BT REVIEWER.pdf

Building :a usually roofed and walled structure built for permanent use (as for a dwelling) : the art or business of assembling materials into a structure Technology : a manner of accomplishing a task especially using technical processes, methods, or knowledge. “The course serves both as an introd...

Building :a usually roofed and walled structure built for permanent use (as for a dwelling) : the art or business of assembling materials into a structure Technology : a manner of accomplishing a task especially using technical processes, methods, or knowledge. “The course serves both as an introduction to the physical processes lying behind the design of a building's envelope, interior and equipment, and as an initiation for a proper integration of technology in architecture. – MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)” THE TOOLS o Measuring Tools o Marking Tools o Testing & Guiding Tools o Fastening Tools o Rough Facing Tools o Toothed Cutting Tools o Sharp-Edged Cutting Tools o Smooth Facing Tools o Boring or Drilling Tools o Holding Tools o Sharpening Tools o Work Bench o Roughing Up Tools o Surface Finishing Tools o Miscellaneous Masonry Tools THE TOOLS & THE WORKERS A. Carpentry tools B. Masonry tools C. Tins mitting tools D. Painter tools E. Plumbing tools F. Electrical tools  A. CARPENTRY TOOLS 1. MEASURING TOOLS TWO (2) FOOT FOUR Generally used in measuring short distances. It is usually made up of four FOLDING RULE folds connected by three hinges spaced at 6 inches or 15 cm apart which could be folded-up. Is used for measuring inside distances such as doors, windows, cabinets EXTENSION RULE etc. A sliding attachment to a folding rule for the measuring of inside distances between objects. PUSH-PULL TAPE RULE For short distance:1.00m to 5.00m PUSH-PULL TAPE RULE For long distance:10.00m or more. SLIDE CALIPER RULE Used to measure outside diameter of cylindrical objects. Takeaway: Rule to measure inside diameter is the Inside Caliper. 2. MARKING TOOLS - are classified according to the kind of work it is to perform: CHALK OR CHARCOAL LINE is used for marking a very rough work. ROUND PENCIL LEAD used for marking rough work. SCRATCH AWL is used in marking a semi-rough work. SCRIBER is used in marking fine work. It is hardened steel with a sharp point designed to mark fine line. COMPASS Is used to inscribe arcs or circle. DIVIDER Is used in dividing distances into equal parts particularly an arc or circumference. 3. TESTING & GUIDING TOOLS FOR CARPENTRY - Good carpentry work demands accuracy in measurement and a well fitted joint or parts together. This could be done with the various guiding tools for a precise and quality work. LEVEL used for both guiding and testing the work to a vertical or horizontal position. PLASTIC HOSE W/ WATER is the best and accurate tool for guiding the work in establishing a horizontal level. PLUMB BOB is used to check or obtain a vertical line. The word plumb means perpendicular to a horizontal plane. MITER BOX is a device used as a guide of the hand saw in cutting object to form a miter joint. MITER SHOOTING BOARD is a plain board with two 45° guide fastened on top of the upper board. This device is used for designing patterns, cabinets. etc. SLIDING BEVEL is like a try square with a sliding and adjustable blade that could be set to any angle other than 90 degrees. ANGLE DIVIDER is a double bevel used to divide an angle a complicated work. This tool could divide an angle in one. SQUARE is called a "Trying Square". Square is a· right angle standard at 90 degrees used in marking or testing work. The different types of square are: i. TRY SQUARE - is a square with blades that ranges from (3" to 15") 7.6 to 38 cm. ii. MITER SQUARE - is a square with blades permanently set at 45 degrees. iii. COMBINED TRY AND MITER SQUARE - is a combination of 45 and 90 degrees in one set.  iv. COMBINATION SQUARE - is similar to a try square only that the head can be made to slide and clamp at any desired place of the blade and is also provided with a miter and a level guide. v. FRAMING OR STEEL SQUARE - so called as it is used effectively on framing work. Body - the longer and wider part Tongue - the shorter and the narrower part Face - the side visible when the square is held by the tongue in the right hand, the body pointing to the left. Back - the side visible when the square is held by the tongue with the left hand, the body pointing to the right. 4. FASTENING TOOLS are the tools used to faster or secure parts of the construction that are to be connected together with nails, screws, bolts, etc. CLAW HAMMER a hand tool made of steel carefully forged, hardened and tempered. Its sizes varies from 140 to 560 grams. WRENCHES a hand tool with a handle and a jaw which may be fitted to the head of a nut used to tighten or loosen bolts. Plain Socket Adjustable SCREWDRIVER a hand tool with a head and a shank used for turning screw·, classified either as: PLAIN or AUTOMATIC ORDINARY (flat head) or PHILLIPS (cross) 5. ROUGH FACING TOOLS/ STRIKING TOOLS are the so called "Striking Tools" because they are used through a series of blows. They are also called “inertia tools", or "Rough facing tools" because the cut produced were rough. HATCHET AXE ADZE 6. TOOTHED CUTTING TOOLS. In carpentry work, the toothed cutting tools is of utmost importance considering its versatility and service demand. SAW The most important of this kind of tools are classified according to: o Kind of cut Cross cut Rip cut Combined rip and cross cut o Shape of the blades  Straight back  Narrowed Thin  Skew back o According to use Floor Key hole Joiner or bench Miter Buck or Wood Hack Coping Saw FILES a metal tool of different shapes and sizes used for abrading, reducing or smooth cutting metal, wood or other materials. 7. SHARP-EDGED CUTTING TOOLS - A Chisel is an indispensable tool in carpentry which is also considered as the most abused tool often used for prying, can opener, open cases or as screw driver etc. WOOD CHISEL used to trim wood and clear away excess material from wood joints COLD CHISEL used to trim metals  8. SMOOTH FACING TOOLS are sometimes regarded as "guided sharp edge cutting tools". These tools are actually chisels with frames to guide and limit the cut and make it smooth. SPOKE SHAVE modified kind of draw knife with an adjustable blade like a plane to limit the thickness of the cut. PLANE is used in smoothing boards or other surfaces for framing and molding. Plane is also used to make wood surfaces into uniform thickness. 