ch6 LTM - Cognitive note.pdf

Lecture 6 Chapter 6 Long Term Memory Key terms: 1. Declarative -> episodic and semantic 2. Procedural 3. Distinguish between long term memory from short term memory - serial position, curve and effect - Neuropsychology (the patient HM) (Clive wearing) (the patient K.F.) 4. Coding in Short term (vi...

Lecture 6 Chapter 6 Long Term Memory Key terms: 1. Declarative -> episodic and semantic 2. Procedural 3. Distinguish between long term memory from short term memory - serial position, curve and effect - Neuropsychology (the patient HM) (Clive wearing) (the patient K.F.) 4. Coding in Short term (visual coding, auditory coding) long term memory (semantic encoding) - Wicken 1976 - Sachs 1967 - Recognition, free call and cued recall 5. Neuropsychological approaches to the Study of STM - lesion studies - impairments - spared abilities - double dissociation between STM and LTM (the patient K.C) (Italian woman) 6. Ranganath & D’Esposito 2001 7. Types of LTM - Tulving 1985 = different between episodic and semantic 8. Separation of episodic and semantic memories - Levine 2004 9. Interaction between episodic and semantic memories 10. Familiarity (semantic memory) and recollection (episodic memory) 11. The effect of time - Patrician 2010 12. Implicit memory = Procedural memory and Priming, repetition priming 13. Implicit memory in everyday experience • Perfect and Askew 1994 • Classical conditioning: e.g. Little Albert Distinction between STM and LTM 1. Serial position curve to test Primacy effect Murdoch 1962 indication: memory is better for words at the beginning or at the end of the list than words in the middle key term: Primacy effect S - superior memory for stimuli presented at the beginning of a sequence - the longer rehearsal time available for the earlier words on the list procedure: 1. Ppt had time to rehearse these words and transfer them to LTM 2. Ppt begin rehearsing the first word right after it is presented 3. When the second word is presented, attention becomes spread over two words, and so on -> less rehearsal is possible for latter words Rundus 1971 procedures: primacy effect rehearse more -> likely to enter LTM 1. presenting a list of 20 words at a rate of 1 word every 5 seconds 2. ask ppt to write down all words they could remember 3. experimental group: ask ppt to study the list as it was being presented by repeating the words out loud during the 5 -second intervals between words 4. ppt were not told which words to repeat result: red curve demonstrate the same primacy and recency effect = word presented early in the list were rehearsed more -> more likely to be remembered later 2. Serial position curve to test Recency effect Glanzer & Cunitz 1966 key term: Recency effect • memory better for stimuli presented at the end of list • stimuli: the most recently presented words are still in STM procedure: 1. ppt count backward for 30 seconds right after hearing the last words of the list -> counting prevented rehearsal and allowed time for information to be lost from STM results: blue dashed curve • delayed caused the counting -> eliminated the recency effect = recency effect is due to storage of recently presented items in STM 3. Coding in short term & long term memory key term: coding • the form stimuli are represented 1. Visual coding • (STM) Recalling visual patterns: remember a pattern by representing it visually in mind • (LTM) Create a picture in your mind of a person/ place from the past e.g use a visual LTM coding when you are recalling the wonderful view from your holiday / recall a face of your friend when you surprised him at his birthday party (pictures cannot put into words) 2. Auditory coding • (STM) the phonological similarity effect: people misidentify a target letter as another letter because they sound similar ‘F’ ’S’. • (LTM) coding occurs when you play a sound in your head / when listening to a CD that has a short period of silence between tracks, people ‘hear’ the beginning of the next music during the silence period. = the auditory representation from LTM is triggered by the end of the previous song. 3. Semantic coding • (STM) Wicken 1976 Procedure: 1. Each trial, ppt were presented with words related to ‘Fruits group’ and ‘profession groups’ 2. Ppt in each group first listened to three examples e.g. banana, peach, apple ‘Fruit group’ 3. Ppt count backward for 15 seconds, then attempt to recall the three words 4. They did this for a total of 4 trial. Ppt recalled the words so soon after hearing them, they were supposedly using their STM. Semantic coding in STM To test using proactive interference to demonstrate semantic coding in STM • Proactive interference is expected to occur when words are from the same category were presented in a series of trails. Procedures are same as the ‘Fruit group’ key term: release from proactive interference Result: • Profession groups performance is high in trail 1 and then drops in trial 2 and 3 • Trail 4: the names of fruits were presented, which are from different semantic category • Proactive interference built up as the professions were being presented in the first three - trials is stopped, therefore performance increase in trial 4. 