canada delete from its statutes discriminatory laws that denied Black citizens the right to pursue formal education, respectable jobs, welfare assistance, and civil and humanitarian rights. Despite this progress, many reports documenting the continuation of antiBlack racism suggest that much of the behaviour is not a matter of isolated events but is instead a systemic issue. According to Frances Henry, relations between police and the Black community have been “fraught with tensions” (1994). Similar conclusions were reached by the Commission on Systemic Racism in the Ontario Criminal Justice System (1995), which reported that discriminatory practices by police against Black men were widespread. Many Black persons have shared their experiences of being stopped and questioned by the police while engaging in normal daily activities, such as driving or going to a movie theatre. The expression “driving while Black” emerged to describe this pattern of racial profiling of Black people. As well, James et al. (2010) provide many examples of how police officers in Halifax, Toronto, and Calgary negatively view Black men, which in turn shapes their regular dealings with this group of citizens. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 10/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read Thompson Learn. 11/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Perceptions of Racism According to new regulations effective January 1, 2017, police must tell people they have a right not to talk with them. Refusing to co-operate with or walking away from police cannot be used as a reason for an officer to elicit information. However, the activist group Black Lives Matter has protested the fact that police can still gather personal information when a routine traffic stop occurs, when a citizen is being arrested or detained, or when a search warrant is executed. Combatting racism wherever it appears The Skin I’m In Post-1976 Immigration to Canada As might be expected in a country comprised largely of immigrants and their descendants, ethnic and race relations in Canada have been heavily influenced by immigration policy. Prior to 1967, when important new immigration legislation came into force, “nationality” was the main criterion for Multiculturalism admission to Canada. Canadian In 1971, Canada became the first country immigration policy was undoubtedly Eurocentric—immigration was to adopt multiculturalism as an official policy. The policy aimed to create a more encouraged from white Europe and discouraged from the rest of the world. In https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 12/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM 1967, new legislation introduced a system of immigration classes known as the “point system,” whereby prospective Thompson Learn. integrated Canadian society by providing our diverse ethnic minority groups with a sense of belonging to Canada. immigrants had to qualify based on such In 1988, the Multiculturalism Act was criteria as education, work experience, passed, restating and reinforcing the 1971 language fluency, and age. “Country of origin” was no longer an explicit criterion in the selection process. The inevitable consequence of the new legislation was a new wave of skilled immigrants from Asia, Africa, and South and Central America. policy and mandating that federal departments ensure equal opportunities in employment for all ethnic and racial groups. In order to implement the policy, the Canadian government created the Multicultural Directorate, which in turn developed a range of programs designed to help it fulfill the policy’s objectives. The shift was dramatic. Prior to 1961, over 90 percent of all immigrants were from Europe, and over half of these were from Northern and Western Europe and the United Kingdom. Immigrants from Asia made up only a small percentage (3.1 percent) of all immigrants arriving in the country. By the 1990s, however, Europeans made up only about one fifth of all immigrants, while the largest number, close to 60 percent, came from Asia. The remaining proportion (16.6 percent) came from Central and South America, the Caribbean and Bermuda, and the United States. In addition, the largest proportion of European immigrants came not from the United Kingdom or Northern and Western Europe, but from Eastern Europe. (See Figure 10.1.) According to the 2011 National Household Survey (NHS), in that year Canada had about 6,775,800 foreign-born individuals (Statistics Canada, 2011). They represented 26.6 percent of the total population, compared with 19.8 percent in 2006. In 2013, Canada admitted 258,953 permanent residents (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2013a). The top three source countries https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 13/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. in 2013 were the People’s Republic of China, India, and the Philippines. The proportion of the three major immigration classes was as follows: 51.2 percent were economic immigrants (along with their spouse/partner and dependants); 31.6 percent were in the family class; and 11.2 percent were protected persons and others. “Visible Minorities”—An Outmoded Term With this shift in immigration came a substantial increase in the so-called visible minority population in Canada. Although this term is still widely used in government circles, it has rightly come under criticism, even by outside organizations such as the United Nations. Many argue that the term “racialized minorities” or ”racialized groups” is preferable, since these terms make clear that race is not a biological concept but a socially constructed one. Furthermore, the term “visible minority” supports a practice whereby non-white groups are categorized almost solely by race, whereas white groups are not. In 2011, the racialized population in Canada was approximately 6,264,800 (Statistics Canada, 2011), or 19.1 percent of the total population. Of these, 30.9 percent were born in Canada, and 65.1 percent were born outside the country. A small percentage (4 percent) were non-permanent. The three largest racialized groups—South Asians, Chinese, and Blacks—represented 61.3 percent of the racialized population. The vast majority lived in Ontario, British Columbia, Québec, and Alberta. Seven out of ten lived in Toronto, Montréal, or Vancouver. Statistics Canada projects that by 2017, one half of all racialized minorities in Canada will be South Asian or Chinese and that the size of each group will be around 1.8 million. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 14/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. The Implications of Immigration to Canada Immigration classes It is anticipated that the racialized business owners, and entrepreneurs. population of Canada will continue to rise as a percentage of the total Canadian population. For example, the Black population is expected to reach one million by 2017. The groups that are expected to grow the fastest are the West Economic class includes skilled workers, Family class requires a sponsor to provide economic and personal support for three to ten years. Refugee class includes individuals who need protection from persecution in their home country. Asian, Korean, and Arab communities. According to most projections, the size of each of these groups will more than double (Belanger and Malenfant, 2005). The substantial increase in the racialized population in recent years has already affected public policy (e.g., multiculturalism and anti-racism policy) and will continue to do so. This increase in our ethnic and racial diversity has enriched Canada and the lives of its citizens, and the demographic changes need not result in ethnic and racial conflict. However, other factors, such as a serious downturn in the economy, and policies and institutional procedures that intervene and foster ethnic and racial divisions, may affect the social impact of this underlying demographic change. As a result, social workers and other front-line workers face a new set of issues today. They need to be sensitive to religious and cultural differences within the populations they serve. They also need to deal directly with the damaging effects of discrimination and racism on the personal well-being of their clients. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 15/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Figure 10.1 There has been a substantial shift in the countries of origin of Canadian immigrants since the introduction of the points system as the basis of immigrant selection in 1967. Source: Statistics Canada. (2011). National Household Survey, 2011. Ottawa. Combatting Hate Crimes in Canada https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 16/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. When people are the targets of violence because of who they are, or who they are thought to be, they are the victims of hate crimes. The promotion of hate based on race, religion, ethnic origin, or sexual orientation is widespread. There is a growing consensus about the need for consistent and firm policy responses Islamophobia from the criminal justice system at all From 2010 to 2013, Muslim populations levels. had the highest percentage of female hate- Canadian Human Rights Legislation related to the fact that the practice of National human rights legislation in Canada began with the passage of the Canadian Bill of Rights in 1960. Later in that decade, provinces enacted similar crime victims (47 percent). This may be wearing head coverings may make religious identity more visible for Muslim women than for men. For example, the National Council of Canadian Muslims noted that a particularly high percentage legislation, and by 1975 all provinces in of attacks against individuals involved Canada had human rights codes. In Muslim women wearing hijabs (National general, both federal and provincial Council of Canadian Muslims, 2015). human rights law prohibits the dissemination of hate propaganda and discrimination in all aspects of employment, the leasing and sale of property, public accommodation, services and facilities, and membership in labour unions and professional associations. Grounds of discrimination vary slightly depending on the jurisdiction. In 1982, the Canadian Bill of Rights was superseded by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees the fundamental freedoms of conscience and religion, thought, belief, opinion and expression https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 17/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. (including freedom of the press and other media), and peaceful assembly and association. It guarantees democratic rights, geographical mobility rights, legal rights (including the right to life, liberty, and security of person), and equality rights that protect against “discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability.” The Charter also reinforces official bilingualism in Canada by affirming the equality of the English and French languages and by affirming the rights of children to be educated in either language. It also affirms the multicultural character of Canada and recognizes the rights of Canada’s Indigenous peoples. Finally, it emphasizes that all the rights and freedoms are guaranteed equally to male and female persons. Police-Reported Hate Crimes in Canada Passing laws is one thing; implementing them is another, however. All the provinces and territories and the federal government have human rights commissions charged with addressing human rights abuses. While these commissions have had some success, they have unfortunately often been hampered by limited resources and case backlogs. Furthermore, since such commissions are by their nature complaints-driven, it is generally felt that many victims of discrimination, perhaps because they are new to the country, do not have the financial resources or even the time to report discrimination and initiate the lengthy complaints process. Our information on the extent of hate crimes comes only from anecdotal evidence and official police reports. For example, in 2013, the police reported 1,167 criminal incidents that were motivated by hate. Approximately half (51 percent) were motivated by hatred of a race or ethnic group. Another 28 percent were motivated by hatred of religion, and 16 percent were motivated by hatred of an individual’s sexual orientation (Allen, 2015). (See Figure 10.2.) https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 18/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. With regard to hate crimes related to race or ethnicity, Black populations were the most frequently targeted (22 percent) in 2013. Of religion-motivated hate crimes, those targeting Jewish populations were the most common (16 percent). Four in ten (40 percent) police-reported hate crimes in 2013 involved violent offences, such as assault, uttering threats, and criminal harassment. Overall, the number of violent hate crimes increased 4 percent from the previous year, driven by