9. BORING TOOLS these tools are specially designed to make hole in wood. BRAD AWLS GIMLETS AUGERS 10. HOLDING TOOLS is vital and important in accomplishing fine carpentry work. In many stages of construction the need for holding the materials in place rigidly is necessary. SUPPORTING Carpentry work such as chiseling planning and the like, needs support to amply sustain the operation. The Horse or Trestle is the right tool for the purpose. RETAINING Under this category, there are several kinds of holding tools considered as rigid and strong enough in tightly pressing the materials together. CLAMPS VISES 11. SHARPENING TOOL - Experienced carpenters realize the importance of sharpening tools in carpentry operation. Sharp tools assure the worker in accomplishing a quality work and is faster than using dull tools. GRIND STONE OIL STONE 12. WORK BENCH - Work bench is also an important tool in carpentry operation considering the various tools attached to it. Work bench is considered as a shop tool and is needed for the different kinds of onsite or off- site preparation of wood parts in all construction projects. B. MASONRY TOOLS 13. ROUGHING UP TOOLS MASON/ AXE OR HAMMER Is also known as Ax-Hammer used in different ways. The axe to serve as a chisel and he hammer for driving nails and other rough work in masonry. BRICK HAMMER Is another type of combination hammer which is used for dressing and cutting bricks, stone or concrete and other driving option. PATENT HAMMER Is a hammer wherein the head is composed of a group of thin chisels used for dressing stone or concrete. CRANDAL A tool with sharp pointed steel spikers used for dressing stone or concrete. CROSS PEN HAMMER Is a cross head hammer where one is shaped like a wedge used for various striking need in masonry work. COLD CHISEL Is a common tool for carpentry, and masonry used for dressing or cutting stone, concrete, metal and other materials with the aid of hammer. STAR DRILL Used for boring or drilling holes on hard surfaces such as rock, stone, or concrete. BOLSTER A tool similar in appearance with the cold chisel including its services but a wide blade edge. It is also known as blocking chisel. WRECKING BAR A very useful tool made of steel bar used in demolition work and in pulling off large nails. 14. SURFACE FINISHING TOOLS FLOATS Flat tools with handle at the back usually made of wood.  COMMON FLOAT – used for smoothing or for producing textured surfaces on cement or plaster.  BULL FLOAT – a tool used to smooth freshly placed concrete  DEVIL or NAIL FLOAT – a tool used to roughen the surface of plaster to provide a key for the next coat.  CARPET FLOAT – used I plastering to produce a fine grained texture in sand finishes.  ANGLE FLOAT - used for finishing corners and for plastering.  TROWELS Flat hand tools used for applying, spreading and shaping plaster or mortar to produce a relatively smooth finish on concrete surfaces in the final stage of finishing.  ORDINARY TROWEL – similar in appearance as he ordinary float but with a steel blade.  POINTING TROWEL – a trowel used in pointing or removing and laying mortar in masonry joints.  BRICK TROWEL – a trowel with an offset blade used to pick up or spread mortar.  BUTTERING TROWEL – a small trowel used to spread mortar on bricks and tiles before it is laid.  EDGER – a finishing trowel used on edges of fresh concrete or plaster to form a rounded corners. 15. MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS SPADE A basic construction tool in many of dirty work in the concrete mix or plaster. G.I. PAIL In the absence of a chute or a buggy, it is used as vessel in handling especially in transferring concrete mix, mortar, or plaster from mixing board. MIXED BOARD Usually made of wood or concrete used for mixing concreter in the absence of a concrete mixer. This is usually fabricated on-site. MASON’S BOX A shallow box, made of wood, used to contain mortar or plaster to make it easily accessible to the mason. MEASURING BOX A box, made of board or plywood with handle, used for measuring sand, gravel, etc. prior to mixing. This tool is also fabricated. RUBBER FOAM Used to obtain a fine grained texture in plastering. PAINTER’S BRUSH Its use in masonry work is similar to the foam PLASTIC OR NYLON STRING Used for marking and guiding the block laying, tile laying, etc. to produce a uniform and straight course. ALIGNING STICK Various names can be attributed to this tool which is simply a straight piece of lumber, more or less 1.50 m long used in plastering and concreting the pavement to assure alignment or a straight surface. C. PLUMBING TOOLS PIPE CUTTER A type of tool in plumbing used to cut pipes. TUBING CUTTER Used for cutting pipes that made of copper, brass, plastics, and thin- walled electrical metal tubing. MONKEY WRENCH A tool used to clam onto pipes and fasteners like nuts, bolts, and screws. BASIN WRENCH Used for installing or removing kitchen and bathroom sink faucets in confined spaces. STRAP WRENCH Utilizes tension of a rubber strap to grip and turn without scratching what is being tightened THREADER Tool used to cut grooves or threads into the end of a metal pipe; to cut threads into pipes so that fittings can be accepted. STILLSON WRENCH Design to turn threaded type of pipe and pipe fittings for assembling PIPE WRENCH An adjustable wrench with two serrated jaws that are tightened and dig into the pipe for grip. YOKE VISE It is often used to hold pipes in places when threading and cutting and also helps the pipe steady to securely clamp down the pipe. D. PAINTER TOOLS NAIL SET Are short, tapered bars of steel that serve as a companion to a hammer and sometimes referred to a nail punch tool.  CARPENTER’S CLASSIC – most common nail set (Stanley) with square head, knurled body, and cupped and chamfered tip.  FLOORING NAIL SET – 6 ½ inch long tool has 5mm tip for sinking big 12d to 20d finish nails or driving chunky flooring nails into antique floorboards.  TWO SETS IN ONE – the small, anvil-shaped head is actually a second nail set for striking 8d nails in tight spaces,.  HOOKSCRAPER Used to remove the paint on surface WALL SCRAPER Used in removing old wall paint or wallpaper from walls PUTTY KNIFE Used for scraping away grime, removing paint edges, spackling, and so on. PUTTY PLATE Also known as putty blade. Used for scraping surfaces or spreading material. CORNER ROLLER Is a V-shaped roller hub push tool that is used to paint difficult places such as corners, gutters, soffits, eaves, and corrugated roof. TRIM ROLLER Consist of typically of a rotating cylinder with an absorbent material and mounted on a handle so that the cylinder can be dipped into paint and roll over on flat surface. EDGING ROLLER Places a physical barrier between the paintbrush, painted pad, or roller, and the area that you want to keep clean. CUTTING-IN ROLLER Is used when cutting-in wall and ceiling edges. PAINT BRUSHES Comes in a wide variety of sizes and types and are necessary for those hard to reach spots a paint roller can’t reach. PAINT SPRAYER Pumps paint at a very high pressure. WIRE BRUSHES Used for cleaning rust and removing paint. E. ELECTRICAL TOOLS SCREWDRIVER a tool with a flattened, cross-shaped, or star-shaped tip that fits into the head of a screw to turn it.  YANKEE SCREWDRIVER – a tool used for push and pull type of screwdriving.  FLAT HEAD SCREWDRIVER – a screwdriver with wedge-shaped flat tip, used to tighten or loosen screws that have a straight, linear notch in their heads.  PHILLIPS SCREWDRIVER – a screwdriver that is designed to be used with a type of screw (called a Phillips) that has a cross-loke top.  NAILSET - a tool often to drive nails into the wood so that he nail-head is below the surface.  OFFSET SCREWDRIVER – a screwdriver with the blade at right angles to the shaft for use where a straight screwdriver cannot reach the screwhead. PLIERS are made in various shapes and sizes and for many uses. Some are used for gripping something round like a pipe or rod, some are used for twisting wires, and others are designed to be used for a combination of tasks including cutting wire.  