Sport Psychology Chapter 13 PDF

The Mental Side of Human Performance Sport Psychology Chapter 13 Sport Books Publisher 1 History of Sport Psychology Chinese and Greek Civilizations – “Healthy mind in a healthy body” Late 1800’s – First sport psychology researc...

The Mental Side of Human Performance Sport Psychology Chapter 13 Sport Books Publisher 1 History of Sport Psychology Chinese and Greek Civilizations – “Healthy mind in a healthy body” Late 1800’s – First sport psychology research – Effects of other competitors and audience on cyclist performance times Past 3 to 4 Decades – Recognition and growth of sport psychology as a discipline Sport Books Publisher 2 Growth of Sport Psychology Sport psychology has only recently developed and grown due to: 1. Expansion of scientific knowledge and emergence of different branches 2. Increased media attention of the discipline Sport Books Publisher 3 Outline In this section you will be introduced to the following sport psychology issues: – Influence of personality on performance – Effect of sport on personality – Relationship between anxiety and performance – Effect of motivation on sport performance – Effects of the audience on athletic accomplishments Sport Books Publisher 4 PERSONALITY AND THE ATHLETE Sport Books Publisher 5  Personality defined as: Pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that distinguish one person from another and persist over time and situations. Sport Books Publisher 6 The study of personality in sport psychology can help us answer the following questions: Do athletes possess different personality characteristics than non-athletes? Do winners possess different personality profiles than losers? Does personality determine sport preference, or does a particular sport mould our personality accordingly? Can personality be changed, or does it remain relatively fixed throughout involvement in sport? Sport Books Publisher 7 Personalities of Athletes vs. Non-Athletes Sport Books Publisher 8 Personalities of Athletes Versus Nonathletes Compared to nonathletes, athletes are more: Stable Extroverted Competitive Dominant Self-confident Achievement-oriented Psychologically well-adjusted Conservative with respect to political views Authoritarian Persistent Display higher levels of self-esteem Sport Books Publisher 9 Personalities of Athletes vs. Non-Athletes Although differences are known to exist, A clear pattern of differences has yet to emerge Sport Books Publisher 10 Personality Profiles of Athletes Differing in Skill Level Sport Books Publisher 11 Definitions Personality traits: psychological characteristics of the athlete which remain relatively stable over time Personality states: “right now kinds of feelings” which are situation-specific State-trait controversy: disagreement of the relative merits of studying states versus traits Interactional theory: the best state-trait approach, which considers personality traits and states, as well as situation-specific factors Sport Books Publisher 12 It is NOT yet possible to distinguish between successful and unsuccessful athletes using personality traits However, it is possible to distinguish between the elite athletes and the lesser skilled in terms of mood states Sport Books Publisher 13 Mood States of Elite Versus Nonelite Athletes Mood states of elite athletes versus lesser skilled athletes are below in: Tension Depression Anger Fatigue Confusion And are markedly higher in: Vigor Sport Books Publisher 14 Iceberg Profile This mood state profile resembles an iceberg and is therefore often referred to as the iceberg profile 65 60 55 T-SCORE 50 45 40 35 Successful Athletes Unsuccessful Athletes 30 Tension Depression Anxiety Vigor Fatigue Confusion PROFILE OF MOOD STATES Sport Books Publisher 15 Developmental Effects of Sport on Personality Sport Books Publisher 16 Are personality differences due to the athletic experience? Or Do certain personality traits cause the individual to go out for certain sports (gravitational hypothesis)? Evidence tends to support the gravitational hypothesis HOWEVER, participation in sports can also enhance personality development Sport Books Publisher 17 Are personality differences due to the athletic experience? Or Do certain personality traits cause the individual to go out for sports (gravitational hypothesis)? Evidence tends to support the gravitational hypothesis HOWEVER, participation in sports can also enhance personality development Sport Books Publisher 18 Personality and the Athlete: Conclusions Athletes tend to be more extroverted, independent, and self-confident than nonathletes; they also tend to be less anxious Elite athletes can be distinguished from lesser skilled athletes by means of the iceberg profile; it is not possible, however, to distinguish between winners and losers Individuals with certain personality traits tend to gravitate toward sports; sport also has the potential to enhance certain personality traits Sport Books Publisher 19 ANXIETY AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE Sport Books Publisher 20 Stress Nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it Unemotional bodily response to some type of stressor Can be either good or bad, depending upon the individual’s personal interpretation – Eustress (e.g., winning a lottery) – Distress (e.g., receiving a failing grade on a midterm test) Sport Books Publisher 21 Anxiety Tension and worry that results from distress A negatively charged emotional state characterized by discomfort and nervousness Two forms of