3 Coding in LTM Semantic coding Sachs 1967 • (LTM) Procedure: 1. Ppt first listened to a tape recording of a passage 2. Ppt were given 4 multiple choices and asked to indicate whether they remembered the exact wording of some sentences in the passage or just the general meaning of the passage. result: - can’t remember specific wordings but remember the general meaning for a long time - descriptions in term of meaning proved semantic coding in LTM 'T E 4. Free recall: minimal information from experimenter e.g. simply says ‘remember’ and the context is implied e.g. fill in the blanks exam questions 5. Cue recalled: experimenter also gives parts of information or some related information Neuropsychology Locating memory in the brain 1. the patient H.M. Purpose: to eliminate his severe epileptic seizures ~facial , shape form ~memory procedure: removal a large part of H.M.’s medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus on both sides of his brain -> decrease his seizures and unintended outcome of eliminating his ability to form new LTM H.M. situation: • STM remain intact (complete) - could remember what had just happened • Unable to transfer any of this information into LTM • Hippocampus : play a role in forming new LTM • STM and LTM are separate regions VSTM X LTM 2. Clive Wearing Clive Wearing situation: • Brain damage: destroyed parts of his medial temporal lobe include hippocampus and amygdala • live within recent one or two minutes of his life e.g. if he meets someone and the person left the room and return in 3 minutes, Wearing reacts as if he hadn’t met the person earlier. result = proved STM & LTM are divided Both H.M. and Wearing’s situation = hippocampus is crucial for LTM and but not STM X LTM U STM LTM) 3. K.F. X episodic memory ULTM K.F. ’s situation: XSTM • Normal LTM but poor STM • suffered parietal lobe damage • Poor STM: strongly reduced digit span of 2 (normal people is 5-9 digits) • Free call: Recency effect of serial position curve is reduced • Intact LTM: his ability to form and hold new memories of events in his life Double dissociation STM H.M. Clive Wearing K.F * LTM 3 Ok impaired No hippocampus impaired Ok No parietal STM & LTM are independent. Brain imaging Ranganath and D’Esposito 2001 purpose: to examine whether the hippocampus, we now know is crucial for forming new long term memories and might in holding information for short period of time. procedure: 1. Present a sequence of stimuli to ppt as they were having brain scanned 2. A sample face was presented for 1 second 3. 7 seconds delay period 4. a test face is presented 5. Ppt were asked to decide whether test face matched the sample face In ‘familiar face’ condition, they saw faces that they had seen prior to the experiment. Hippocampus increased as ppt were holding novel faces in memory during the 7 seconds delay but hippocampus changed slightly for the familiar faces results: • hippocampus is involved in maintaining novel information in memory in short delays • hippocampus & medial temporal lobe structures once thought to be involved only in LTM and STM • STM & LTM are not disconnected and independent: especially novel stimuli e.g. faces, foreign language words that you have never seen/heard before Distinctions between episodic & semantic memory : Differences in experience Types of Long Term Memory Episodic memory: experiences Semantic memory: facts distinguish STM and LTM based on the information remembered. Tulving 1985 Suggestion: difference between episodic and semantic memory can be distinguished based on the type of experience associated with each Key term: mental travel time definition: the experience of travelling back in time to reconnect with events that happened in the past In Episodic memory: e.g. I can travel back in my mind to remember climbing the Eiffel Tower and enjoying the panoramic view over Paris. I can also remember some of the emotions I was experiencing and other details such as sun on my skin, and the expectation of what we were going to see next = I remember this incident. I feel as if I am reliving it. —> mental traveling time: self-knowing or remembering : people need to travel back in time of encoding and learning period to determine which items they have studied/ seen/ heard before. In Semantic memory: Definition: accessing knowledge about the world that does not have to be tied to remember a personal experience or specific encoding/ encoding period. e.g. facts, vocabulary, numbers and concepts. —> people are travelling back to a specific event from our past but we are accessing things we are familiar with and know about. e.g. I know about Paris, where it is located, famous for its Eiffel Tower and capital of France but I can’t exactly remember when I learned these things. Episodic vs Semantic LTM: Neuropsychology Distinguish between STM & LTM + Episodic & Semantic memory 1. the patient K.C. patient K.C.’s situation: • damage in hippocampus and surrounding structures -> lost in episodic memory => no longer relive any of the events of his past => know the certain things in his past correspond to semantic memory e.g. he is aware of the fact that his brother died 2 years ago but can’t remember personal experiences related to his death such as what he experienced at the funeral