NEEDLE NOSE PLIERS – also known as long nose pliers. It is highly versatile tool that can be used for bending, shaping, and cutting wire.  DIAGONAL CUTING PLIERS – is sometimes called as snips or dikes. They are specially designed with a cutting edge that goes down to the tip of the jaws, allowing you to get down into tight areas to trim wires.  LINESMAN PLIERS – easily identified by the jaws which have a shorter gripping surface towards the tip and a cutting surface in the middle. It can be used to grab, bend, rebar, twist electrical wire, and most sheet metal.  FLAT NOSE PLIERS – the flat, tapered jaws of these pliers are used for gripping and twisting metal, as well as twisting leads and wires. WIRE STRIPPER is a portable handheld tool used by workers, especially electricians, for removing the protective coating of an electric wire to replace or repair the wire. It is also capable of stripping the end portions of an electric wire to connect them to other wires or to terminals.  GAUGED SRIPPER – usually come with various sized notches in the blade that are designed to strip the insulation of wires without damaging the actual wiring inside.   AUTOMATIC GAUGED – is designed to cut, strip, and remove insulation with one squeeze then return to its neutral open position when released.  RADIAL WIRE STRIPPER – these usually work by lightly clamping the tool onto your cable and spinning it, allowing a thin blade to score the insulation until you can pop it right off.  AUTOMATIC SELF-ADJUSTING – allow you to place any gauge wire (within its limits) inside them and they will automatically adjust to the size needed and cut, strip, and remove your insulation with one squeezes. HEAT GUN/TORCHES  OXYGEN-ACETYLENE – more dangerous and harder to control than other fuels.  PROPANE TORCHES – safer and more reliable. It is good for heating frozen pipes, soldering copper pipes, brazing, and softening point.  INFRARED HEAT GUN – instead of using hot air, it applies infrared heat. MULTIMETER is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties.  DIGITAL – a test tool use to measure two or more electrical values primarily voltage, current and resistance.  ANALOG – instruments that are use to measure electrical quantities, such as voltage, current, resistance, frequency, and signal power. VOLTAGE TESTER A tool use to check if the circuit is live or not.  NEON VOLTAGE TESTER – main function is to check if the circuit is live or not.  SOLENOID VOLTAGE TESTER – also known as wiggie that tests power circuit.  DIGITAL CLAMP METER – a device with jaws which opens to allow clamping around the electrical conductor. FISH TAPE also known as a draw wire or draw tape or an "electricians snake") is a tool used by electricians to route new wiring through walls and electrical conduit CIRCUIT FINDER are very convenient and common safety devices used to protect your electrical system from overloads and other hazards. A great little device that simplifies this task is an electronic circuit breaker finder, which easily locates a circuit in a breaker box and makes this all a one-person job UTILITY KNIFE serves a range of functions, including: cutting and stripping cables, cutting electrical tape and insulation, and slicing and opening equipment boxes and packages. F. TINSMITHING TOOLS ANVIL An iron block on which metal is placed to be shaped, originally by hand with a hammer. Used by a blacksmith when he needs to hammer hot iron to bend it into the shape he wants. A projecting conical beak, or horn, at one end is used for hammering curved pieces of metal. TIN SNIPS These are the best hand tools for cutting sheets of metal.Tin snip grips are typically colored red, yellow, or green, and it's not for cosmetic reasons. Each color signifies a different direction that the snips are made to cut.  Red snips cut left.  Yellow snips cut straight or left and right.  Green snips cut right. SEAMING PLIERS Also known as lead seaming pliers, hand seamers, clinching pliers and hemmers. A hand tool used to grip and bend or fold small sections of hard but pliable material, especially lead, but also aluminum, copper and zinc. Used mainly for roofing work, where they form a seam to join panels of sheet metal together, to cover a roof. LOCKING PLIERS Used to handle materials whenever it would be uncomfortable to grip them directly, for instance when working with heat or maneuvering small  components into position for gluing or soldering. Also useful for firmly clamping jigs and components in woodworking applications. CHANNEL LOCK PLIERS A set of pliers that have an angled head where one handle slides to adjust the size of the opening used to pinch and grab without affecting the distance between the handles. Used in a pinch to hold and turn nuts and bolts. Excellent for adjusting and tightening water pipes. METAL SCISSORS The blade must have sufficient hardness and tenacity for cutting metal. Used for cutting thin metal plates. SOLDERING IRON Made up of an insulated handle and a heated pointed metal iron tip. A hand tool used to heat solder, usually from an electrical supply at high temperatures above the melting point of the metal alloy. PIPE CRIMPER Used to join materials or components by pressing them together and creating a seal or crimp. RUBBER GLOVES Made out of natural rubber or Synthetic rubber. Its primary purpose is protection of the hands while performing tasks involving chemicals. SAFETY EYE WEAR Intended to shield the wearer's eyes from impact hazards such as flying fragments, objects, large chips, and particles WOOD CLASSIFICATION 1. Softwood – is wood from gymnosperm trees such as conifers. 2. Hardwood - is wood from dicot trees. WOOD STRUCTURE  CLASSIFICATION OF SOFT WOOD AND HARD WOOD HARD WOOD SOFT WOOD ORIGINATES FROM Deciduous trees Conifer/ Evergreen trees EXAMPLES Narra, Yakal and Kamagong Pine, Spruce and Fir PRICE Nlore expensive Less expensive DENSITY Typically harder (not a,lv.ays) Usually softer (not ahvays) COLOR Generally dark Ahnost always light STRUCTURE Lo'\ve r Sap Higher Sap GRAIN Close Loose FIRE RESISTANCE Good Poor WEIGHT Heavy Light SAWING METHODS GRADING WOOD A Clear cut with no knots. Usually tighter, straighter grain. B Contains few defects and at times will have a stronger 'cathedral' pattern. C Some small knots. Again, this varies depending on the species. A clear, A Grade Alder may have some small knots due to its distinct character. D A few larger knots and defects. Usually rough sawn and is less stable  DEFECT IN WOOD HEART SHAKES Are radial cracks originating at the heart of the logs. WIND SHAKES OR CUP Are cracks or breaks across the annual rings of timber during its growth SHAKES caused by excessive bending of the tree due to wind. STAR SHAKES Composed of several heart shakes which radiate from the center of the log in a star-like manner KNOTS Occurs at the starting point of a limb or branch of the wood TERMINOLOGIES LUMBER Is the term applied to wood after it is sawed or sliced into boards, planks, timber etc. ROUGH LUMBER Is the term applied to unplanned or undressed lumber. SURFACED OR DRESSED Is a planed lumber having at least one smooth side. LUMBER S2S / S4S Are planed or dressed lumber of which the number connotes the number of smooth sides; such as S2s is smooth on two sides. SLAB Is a kind of rough lumber which is cut tangent to the annual rings, running the full length of the fog and containing at least one flat surface TIMBER Is a piece of lumber five inches or 13 cm or larger in its smallest dimension. PLANK Is a wide piece of lumber from 4cm (1 & 1/ 2") to 13cm (5'') thick. BOARD Is a piece of lumber less than 1/ 2" or 4 cm thick and at least 4 inches or 10 cm wide. FLITCH Is a thick piece of lumber. FINE GRAINED When the annual rings are small, the grain or marking which separates adjacent rings is said to be fine grained; when large, it is called Coarse Grained. STRAIGHT GRAINED When the direction of the fibers are early parallel with the sides and edges of the board, it is said to be straight grained. When the lumber is taken from a crooked tree, it is said to be crooked or cross-grained.  