increases in common assault and uttering threats. A Role for Social Workers The federal government demonstrated strong leadership in combatting hate crimes by amending the Criminal Code Hate crimes Prejudice-motivated crimes, often violent, which occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her membership in 1996 to strengthen sentencing for any (or perceived membership) in a certain offence that is motivated by hate (Bill C- social group. Such groups can include but 41). The move prompted community discussion, raised overall awareness of the issues, and helped to mobilize are not limited to: ethnicity, disability, language, nationality, physical appearance, religion, gender identity, or sexual orientation. communities. It also highlighted the need for stronger responses in cases in which hate-motivated incidents occur and may go unreported. For their part, front-line social workers are using innovative anti-racist approaches that emphasize community empowerment to combat hate crimes. Since hate crimes do not occur in a vacuum, education and community work can help prevent them and act as an important complement to hate crime laws. Social workers are involved in outreach and consultation, education, and awareness activities and in fostering the creation of advocacy and support groups. In struggling against overt racism of this kind, social workers also work closely with community organizations https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 19/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. to promote an anti-racist perspective through education. This may involve producing brochures on anti-racism, going into schools and engaging students on the issues, or speaking out about adverse community conditions and the need for government action on unsatisfactory living conditions. With their roots firmly in the locality, social workers and other community workers can also provide feedback on what works and what does not. This kind of collaborative, community-based approach to combatting overt racism can go a long way in helping to minimize the extent of hate-crime activity and to strengthen the resolve and solidarity of its victims. Hatemotivated crimes will not go away on their own—they need to be addressed head on, not only by those immediately affected but by all those who oppose such acts. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 20/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Figure 10.2 Police-reported hate crimes in Canada, by type of motivation. The information in this chart reflects data reported by police services covering 99 percent of the population of Canada. Source: Allen, Mary. (2015). Police-reported hate crime in Canada, 2013. Juristat. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Ottawa. Current Issues Pertaining to Immigrant Resettlement Canadian social workers play an indispensable role in the immigrant Welcoming New Canadians resettlement process at all levels. They Colleges and universities across the not only provide direct support to the country have a long history of welcoming immigrants themselves, but also help create the broader conditions for their successful integration into Canadian society. A strong knowledge of immigration policy and recent shifts in this area is, therefore, essential. Three issues that have risen to the surface in recent years that are likely to affect directly the kinds of work practitioners do with clients deserve special mention: skills recognition, family reunification backlogs, and Canada’s foreign worker immigrants and refugees, for whom language training and skills upgrading are often a priority as they seek employment in the Canadian job market. Many colleges and universities work in close partnership with community organizations to help coordinate the various tasks required to welcome newcomers to Canada. Leveraging these resources will become especially important over the coming years, for example, if we are to ensure the successful integration of large numbers of Syrian refugees into our communities. program. Foreign Education and Skills Recognition https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 21/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Historically, Canada’s immigration policy has centred on attracting persons who are highly skilled and highly educated and who ultimately can contribute to the nation’s economic growth. Many immigrants make the decision to leave their home countries with aspirations of living the “Canadian Dream,” a chance at a better life with more opportunities. Unfortunately, the reality for highly skilled individuals is often closer to a “Canadian Nightmare” because their skills are often neither recognized nor valued. Many have no recourse but to accept lower-skilled, lower-paying jobs. This is known as underemployment. There is, according to Bhandari, Horvath, and To (2006), an underlying problem with an immigration policy that awards points based on education and skills if these skills are not ultimately valued as “Canadian experience.” The result is what we see— namely, a lack of recognition of foreign credentials and experience (Guo, 2009; Ngo and Este, 2006; Wayland, 2006). The lack of consistent, transparent, and fair assessment practices in relation to occupational and academic credentials is consistently identified in the literature as a major stumbling block for immigrants. Racism and other forms of discrimination also play a part—research consistently shows that newcomers often experience both subtle and direct forms of racism (Esses et al., 2007; Guo, 2009; Ighadaro, 2006). In addition, there is often an automatic assumption, not based on fact, that all foreign credentials are not up to Canadian standards and that therefore immigrant professionals must be required to upgrade their education if they want to work in positions that match their education level (Ngo and Este, 2006). That there would be such a problem likely did not even occur to these professionals when they first applied to immigrate to Canada. As a result, many qualified newcomers are not able to contribute fully to the Canadian economy and society, with all the accompanying hardships for them and their families. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 22/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. What does this mean for the individual social worker? Many immigrant professionals are severely affected emotionally and financially by the lack of recognition of their prior educational achievements and previous work experience. Social workers must be able to provide the necessary information and support services to help guide them through this difficult period. In January 2016, the Government of Canada announced that it would invest $50 million over the next two years to develop a framework to speed up the assessment and recognition of foreign credentials. Just as important, it is necessary to advocate on behalf of such newcomers— for example, with governments, professional associations, educational institutions, and employers. Such advocacy can address systemic and structural obstacles that prevent immigrant professionals and their families from seeking out jobs for which they are qualified so that they can begin to make a real contribution to Canadian society. Family Reunification Backlogs and Delays Family reunification Although parents and grandparents make Under the Immigration and Refugee up only a small portion of immigrants in the family class (six to eight percent of all immigrants), this group continues to be the focus of Canadian policy debates. This is because the processing for family reunification is extraordinarily slow. Protection Act and associated regulations, a Canadian citizen or permanent resident of Canada aged at least 18 is allowed, subject to certain conditions, to sponsor specific members of their immediate family for permanent residence in Canada. For refugees entering Canada, family reunification delays can be especially stressful: Long delays increase risks to family members overseas in conflict zones or refugee camps. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 23/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Living conditions may endanger the health of family members and affect children’s education, leading to increased social costs when they finally come to Canada. Long separations exact a heavy psychological toll. Prolonged family separation has its most negative impacts on children. It seems obvious that people with relatives in Canada will be better able to settle here and contribute to Canadian society. Yet many children wait over two years before being able to reunite with their parents in Canada. For refugee families, the wait is 31 months. Fulfulling an election promise, in early 2016 the new Liberal immigration minister, John McCallum, announced an increase to the number of applications the Canadian government would accept from parents and grandparents who want to immigrate to Canada, from 5,000 to 10,000 per year. However, with over 14,000 applications arriving within the first four days of the program in 2016, raising the cap a little still leaves a lot of disappointed families. New approaches are definitely called for. For example, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, or IRCC (formerly Citizenship and Immigration Canada), introduced an Express Entry program for economic immigrants. For immigrants with a valid job offer, IRCC will process applications within six months. For many professionals working to help immigrants settle in Canada, this has raised the question as to whether families’ reunification applications should not be processed at least as quickly as those for economic immigrants, considering the enormous relief it would bring to the applicants themselves and their Canadian families. Figure 10.3 Comparative processing times (in months) by class for immigrants to Canada. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 24/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Figure 10.4 Comparative processing times (in months) by region for family members of refugees. Source: Canadian Council for Refugees. (2015). Data from Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. United, we stand... Temporary Foreign Workers in Canada Intake and Needs Assessment Canada’s Indigenous peoples were here first, and will always deserve first place, but the subsequent history of Canada is one of immigration. Successive waves of newcomers have come to Canada, settled, raised families, and contributed to Canadian society. Given the ongoing need for immigrants, it is highly likely that social workers, especially those who Accessing Health Care In April 2012, at the Conservative federal government announced changes to the Interim Federal Health Program, a program in existence since 1957. All refugees lost access to medication coverage, vision care, and dental care. Those from “Designated Countries” lost practise in large urban centres, will work all coverage, except in circumstances with individuals or families from these involving public health or security. communities. The cutbacks were initially directed at all Canadian social work programs, in recent years, have recognized the need to ensure that social work curriculum is complete https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read refugees. After considerable public pressure, only Government Assisted Refugees (GARs) were spared from the cuts. 25/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. with content related to newcomer populations, including immigrants, refugees, and temporary foreign workers. This was underlined in the recently revised Canadian Association for Social Work Education’s Standards for Accreditation at both the B.S.W. and M.S.W. levels. However, several scholars, such as Herberg (1985) and Yan and Chan (2010), have posed this important question: How well are social workers today prepared for working with newcomers? Assessing Needs and Advocating on Behalf of Newcomers Effective practice with immigrants begins with a needs assessment. This process is continuous, and it is participatory. Essentially, it seeks to understand the client and his/her situation, and sets a framework for how change can be achieved (Coulshed and Orme, 2012). As in other areas of social work practice, it is critical to gain a thorough understanding of process. A useful tool is Drachman’s Stage-of-Migration Framework. This framework provides key questions that can be used to guide the assessment process with immigrants and their families. The outcomes of this inquiry process provide social workers (in consultation with the particular service users themselves) with clear guidance in determining the types of intervention that may be required to address prevailing concerns. It is also imperative for social workers to be knowledgeable about the various kinds of challenges that immigrants experience in their efforts to settle and adapt to life in Canada. Some of these issues include language barriers, underemployment, unfamiliarity