e.g. he remembers eating utensils are located in the kitchen => he lost episodic part but not semantic part 2. An Italian woman Italian woman’s situation: • opposite to K.C. situation • lost in semantic memory *** suffered encephalitis -> difficulty recognising familiar people, trouble shopping in the store because she can’t remember the meaning of words on the shopping list, no longer recognise famous people or recall facts like identity • remember events in her life and form new episodic memory e.g. she remember what she had done during the day and things that had happened two months ago. K.C. Italian woman semantic Ok episodic impaired impaired Ok Separation Episodic and Semantic memories 1. Levine 2004 purpose: fMRI shows areas activated by episodic and semantic memories procedure: 1. Ppt were asked to keep diaries on audiotape describing everyday personal events 2. Ppt were asked to keep diaries on facts drawn from their semantic knowledge 3. Ppt were listening to their audiotape while scanning their brain under fMRI result: - Yellow areas: brain area associated with episodic memories - Blue areas: brain area associated with semantic, factual knowledge (person/non-personal) => yellow and blue overlapped areas => episodic and semantic memories are interacted Interaction between episodic & semantic memory knowledge & Semantic (how to play) Knowledge affect experience • British or Indian wholearned to play cricket from an early age onwards, will have a episodic completely difference experience watching a cricket than someone from Germany, who have never seen such match before and no idea about rules and manoeuvre. = our knowledge (semantic memory) guides our experience and influences the episodic memories that follow from that experiences. ↑ Knowledge -> semantic memory Experiences S Episodic memory ↳ autobiographical memory contains both semantic and episodic component autobiographical memory: memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components. e.g. consider the autobiographical memory “When I met Paul and Joanna at the coffee place Café Central yesterday, we sat at our favourite table, which is located near the window and often occupied on Friday afternoon when most people have finished work.” Personal semantic memory: semantic component: memory of facts associated with personal experiences e.g. There is another coffee place — Espresso Lab - down the road from the Café Central. What happens to episodic and semantic memories as time passes? Different gradations and qualities of forgetting and remembering. 1. Familiarity example 1 : That person looks familiar. Where did I meet him? example 2 : There’s Erik. Where did I meet him? • the person seems familiar and you might remember the name, but you can’t remember any details about specific experience involving that person. • Associate with semantic memory because it is not associated with the circumstances under which knowledge was acquired. 2. Recollection example 3 : There’s Erik, who I met at the coffee shop last Monday. We talked about the weather. • remembering specific experiences related to the person • associated with the episodic memory because it includes details about what was happening when the knowledge was acquired and an awareness of the event as it was experienced in the past. Recollection & Familiarity are measured using the remember/ know procedure. The effect of time Petrican 2010 Key word: semanticisation of remote memories purpose: how people’s memory for public events changes over time by presenting descriptions of events that had happened over a 50-year period older adult. procedures: 1. remember. If the stimulus is familiar and they also remember the circumstances under which they originally encountered. 2. know. If the stimulus seems familiar but they don’t remember experiencing it earlier 3. don’t know. If they don’t remember the stimuli at all result: • Complete forgetting increased over time (red bar) • remember responses decreased (episodic) much more than know responses (semantic) -> meaning that memories for 40-50 year old events had lost much of their episodic character semanticisation of remote memories - loss of episodic detail for memories of long-ago events. Mental Time Travel Key term: Shorter-term semanticisation and semanticisation of remoto memory Addis 2007 purpose: this loss of episodic details has been demonstrated both long-ago events and short period as one week Shorter-term semanticisation: consider personal experiences e.g. remember the details of what you did earlier today or yesterday but fewer details about what happened a week ago semanticisation of remoto memory: how you have acquired the knowledge that makes up your semantic memories e.g. when you were in the last year of your primary school, you may have learned that Caesar was murdered 44 BC, one year after he announced himself as the absolute leader of the Roman Empire. Right after learning this, you might have found it easy to remember what was going on in the class. You might find it easy to remember what the teacher showed you about the Romans, what the classroom looked like… etc -> remember all these details about the circumstances of learning comes under the heading of episodic memory. -> the fact how and when Caesar died is semantic memory. many years later e.g. you may remember the semantic memory about the murder of Caesar but forget the episodic memory about the specific day you learned that information semantic memory: the knowledge of semantic memory is initially attained through personal experiences that are the basis of episodic memory (but episodic memory faded, only semantic memory remains. Types of Long Term Memory 1. Implicit memory • when learning from experience is not accompanied by conscious remembering. e.g. we do many things without being able to explain how we do them. These abilities come under the heading of procedural memories. 