BOARDS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1. Plywood 2. Hardwood 3. Insulating Fiberboard 4. Chipboard 5. Particle Board 6. Gypsum Board 7. Strawboard 8. Asbestos-cement board 9. Corkboard 10. Paperboard 11. Mineral fiberboard 12. Plastic foamboards 1. Plywood Plywood is made by bonding together thin layers of wood in a way that the grain of each layer is at right angles to the grain of each adjacent layer. Each layer of plywood is called a Veneer, and commonly made by rotary cutting-a method of cutting wood veneer in which a log is fixed in a lathe and rotated against a knife so that the veneer is peeled from the log in a continuous sheet. Plywood (Types) a. Ordinary Plywood b. Form Plywood c. Marine Plywood d. Fancy Plywood Non - Waterproofed for paneling and cabinets. - Booked Matched -- the assembling of wood veneers from the same flitch so that successive sheets are alternated face up and face down. Plywood (Sizes) a. Common size is 3 x 6 feet and 4 x 8 feet. Other panels special sizes are 3' x 7'. 4x 16', 4x7'. 4' x 9' 4' x 10', 5' x 8', 5' x 9' and 5' x 10'. b. Thickness 6 mm - 114" - double walling 9 mm - 3/8"- double walling 12 mm - 1/2" - drawers, shelves 15 mm - 5/8" - drawers, shelves 18 mm - 3 /4" - cabinet closet doors 25 mm - 1 "- cabinet closet doors 2. Hardboard 3 Grades of Board a. Standard - flexible to be quite easily bent. It is light brown and is produced in thicknesses of 1/8, 3/16, 1/4, and 5/ 16 in. Boards are 4 feet wide and are available in lengths of 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 and 16 feet. This grade of hardboard is not suitable for exterior work. b. Tempered hardboard - is made by impregnated standard board with a tempering compound of oils and resin and baking it to polymerize the tempering material. Tempered hardboard is dark brown in color and is available in thicknesses of 1/8, 3/16, 1/ 4, 5/16 and 3/8 in. This board is brittle and stiff, has improved machining qualities and much greater resistance to water penetration, making it suitable for exterior use. c. Low Density hardboard – not as strong and durable as standard hardboard. Examples 1. Plain 2. Morocco 3. Stucco 4. Diamond 5. Sawali 6. Louver Board 7. Perforated Display Board 8. Grooved Board 9. Fine Weave 10. Lace 11. Driftwood 3. Insulating Fiberboard Types (3) - Made from three types of fiber-wood, sugar cane, and asbestos, and binder, formed into a board. 3 Grades of Board a. Insulating Grade - made up as insulating, decorative panels, decorative ceiling tile, Vnotch plaster base, and roof insulation. Standard thicknesses are 1/2, 5/8, 3/4 and 1 in. b. Sheathing Grade - One having both surfaces and all edges coated with asphalt and the other with the fibers impregnated with asphalt during manufacture. c. Cane Fiberboards Mineral Fiberboards - Made from asbestos fibers mixed with a cementing agent. This type of board is used primarily for fireproofing and acoustical purposes. 4. Chipboard Chipboard is made by binding phenolic resin or urea formaldehyde glue in the form of a 4ft. wide board, length from 8 to 16feet long with thicknesses 1/ 4,5/ 16, 3/8, 1/ 2,5/8, and 3/ 4 in.  Chipboards are used both for interior and exterior which include sheathing for walls, and roof, subflooring, fence panelling, and commercial exteriors and interior. Chipboard (Sub-types) - Plain - Plain panels may be unsanded, sanded on one side, or sanded two sides. - Patterned - Patterned panels have one grooved surface, either evenly spaced or random. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5. Particle Board A hardboard made from relatively small particles. The particles are graduated from coarse at the center of the board to fine at the surface to help produce a product; with a smooth, dense surface. Both surfaces are sanded, and one surface and the edges may be filled to provide a still smoother dense surface for uses. 6. Gypsum Board A. A wall board having a gypsum core. 1. One type is a board with a special paper face on which a variety of wood-grain patterns may be printed. Such a board may be nailed with special colored nails, 2. Glue laminated to an interior surface to produce a wood-grain effect. 3. Another type is a gypsum board faced with a vinyl sheet, made to imitate a textile surface. This is either glued in place or held by aluminum or plastic moldings. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7. Strawboard A. A hardboard made of compressed wheat straw, processed at 350 to 400°F and covered with a tough kraft paper. (Two Grades) 1. Structural board - It is used for nonbearing partitions, as a plaster base, for insulating purposes exterior sheathing, roof decking, and as an inner form face for concrete & basement wall forms. 2. Insulation grade - It is intended primarily for roof deck insulation. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8. Asbestos Cement Board A. A dense, rigid, board containing a high proportion of asbestos fibers bonded with Portland cement 1. Resistant to fire, flame, and weathering, has low resistance to heat flow. 2. Used as a building material in sheet form and corrugated sheeting. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9. Corkboard A. From the outer bark of the cork Oaktree, cork granules is mixed with synthetic resin, compressed and formed into sheet from 1 to 6 in. thick and baked under pressure into rigid boards. B. Corkboard is used almost exclusively for thermal insulating material and vibration control. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10. Paperboard A. Made from 2 Types: 1. A paper pulp pressed into boards 3/ 16, or 1/4 in. thick, 4ft. wide, and 6, 1 or 8ft. long. Usually one surface is primed for easier finishing. 2. A layer of stiff paper folded into corrugated form and faced on both sides with a thick paper backing, cemented to the core. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11. Mineral Fiberground A. Thick mats of mineral fibers, usually glass or rock wool are covered with a backing of stiff paper on one or both sides to form rigid boards, ranging in thickness from 1/2 to 2 in.. The usual board size is 24 x 48 in. These units are used for roofdeck insulation and are cemented to the deck with asphalt adhesive. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12. Plastic Foamboards A. Polystyrene and Polyurethane Plastics are formed by a patented process to about 40 times their original volume. This foamed material is molded into boards from 1/2 to 3 in. thick, 12 or 24 in. wide, and from 4 to 12ft. long. B. Used for perimeter insulation for concrete floor slabs, for wall and roof-deck insulation, and for roof decks when properly supported. C. These plastic boards have high insulation value and relatively high compressive strength, and are flexible enough to fit over curved surface. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- BUILDING PAPERS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1. Wood Pulp a. Mechanical Pulp - Or groundwood, is produced by grinding blocks of wood against a revolving abrasive stone or by grinding steamed wood chips in a grinding mill b. Chemical Pulp - Produced by digesting wood chips in various chemicals to free the cellulose fibers from the liquid binding  c. Semi-chemical Pulp - wood chips are first subjected to a mild chemical treatment and then mechanically disintegrated in rotating disk refiners. 2. Types of Paper 1. Sheathing Paper (Two Types) a. Plain Paper - ether a low-cost paper made from a mixture of semichemical pulp and wastepaper, or a tough paper made from kraft pulp. b. Asphalt Impregnated or Coated Felt or Kraft paper - Various amounts of asphalt are used per hundred square feet of paper so that papers of various weights are made, from 4 to 10 lb. per square. These are what is known as breather papers. impervious to water but not to water vapor 2. Roofing Paper a. Roofing Felts - those which are used in making a built-up roof and are usually produced in 36 in. wide rolls, in various weights from 3 to 20 lb. per square. b. Rolled Roofing - a heavy, mineral surfaced paper used as a final roof covering, made 18 and 36 in. wide, in various weights from 45 to 120 lb. per square. 3. Insulating Paper a. Wood-fiber Insulating Paper Made from groundwood or bagasse with some wastepaper pulp added. The paper is usually gray, produced in 36 in. wide rolls, weighing about 9 lb. per square. It is used for insulating walls, ceilings and floors. b. Asbestos-fibers A soft, pliable paper used for insulating pipes carrying steam, boilers, and other vessels with high temperatures. It is produced in various weights from 5 to 10 lb. per square. a heavier asbestos-felt paper is produced for use as a built-up roofing material. It is saturated with asphalt and produced in rolls 36 in. wide weighing approximately 15lb. per square 4. Cushioning Paper - Similar to wood-fiber insulating paper, but less attention is paid to strength. Its chief use is for cushioning under linoleum, carpets, or slate roofing. 5. Vapor-Barrier Paper a. Waxed Paper - made from strong light kraft in three grades commonly known as x, xx , XXX. b. Two thicknesses of paper laminated together with a film of asphalt. Two kinds of paper is used - One is a kraft paper, the other, a mixture of ground wood pulps, treated by the sulfite and the kraft methods. c. A sheet of kraft paper laminated to copper foil by an asphalt film. This is a heavy duty material used for vapor barrier and tor flashing. 6. Laminating Paper - This is a special, high strength kraft paper made for use in the production of plastic laminates. The thin, strong paper is impregnated with liquid _plastic resin and several sheet are laminated together under heat and pressure to form the-base for the plastic sheet. 7. Concrete Form Paper a. A form made from strong kraft paper in the form of a spiral tube. These are used as column forms and as ducts and core forms in concrete floors. b. A boxlike form made from corrugated container paper. This is unbleached kraft paper sized with resin and coated with wax sizing and starch to make it abrasion resistant These forms are used in forming ribbed concrete slabs. 8. WallPaper a. No.1 hanging - Made from bleached sulfite or bleached soda pulp, mixed with not more than 20 percent high-quality groundwood. Talc is used as a filler, rosin and sodium silicate as sizing. The paper is coated with a clay film bound to the paper with case in, and the design is printed over the clay coating. 800 Grade - Thinnest 1000 Grade 1200 Grade 1400 Grade 1700 Grade 2000 Grade – Thickest b. No.2 hanging - From 72 to 90 percent ground wood and the rest unbleached sulfite. Little filler is used, but the paper must be sufficiently sized to stand the application of water paste without wetting or breaking through. 9. Envelop Paper - Paper is used as an outer covering or envelope for a number of building materials. One of these is gypsum board, composed of a layer of calcined gypsum covered in both sides by a sheet of kraft paper. A number of insulating materials are enveloped in a kraft paper cover, sometimes plain, sometimes asphalted. 10. Fire Proof Paper - Made from asbestos fibers, since this is an incombustible material. The material maybe in the form of matted paper, similar to asbestos insulating or roofing paper, or it may be in the form of a cloth woven from thread spun from asbestos fibers. BITUMINOUS MATERIALS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ A. Bitumen a. Tar - The resulting condensate when destructive distillation is carried out on such materials as wood coal, shale, peat or bone. b. Pitch - A solid or semi-solid residue produced from partial evaporation or fractional distillation of tar. c. Coal-tar Pitch - most common material of this kind of pitch. d. Asphalts - dark brown or black solids or semi-solids which are found in the natural state and are also produced by the refining of petroleum. Bitumens are useful in construction industry since it has the tendency to adhere to a solid surface. It has good water resistance. Types of Bitumen 1. Tar and Pitch - made by the distillation of coal. Tar is used to saturate felt paper and to coat kraft paper to render it waterproof. The coal-tar pitch is used in making pitch and gravel built-up roofs. 2. Asphalt - asphalt used results from the refining of naphtha crude oils. which produce aviation grade gasoline, fuel oil, cold test lubricating oils. and asphalt. The properties of this residual, known as straight run asphalt, depend on the nature of the crude oil from which it was refined and the conditions of refining. Three (3) Main Types of Asphalt Products STRAIGHT RUN ASPHALT 1. Hot asphalts, those softened by heat. 2. Cutback asphalts, 'those dissolved in mineral solvents. 3. Emulsion asphalts-those dispersed or suspended in a water base. USES OF BITUMEN Adhesiveness and water proofing qualities, along with lost cost, make bitumen useful as a protective agent in built-up roofing, prepared roofing, and prepared siding. They are used as water proofing and damproofing agents and as vapor barriers. In addition, they are widely used as adhesives and Sealants. Forms of Bitumen 1. Saturated felts - used in built-up roofing, as a base for prepared roofing and sidings, as a membrane for water proofing, and as underlays for floors - require a particular grade of bitumen. The asphalt commonly used in the preparation of such felts has a softening point of approximately 140°F and a penetration value of 50. 2. Prepared roofing products are coated with asphalt after being saturated. The coating grade asphalts used are generally no. 1 cutbacks with softening point of from 200 to 240°F. 3. As waterproof coating for walls and to make waterproof membranes in buildings and other structures. 