with the different systems available to them https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 26/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. (such as education, health, and social services), lack of support, role reversals and family conflict, and, for some, making the transition from living in rural environments to large urban centres. Quite frequently, and understandably, newcomers are simply not aware of what services may be available or which ones they are eligible for when they first arrive. Hence, being informed and being able to provide information, and following up on it with them, is critical when assisting immigrants in settling in and fully intergrating into mainstream Canadian society. Another important role is serving as brokers on behalf of new immigrants. This includes contributing to the development of programs and services that facilitate the settlement process. A Stage-of-Migration Framework Assessing Immigrants’ Needs Let’s think big for once Canada and the Syrian Refugee Crisis Working from one’s cultural lens https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 27/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Toward an Anti-Racist Social Work Practice Social work practice with immigrant youth in schools Working within the Education System Social work practice with second-generation Canadians Working with Racialized Canadians Social work practice with people displaced by war or disaster Refugees and Displaced Persons https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 28/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Social Work Practitioner Francis Boakye Francis Boakye, who helps immigrants at the Centre for Newcomers, says the city of Calgary has made great strides in terms of welcoming immigrants. Chapter 10 Review https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 29/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Review Questions Describe three major events in Canadian history that illustrate racial injustice. What is meant by a “hate crime”? What is the extent of hate crimes in Canada? What is social work’s role in addressing such crimes? Explain what is meant by systemic racism and give some examples of systemic racism in Canada. What is anti-racist social work? Describe three strategies that social workers can use to deal with racism in Canadian society. Describe three major roles that social workers should perform in assisting immigrants and refugees to settle into Canadian society. Provide the rationale for your choices. In recent years, changes in social policy have impacted the ability of newcomers to resettle in Canada. Discuss reasons why it is important for social work practitioners to be aware of policies that affect their practice with immigrants and refugees. There is general agreement in the social work literature that advocacy is a critical skill for social workers to possess. Describe the different types of advocacy that practitioners can use to assist racialized Canadians in their struggle against the racism and discrimination they encounter on a daily basis. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 30/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Exploring Social Work A story in The Globe and Mail included an account of a police arrest operation: “Parked directly outside his… office was a large, grey, cube-shaped truck and, on the ground nearby, he recognized one of the two brown-skinned young men who had taken possession of the next door rented unit.…” Critics consider the use of the term “brown-skinned” to be racist. What do you think? Is this an example of racism in the Canadian media? Some researchers have identified systemic barriers in our mental health care system for racial and ethnic minorities. Research systemic racism in the mental health care system and write a two-page report to summarize your findings. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 31/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. Websites Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) (http://www.cic.gc.ca) Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada is the department of the federal government responsible for dealing with immigration, refugees, and citizenship. The department was originally established in 1994 following a reorganization, and it was renamed from Citizenship and Immigration Canada to its current name with the swearing in of the new Liberal government in 2015. Canadian Race Relations Foundation (CRRF) (http://www.crr.ca) The federal government proclaimed the Canadian Race Relations Foundation Act into law on October 28, 1996. The Canadian Race Relations Foundation (CRRF) officially opened its doors in November 1997. The Foundation is committed to building a national framework for the fight against racism in Canadian society. It operates at arm’s length from the federal government, and its employees are not part of the federal public service. The CRRF has an excellent online media centre offering access to its publications. Canadian Anti-racism Education and Research Society (CAERS) (http://www.stopracism.ca) The Canadian Anti-racism Education and Research Society (CAERS) is a Canadian non-profit organization that tracks hate groups and extremism, provides direct support to victims of racism and discrimination, and lobbies government and governmental agencies for the development of effective policy and legislation to stop racism. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (http://www.unhcr.ca) https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 32/33 11/30/23, 10:37 AM Thompson Learn. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is the world’s leading organization aiding and protecting people forced to flee their homes due to violence, conflict, and persecution. Since its formation by the United Nations General Assembly in 1950, UNHCR has helped millions of refugees restart their lives and has twice received the Nobel Peace Prize. UNHCR’s staff of 9,300 work in more than 125 countries.  (/resource/20/nodes/654/read)  (/resource/20/nodes/656/read)  About Us (http://thompsonbooks.com/about-tep/) Contact (http://thompsonbooks.com/contact-us/) Privacy Policy (http://thompsonbooks.com/privacy/) Terms & Conditions (https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/terms-and-conditions/) © Copyright 2023 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. https://learn.thompsonbooks.com/resource/20/nodes/655/read 33/33

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