2. Explicit memory and declarative memory • we are aware of and can talk about or declare e.g. tell someone about about vocation (episodic memory) and knowing the direction (semantic memory) 3. procedural memories = Skilled memory • memory for doing something that usually involved learned skills. e.g. tying your shoes. You may had a hard time describing and explaining to another person how you did it. application: 1. Clive Wearing 2. Amnesic patients can master new skills even though they don’t remember any of the practise that led to this mastery 3. H.M. whose amnesia was caused by having his hippocampus removed (impaired forming LTM) , practised a task called ‘mirror drawing’ which involve copying a picture that is seen in a mirror. -> he became quite good at mirror drawing but he can’t form LTM so he always thought he was practising the first time. => illustrate the implicit nature of procedural memory ~implicity explicit x amnesia Key concepts: 1. STM and LTM are interdependent 2. Procedural memory is different Parkinson ~ Explicit-> memory I no dissociate hippocampus U procedural procedural memory . Priming, Repetition priming, Lexical decision task key terms: Priming, Repetition priming, Lexical decision task 1. Priming • when presentation of one stimulus (the prime stimulus) changes the way a person responds to another stimulus (the test stimulus) 2. Repetition priming • FECUL when the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the priming stimulus. • called implicit memory because the priming effect can occur even though ppt may not consciously remember the presentation the priming stimuli. e.g. seeing the word bird may cause you to respond more quickly to a later presentation of bird than to a word you had not seen, even though you may not remember seeing bird earlier * 3. Lexical decision task • Ppt have to indicate as quickly as possible whether a presented letter string is a word (bird, mask) or non- word (stril, daft). … Graf 1985 purpose: test implicit / explicit memory -> to ensure a person doesn’t remember the presentation of the priming stimulus is to test patients with amnesia procedure: three groups of ppts 1. Amnesia patients with Korsakof’s syndrome(alcohol abuse, do not have ability to form LTM) 2. Patients do not have amnesia who were under treatment for alcoholism 3. Patients without amnesia who had no history of alcoholism procedure: 1. Ppt were asked to read a 10-word list and rate how much they like each word -> ppt to focus on rating the words rather than on committing the words to memory 2. After rating, ppt were asked to recall the words they had read 3. word completion test is a test of implicit memory - proved - contain first 3 letters of the 10 words that ppt had seen earlier (experimental group) - the first 3 letters of 10 words they had not seen earlier (control group) result: • implicit memory is present in experimental group, comparatively many word stems are completed with the words that had been presented before • the Amnesia patients recalled fewer words than the two control groups • the Amnesia patients poor recalled confirms the poor explicit memory associated with - their Amnesia • word completion test -> the priming words that were created indicate the Amnesia patients performed just as well as the controls. • the (alcohol)Korsakof patients perform as well as the two non- amnesia groups, even though they had poor memory in the recall test. Implicit memory in Everyday Experience TBP. 182 -> biased information key terms: Propagranda effect Perfect and Askew (1994) purpose: implicit memory affect our behaviour without our awareness when we are exposed to advertisement procedure: 1. ask ppt to scan articles in magazine 2. each page of print was faced by an advertisement but ppt were not told to pay attention to the advertisement 3. ppt were asked to rate a number of advertisement on various dimensions such as how appealing, eye-catching 4. Ppt gave higher ratings to the ones they had been exposed to results: • an effect of implicit memory because when the ppt were asked to indicate which advertisement had been presented at the beginning of the experiement, they only recognise an average 2.8 out of 25 advertisement • Propagranda effect : ppt are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, simply because they have been exposed to them before. => it involves implicit memory because it can operate even when people are not aware that they have heard or seen the statement before, and may even have thought it was false when they first heard it