4.. Used in the manufacture of sealants, acoustical coatings paints, floor tile and mastic flooring, wherein mineral matter is added. 5. Used as a binder for aggregates in pavements, the asphalt is made into liquid by heating cutting with solvent, or by emulsilying with water and in its capacity as a cement, mixed with gravel, crushed stone and sand. Liquid Paving Asphalts - liquid asphalts used for paving are cutbacks. When gasoline is used as a solvent, a rapid curing liquid. asphalt is the result; kerosene, medium curing asphalt; a heavier_fuel oils produce a slow-curing asphalt. Asphalt paving cements - used as binders for more expensive asphalt pavements. FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1. Ferrous a. Steel - A malleable alloy of iron and carbon produced by melting and refining pig iron and/ or scrap steel, graded according to the carbon content. Other elements such as manganese and silicon may be included to provide special properties. Produce by three basic raw materials, iron ore, and limestone. (coal is converted into coke in coke ovens} Few particles of all three basic ingredients of steel, which otherwise would be waste, are blended and burned on a moving gate to cause the formation of clinkers. These are catted sinter, a high-grade blast-furnace charge material. From These, raw materials which is melted into ingots place in molds, a great variety of products used in construction are made. They include: 1. Rolled structural shapes 2. Rods 3. Bars 4. Plates 5. Pipe 6. Wire Bolts 8. Rivets 9. Nails 10. Sheet Steel and Others b. Cold-rolled sheets are galvanized - This sheets are galvanized since are with a zinc coating Pig iron is used to make cast iron which is high in compressive strength but low in tensile strength, and has little use for construction. However since it is cheap and easy to cast, it is used for pumps, moors, engines and because of its corrosion resistance it is used for pipes to some extent. c. Wrought Iron - Produced when pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove nearly all of the carbon and other impurities. It is easily worked and is tough and ductile. It's main uses are for roofing sheets, wire and metal ornaments. d. Alloy Steel - Made by combining others elements with the molten steel. Nickel, chromium copper and manganese are used. e. Nickel Steel - Stronger than carbon steel and is used to make structural members for buildings chromium steel is very hard and corrosion-resistant. f. Stainless Steel - Made with chromium or a combination of nickel and chromium used in buildings for exterior wall panels, frames for doors, expansion joints, flashings, copings, fascia and gravel stops. g. Copper - Bearing steel has high resistance to corrosion and is used for making sheet steel and metal lath. h. Manganese Steel - Offers great resistance to abrasion and finds important use in the cutting edges of heavy digging tools. i. Weathering Steel - It forms its own protection against atmospheric corrosion and thus requires no painting. It also undergoes a unique color transformation during the weathering process, from orange to brown and finally to blue-gray. This is used on bridges, buildings and other applications. STEEL PRODUCTS 1. Rolled Steel - Used for structural frames 2. Sheet Piling - Sections are made to interlock and are available in several shape. 3. Steel Pipe - Seamless or welded. small diameter pipe and electrically welded large diameter pipe. *Seamless pipe made by forcing a solid hot rod over a pointed mandrel to form a hollow tube. *Either hot-rolled or cold-rolled steel strip called skely can be used to make resistance-welded pipe or tubi Coils of skelp are welded together end to end and form the strip into a continuous cylinder. A large diameter pipe is made by having plan proper width, beveled edges and placed in a pre forms them into cylinders. The two edges together and the pipe is brought to its final hydraulically expanding the welded sh retaining jacket. 4. Reinforcing Steel - Made from new steel or from discarded railway-car axles or rails. Reinforcing steel comes in plain or deformed bars, that is, bars which have lugs or deformations rolled on the surface to provide anchorage in concrete. 5. Welded Wire Fabric - Another type of reinforcing material. It consists of parallel, longitudinal wires welded to transverse wires at regular intervals. (cold drawing process) 6. Steel Wire - Over 150,000 uses for wire including pins, needles, nails, bolts, cables, piano wire, fences. 7. Bolts and Nuts - (either hot forged or cold-formed from wire of the appropriate diameter). For.. bolts, wire is fed into an automatic bolt-making machine which cuts to length heads, trims, points, and, in many cases rolls the thread. 8. Steel Strapping - Made from high-tensile flat wire in a number of sizes. Used for banding column forms to keep them from bulging under the pressure of freshly poured concrete. A tightener tightens it and the two lapped ends is sealed. 9. Open Web Steel Joists – lightweight warren-type trussers made in several different styles. 10. Sheet Steel - Black and galvanized, can be used to manufacture corrugated roofing and siding and formed steel decking. Corrugated sheets have one edge turned up, one turned down. 11. Steel Studs - Lightweight, requiring minimum storage space and does not warp or shrink. Fasteners do not pop, and joints stay closed. Much faster to install than wood-stud installation. Available in 1 5/8, 2 1/2 and l' 5/8 inches. Plumbing stacks and electrical components fit easily into a steel-frame wall. 12. Pans & Domes - Manufactured for use in forming one-way and two-way ribbed concrete floor systems. Non-Ferrous a. Aluminum - Used as a vapor barrier on walls and ceilings and as reflective insulation. - Its ore, bauxite, requires 10 kilowatt hours or each pound of metal aluminum extracted. The reddish-brown ore is washed and treated in a soda solution to yield a chalky-white powder called alumna, containing a high concentration of aluminum. Aluminum is a lustrous, silver white. nonmagnetic: lightweight metal which is very malleable; has good thermal and electrical conductivity; a good reflector of both heat and light. In construction, most aluminum is used in alloy form (manganese to increase strength, silicon or magnesium producing alloy which have good corrosion resistance, also copper and zinc to produce alloy with high strength to-weight ratios} because of added strength; further strengthened by heat treatment; used in extrusions, castings and sheets. Excellent resistance to oxidation; often anodized for better corrosion resistance, surface hardness, and/ or architectural color requirements. Structural shapes are used as structural members in building construction in the same way that steel structural members are used. Architectural shapes are widely used for door and window jambs, curtain-wall, panel frames; thresholds; treads, handrails; door and window stiles, rails, muntin and bars. b. Copper - A lustrous reddish metal, highly ductile and malleable; has high tensile strength, is an excellent electrical and thermal conductor, is available in a wide variety of shapes; widely used for downspouts, electrical conductors, flashings, gutters, roofing, etc. Copper alloys are brasses, and bronzes., which contain primarily zinc and tin, respectively, and the alloys containing nickel. *Brasses are used in architectural and hardware applications. Bronze are used in the production of springs: c. Lead - A soft, malleable, heavy metal; has low melting point and a high coefficient of thermal expansion. Very easy to cut and work, enabling it to be fitted over 'uneven surfaces. Used for roofing, flashing and spandrel wall panels. d. Tin - A lustrous white, soft and malleable metal having a low melting point; relatively unaffected by exposure to air; used for making alloys and solder and in coating sheet metal.  