anxiety: – Trait anxiety: a personality characteristic – State anxiety: a “right now” kind of anxiety Sport Books Publisher 22 Anxiety Two components of state anxiety: – Cognitive state anxiety (psychological component) Caused by fear of failure Result of worrying “I am afraid I am going to lose” – Somatic state anxiety (physical component) perception of physiological responses “I feel nervous before a major contest” Sport Books Publisher 23  Anxiety and Athletic Performance Relationship Sport Books Publisher 24 Precompetitive Anxiety Temporal changes in cognitive and somatic state anxiety as competition approaches: 24 Com petitive state anxiety Cognitive 18 Somatic 12 1 -w k 2 -d a ys 1 -d a y 2 -h r s 3 0 -m in x Event begins Sport Books Publisher 25 The Effect of Precompetitive Anxiety on Performance Relationship between somatic anxiety and High performance takes the form of an inverted-U Athletic Performance Relationship between cognitive anxiety and athletic performance has been shown to be Low linear and negative Low High StateAnxiety Sport Books Publisher 26 Implications Increases in somatic anxiety are associated with improved athletic performance up to a certain optimal level; therefore, athletes should attempt to increase their somatic anxiety up to an optimal level by “psyching up” The lower the level of cognitive state anxiety, the better the athlete will perform; therefore, athletes must learn to deal with symptoms of cognitive anxiety Sport Books Publisher 27  Symptoms of Cognitive State Anxiety The Symptoms of Distress Checklist Cold, clammy hands ______ Increased heart rate ______ Cotton mouth ______ Faster breathing ______ Unable to concentrate ______ Trembling hands ______ Desire to urinate often ______ Tense muscles ______ Diarrhea ______ Nausea ______ Feeling of fatigue ______ Voice distortion ______ Sport Books Publisher 28 Relaxation Interventions to Lower Cognitive State Anxiety Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR) – Takes time initially, but with practice can be completed in a matter of minutes – Especially valuable the night before 1. Lie or sit in a comfortable position 2. Inhale and tense a specific muscle group for approximately 5 seconds 3. Exhale and release the tension from the muscles, concentrating on the feeling of relaxation 4. Repeated for a number of muscle groups Sport Books Publisher 29 Relaxation Interventions Positive Imagery – Requires practice to be effective 1. Close your eyes and picture yourself performing well in the specific anxiety- causing performance environment 2. Imagine the positive feelings associated with this successful imagery Sport Books Publisher 30 Relaxation Interventions Positive Self-talk – Reassuring oneself with positive thoughts and statements – Example: “I’m a good free-throw shooter,” versus “What will the coach think of me if I blow this shot?” Sport Books Publisher 31 MOTIVATION AND SPORT Sport Books Publisher 32  Motivation determines the reasons for an athlete’s behaviour It is defined as the direction, energy, and intensity of behaviour It is synonymous with inspiration, enthusiasm, or the will to win. Sport Books Publisher 33 Achievement Motivation Sport Books Publisher 34 Athlete’s predisposition to approach or avoid a competitive situation Includes the concept of desire or the desire to excel Not an innate drive, but is likely learned in the sporting environment Sport Books Publisher 35 McClelland-Atkinson Model McClelland-Atkinson Model suggests that achievement motivation is a function of: 1. The motive to achieve success An athlete’s intrinsic motivation to engage in an exciting activity 2. The fear of failure A psychological construct associated with cognitive state anxiety Sport Books Publisher 36  Achievement Motivation = intrinsic motivation – cognitive state anxiety Sport Books Publisher 37 Extrinsic Motivation McClelland-Atkinson model of achievement motivation could NOT predict athletic success Therefore, extrinsic motivation was added to the original model – Example: praise, money, trophies, and other forms of reward This modified model acknowledges that factors external to the athlete may influence an individual’s overall motivation Sport Books Publisher 38 Factors Affecting Achievement Motivation The following factors affect achievement motivation: 1. Self-confidence 2. Self-efficacy 3. Goal setting Sport Books Publisher 39 Improving Achievement Motivation Sport Books Publisher 40 1. Self-Confidence Discriminating factor between individuals high and low in achievement motivation Similar to the motive to achieve success: – The confident athlete has a high motive to succeed and a high expectation for success Sport Books Publisher 41 2. Self-Efficacy Based on Bandura’s Model Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of succeeding at a particular task Situation-specific self-confidence Used in sport psychology (versus self- confidence) because the sporting environment represents a very specific situation Sport Books Publisher 42 2. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy (and subsequently achievement motivation) can be enhanced through: (a) Successful performance (b) Vicarious experience (c) Verbal persuasion (d) Emotional arousal Sport Books Publisher 43 Improving Self-efficacy Successful Performance – The most important factor in improving self- efficacy – Raises expectations for future successes; failure lowers these expectations – For best results: 1. Break down skill learning into small steps to ensure success early 2. Practice, practice, practice 3. Highlight successes and downplay setbacks Sport Books Publisher 44 Improving Self-efficacy Vicarious Experience – Demonstrating repeated success through participatory modeling (i.e., the subject first observes a model perform a task) – For best results: 1. Employ participatory modeling before the athlete attempts the skill on his or her own 2. Utilize only models who are technically correct in their execution 3. Ensure successful execution by the athlete in the early stages of learning Sport Books Publisher 45 Improving Self-efficacy Verbal Persuasion – Constant provision of encouragement, as well as specific skill instructions – For best results: 1. Provide specific rather than general feedback 2. Have the athlete repeat your instructions back to you before beginning 3. Focus on the positive aspects of the athlete’s performance Sport Books Publisher 46 Improving Self-efficacy Emotional Arousal – An optimal level of arousal is required to develop self-efficacy – Too much or too little arousal will impact negatively on the development of self-efficacy – For best results: 1. In the early stages of learning, keep things relaxed 2. Get to know athletes one-on-one (some will need more arousal, while others less) 3. Help athletes recognize when they need to “psych up or calm down” Sport Books Publisher 47 3. Goal Setting Last way to improve achievement motivation is to employ effective goal setting strategies Goal Setting Strategies for Maximum Motivation 1. Set goals that are observable, measurable, and achievable 2. Set realistic, yet challenging goals 3. Set positive goals, not negative goals (such as don’t lose) 4. Coaches and teachers should negotiate goals for their athletes or students, not mandate them 5. Set short-term as well as long-term goals 6. Set goals for your practices, as well as your actual competitions 7. Set goals related to the athletes performance or technical execution, not contest outcome (win versus lose) Sport Books Publisher 48 CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION IN SPORT Sport Books Publisher 49 Attribution theory is a cognitive approach to motivation Assumes that people strive to explain, understand, and predict events based upon their own perceptions What the athlete believes to be true is important for future motivation Sport Books Publisher 50 The Development of Causal Attribution Theory Sport Books Publisher 51 Classification Scheme for Causal Attribution Locus of Control Internal External Stable Ability Task Stability Difficulty Unstable Effort Luck Sport Books Publisher 52 Stability Dimension Stable attributions: relatively unchanging from one day to the next (ability and task difficulty) Unstable attributions: vary markedly from time to time (effort and luck) Classification Scheme for Causal Attribution Locus of Control Internal External Stable Ability Task Difficulty Stability Unstable Effort Luck Sport Books Publisher 53 Locus of Control Dimension Internal attributions: include attributes perceived as controllable (ability and effort) External attributions: perceived to be outside the athlete’s control (task difficulty and luck) Locus of Control Internal External Stable Ability Task Difficulty Stability Unstable Effort Luck Sport Books Publisher 54 Implications Before competition the athlete should be encouraged to focus on effort versus ability – Both effort and ability are within athlete’s control, but effort is unstable from game to game Athletes must focus on preparing strategies that will be effective against task difficulty (e.g., an opposing team) versus luck – Both luck and task difficulty are beyond an athlete's control, but task difficulty is stable and predictable Sport Books Publisher 55 Affective Responses Associated with Causal Attributions Sport Books Publisher 56 Affective Responses Associated with Causal Attributions Greatest Effort affect Ability Task Difficulty Internal Luck Attribution External Lowest affect Attribution Sport Books Publisher 57 Implications After a victory, an athlete is going to feel more pride if he or she believes that the win was a result of an effort or ability rather than an opponent’s poor ability or a lucky call from the referee. Sport Books Publisher 58 Cause-and-effect Relations Among Attributions, Outcome, and Affect Different emotions are experienced with different causal attributions and outcomes Cause-and-effect Relations Among Attributions, Outcome, and Affect Different em otions are experienced with different causal attributions and outcom es O utcom e Success Failure Pride Sham e Internal Confidence Guilt Locus of Control Com petence Incom petence Satisfaction Depressions External Gratitude Anger Thankfulness Surprise Luck Astonishm ent Sport Books Publisher 59 Implications If after a success athletes attribute the success: – Internally, they typically respond with pride, confidence, and satisfaction – Externally, they will likely feel gratitude and thankfulness After a success, regardless of attribution, affect tends to be positive and enthusiastic The affect for failure usually is negative and possibly subdued What is the affect after failure for internal and external attribution? Sport Books Publisher 60  The Relationship Between Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation Sport Books Publisher 61 Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation Causal Future Attributions Expectation Motivation Sport Books Publisher 62 Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation Whenever