CONCRETE What's Concrete? Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand) and coarse aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time. Portland cement is the commonly used type of cement for production of concrete. Concrete technology deals with study of properties of concrete and its practical applications. In a building construction, concrete is used for the construction of foundations, columns, beams, slabs, and other load bearing elements. There are different types of binding material is used other than cement, such as lime for lime concrete and bitumen for asphalt concrete which is used for road construction. Binding Materials 1. Lime. Ex_ Hydraulic Lime Fat lime is also known as Rich lime, High calcium lime, Pure lime, White lime. It is obtained by calculating limestones. When water is added to this lime, it produces hissing sound, a lot of heat is liberated it cracks and its volume is increased by 2-3 times the presence of air is essential for setting. 2. Bitumen A black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons obtained naturally or as a residue from petroleum distillation. It is used for road surfacing and roofing 1. Special Cements a. White Portland Cement Same materials as normal Portland except in color. The manufacturing process is controlled to produce a pure white, non-staining cement. It is used primarily for architectural purposes such as curtain wall and facing panels, decorative concrete stucco, and tile grout, or wherever white or colored concrete or mortar is specified. b. Masonry Cement Has been specially designed to produce better mortar than that made with normal Portland cement or with a lime-cement combination. The mortar made with this cement has particularly good plasticity and workability, good adhesion and bond. c. Air-entraining Portland Cement Small amounts of certain air-entraining agents are added to the clinker and ground with it to produce air entraining cements, effective use for resistance to severe frost. Most used air entrainment admixtures are vinsol resin, darex, Teepol, Cheecol  etc. These admixtures are actually made of Natural wood resins, alkali salts, animal and vegetable fats and oils etc. d. Oil Well Cement This is a special portland cement used for sealing oil wells. It must be slow setting and resistant to high temperatures and pressures. e. Waterproofed Portland Cement Normally produced by adding a small amount of stearate, usually calcium or aluminum to the cement clinker during the final grinding. 2. Aggregates a. Sand - found in riverbeds, free of salt and must be washed. b. Fine Aggregates – smaller than "1/4" diameter stones OR smaller than 9mm in diameter. c. Course Aggregates – bigger than "1/4" diameter stones OR bigger than 9mm in diameter Conditions for maximum size of coarse aggregate 1. It shall easily fit into the forms and in between reinforcing bars. 2. It should not be larger than 1/5 of the narrowest dimension of the forms or 1/3 of the depth of the slab nor 1f4 of the minimum distance between the reinforcing bars. 3. Water Intended The water intended for use in concrete mixing shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkali, salts, organic materials or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel. Water to be used for prestressed concrete or concrete which will contain aluminum embedment, shall be free from deleterious amounts of chloride-ion. 4. Concrete Mixes a. Class 1. “AA” - 1:1 12:3 meant for concrete under water, retaining walls 2. A – 1:2:4 meant for footings, columns, beams, R.C. slabs 3. B – 1:2 1/2: 5 meant for slab on fill, non bearing walls 4. C – 1:3:6 meant for concrete plant boxes. The designing of concrete mixtures is based primarily on the water-cement ratio theory, which states that the strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the amount of water used per unit (1b/ one bag) of cement.  This means that if for example, 68 lb.(31kg) of water per lb.(.45kg) of cement will produce concrete capable of developing 2,500 psi in 28 days, then less water per bag will produce stronger concrete and more water will produce concrete of lesser strength. Compressive Strength WATER CEMENT RATIO LB PER LB OF PROBABLE COMPRESSIVE AT 28 DAYS, CEMENT PSI PLAIN CONCRETE 0.75 2000 0.68 2500 0.62 3000 0.56 3500 0.50 4000 0.45 4500 0.41 5000 0.38 5500 0.34 6000 b. Control of Concrete Mix Slump test – When freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure that the specified slump is being attained consistently. A standard slump cone is 12 inches high (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) in diameter at the bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is open on both ends. The cone is filled in three equal layers, each being tamped or rodded 25 times with a standard 5/8" bullet nosed rod. When the cone has been filled and leveled off, it is lifted carefully, and the amount of slump is measured. Beams and columns 7.5 cm (.075) 3’’ Slab and tunnel inverts 5.0 cm (.05) 2’’ Tops and walls, piers parapet & curbs 5.0 cm (.05) 2’’ Side walls and arch in tunnel lining 10.0 (.10) 4’’ Canal Lining 7.5 cm (.075) 3’’ Heavy Mass construction 5.0 cm (.05) 2’’ Common quality-control test of concrete, based on 7- and 28-day curing periods. Specimens are usually cylindrical with a length equal to twice the diameter. Standard size.is 12 inch high and 6-inch diameter. Filling is done the same way as the slump test but taken out from the mold in 24 hours. It is then sent to a compression testing laboratory, by marking the cylinder while still wet. Some compressive stresses are 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi, 3,000 psi.  c. Brand of Portland Cement (R) 1. Island cement 2. Continental cement 3. Hi-cement 4. Union cement 5. Rizal cement 6. Filipinas cement 7. Pacific cement 8. Fortune cement 9. Republic cement 10. Northern cement d. Brands of White Cement (R) 1. Prime White cement 2. Keene 3. Trinity 4. Snowcrete 5. Concrete Additives What for? In addition to the basic ingredients of concrete. other materials are often added to the mix or applied to the surface of freshly placed concrete to produce some special result. These materials are known as concrete additives and may be used for one of the following reasons: o To speed up the initial set of concrete. o To retard the initial set. o To make the concrete more resistant to deterioration due to repeated freezing and thawing cycles. o To prevent bleeding of water to the surface of concrete. o To improve the workability of the mix. o To improve the hardness or denseness of the concrete surface. o To render the concrete more watertight. o To improve the bond between