an outcome is different than what was expected based on past experience, the athlete tends to endorse an unstable attribution (e.g., effort or luck) When an outcome is expected, based on past performances, a stable attribution (e.g., ability or task difficulty) is endorsed Sport Books Publisher 63  Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions Attribution to Loss Future expectation Attribution to Loss Future expectation Lack of Expect Same Lack of Luck Expect Different Ability Result vs. Result Therefore, it is beneficial to ascribe failures to unstable causes, since it does not imply repeated failure Sport Books Publisher 64 Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions Implications: – Athletes should attribute a failure to unstable and internal causes (i.e., lack of effort) – This suggests that more effort can change the next outcome from failure to success – And it teaches the athlete to accept responsibility for the results Sport Books Publisher 65 Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions In summary, future expectancy depends on stability of the attributions Predicting Future Expectations Predicting Future Expectations From Present A ttributions Cont’d From Present Attributions Cont’d In sum m ary, future expectancy depends In summary, future expectancy depends on stability of the attributions on stability of the attributions SUC CESS: FAILURE: SUC CESS: FAILURE: SUCCESS: FAILURE: SUCCESS: FAILURE: S table U nstable U nstable S table Stable Unstable Unstable Stable attribution attribution attribution attribution attribution attribution attribution attribution (ability) (effort) (luck) (ability) (ability) (effort) (luck) (ability) Positive N egative Positive Negative Exp ectan cy Exp ectan cy Expectancy Expectancy Sport Books Publisher 66 Promoting Self-efficacy Through Attribution and Expectancy Promotion of self-efficacy and motivation for future performance depends on both expectancy and locus of control: Positive Internal High &/or self-efficacy Expectancy Attribution Low Negative External self-efficacy &/or Expectancy Attribution Sport Books Publisher 67 Promoting Self-efficacy Implications – Athletes who succeed should be encouraged to attribute the success to both stable and internal factors A stable attribution will improve the athlete’s expectancy for future success An internal attribution will enhance the athlete’s self-confidence Sport Books Publisher 68 Putting it all together: Present Locus of control Future Promotion of Promotion of Attribute Expectancy Self-Efficacy for Motivation for Future Event Future Event S Good ability Internal Success a a U C High effort Internal Success/ Partially Partially C failure E Easy task External Success Partially Partially S S Good luck External Success/ r r failure F Poor ability Internal Failure Partially Partially A I Low effort Internal Failure/ a a L success U R Difficult External Failure r r task E Bad luck External Failure/ Partially Partially success Sport Books Publisher 69 Promoting Self-efficacy Attributional training strategies leading to improved self-efficacy in future events: 1. Record and classify attributions after performances 2. After each outcome make attributions that will lead to promotion of self-efficacy (see previous table) 3. Provide an attributional training program for athletes who consistently utilize undesirable attributions 4. For best results, combine planned goal-setting with attributional training Sport Books Publisher 70 AUDIENCE EFFECTS IN SPORT Sport Books Publisher 71 Spectator Effect An important social-psychological effect on athletic performance Influences athlete’s performance through: 1. Social facilitation: enhancement of performance due to presence of others 2. Rivalry: a desire to beat the opponent Sport Books Publisher 72 Social Facilitation Can be further broken down into: 1. Audience effects: a situation involving the mere presence of other individuals in the same room or area 2. Coaction effects: other people are present, but are performing the same task Sport Books Publisher 73 In summary: Spectator Effect Social Facilitation Rivalry Audience Coaction Effects Effects Sport Books Publisher 74 Evaluation Component Whether or not the audience is perceived as important for the athlete If the athlete perceives the audience to be: – Important and/or knowledgeable, then drive level is increased – Unimportant and/or not knowledgeable, then drive level is decreased Sport Books Publisher 75 Audience Effects on Performance Simple task: performance improved Audience Complex Drive level perceived task: heightened as critical performance impeded Audience Evaluation &/ coactor Audience Simple task: perceived Drive performance as non- Lever impeded critical lowered Complex task: performance improved Sport Books Publisher 76 Appropriate Timing for Spectator Effect LEARNING STAGE SPECTATOR EFFECTS STRATEGIES “Over learning” & Negative Initial Arousal-lowering strategies Learning in the presence of audience Allow audience Skill is access to practices over- learned Positive Arousal-increasing Skill is strategies in utilized in the presence of audience game Sport Books Publisher 77 Audience Characteristics and Team Performance The presence of supportive audience is presently the most popular explanation for home advantage Research has established the following audience characteristics leading to a greater home advantage: – Large – Supportive – Close to the playing arena (i.e., high intimacy and density) Sport Books Publisher 78