two concrete surfaces. o To inhibit the set of cement paste. o To produce a colored surface. o To produce a non-skid surface. o To prevent the evaporation of water from the newly placed concrete. o To help develop all the potential strength of a given water-cement paste. o To decrease the weight of concrete per cubic foot. a. Accelerators - An admixture which is used to speed up the initial set of concrete. Such a material may be added to the mix to increase the rate of early-strength development for several reasons. For example, this will allow earlier removal of forms and in some cases reduce the whole curing period b. Retarders - The function of a retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of the cement paste in concrete. In hot weather hydration is accelerated by the heat, thus cutting down the time available to place, consolidate, and finish the concrete. High temperatures, low humidity and wind cause rapid evaporation of water from the mix during summer. This drying of the concrete leads to cracking and crazing of the surface. An initial set retarder will hold back the hydration process, leaving more water for workability and allowing concrete to be finished and protected before drying out. A retarder is usually used in bridge construction, since girders or beams are designed with a camber and will be deflected as the load of the bridge deck is applied. The initial pours may be partially set before paving of the bridge deck is complete if a retarder is not used. As further deflection takes place, this concrete being no longer plastic. will be subjected to stress and may crack. It is also important to use a retarder in casting restressed concrete, members. Since prestress beds are usually long, up to 300ft, or more, it takes a considerable time to place and consolidate the entire pour. It is desirable to keep the concrete plastic until vibrating is completed to ensure a good bond between concrete and prestressed steel along the entire length of the bed. Retarders are also helpful for concrete that has to be hauled long distances in transit mix trucks, to ensure that it reaches its destination in a plastic and placeable condition c. Air-entraining Agents - Air entrained concrete contains microscopic bubbles of air formed with the aid of a group of chemicals called surface active agents, materials that have the property of reducing the surface tension of water intended for use when better resistance to frost action is concerned. d. Dispersal Agents - When cement and water are mixed, the cement particles tend to gather in clumps, or to flocculate. As a result water does not reach some of the particles and some are only partially hydrated. Sometimes only 50 percent of the cement is hydrated. Water trapped within these clumps later bleeds to the surface of the concrete, because of the weight of the other materials. The voids left by the forcing out of the water later become passages through which water can penetrate the concrete. A cement dispersal agent such as calcium lignosulfonate causes cement particles to separate by imparting like electrostatic charges to them. e. Concrete Hardeners - Plain concrete surfaces which are subjected to rolling live loads, the impact action of foot traffic, and other types of wear begin to dust and crumble at the surface after a period of time. This condition worsens with time, finally resulting in the destruction of the surface.  To prevent this, two types of concrete hardeners are used. 1. Chemical hardeners-liquids containing silicoflourides or fluosilicates and a wetting agent which reduces the surface tension of the liquid and allows it to penetrate the pores of the concrete more easily. The silicoflourides or fluosilicates combine chemically with the free lime and calcium carbonate which are present in the concrete and bind the fine particles into a flintlike topping; which is highly resistant to wear and dusting. 2. Fine metallic aggregate -are specially processed and graded iron particles which are dry-mixed with portland cement, spread evenly over the surface of freshly floated concrete, and worked into the surface by floating. The result is a hard, tough topping which is highly resistant to wear and less brittle than normal concrete. f. Water Reducing Admixtures - A material used to reduce the amount of water necessary to produce a concrete of given consistency or to increase the slump for a given water content. A typical one is made from the metallic. salts of lignin sulfonic acids. More water than is actually required for the hydration of the cement must be used in any given concrete mix in order to give it place ability. Unless the water content is carefully control, excess water may bleed to the surface of the concrete, causing segregation or surface laitance, or may evaporate, leaving voids which decrease strength and increase permeability. Excess water will also dilute and weaken the cement paste. Therefore an agent which will decrease the amount of water required while maintaining consistency and workability is a useful addition to the mix. g. Concrete Waterproof - Water under pressure and in contact with one surface of the concrete can be forced through channels between thinner and outer surfaces. A measure of the amount of water passing in this way is a measure of permeability; any admixture used to reduce this flow is really a permeability reducer. Water also can pass through concrete by the action of capillary forces. If one side is exposed to moisture and the other to air, the water reaching the dry side evaporates, resulting in a flow of moisture through the concrete. Materials used to reduce or stop this type of flow are more properly called damp roofers. h. Bonding Agents - When fresh concrete is poured against another concrete surface already set and at least partially cured, it is often difficult to obtain a bond between the two surfaces unless special precautions are taken. Fresh concrete shrinks when setting, and unless there is a very good bond th.us shrinkage makes the new concrete pull away from the old surface. A cement paste slurry is often applied to such an old surface immediately prior to pouring new-concrete to increase the amount of paste. When such a treatment cannot be applied, bonding agents are used to join the two surfaces. Two Types: 1. Metallic aggregate - iron particles are larger, but with same materials as the permeability reducer. Bonding takes place through the oxidation and subsequent  expansion of the iron particles. 2. Synthetic latex emulsion - consists of a highly polymerized synthetic liquid resin dispersed in water. When it is sprayed or painted on a concrete surface. the pores in the concrete absorb the water and allow the resin particles to coalesce and bond. i. Concrete Coloring Agents 1. Use concrete paint, applied after the concrete surface has been neutralized, either through exposure or by using a neutralizing agent such as zinc sulfate. 2. Integrating color into the surface concrete while it is still fresh. a. Natural metallic oxides of cobalt, chromium, iron etc. have distinctive colors. The ochres and umbers are fine dry powders. They are usually mixed into a topping mix, since this is the best way of distributing the color evenly throughout the concrete. b. The coloring agents made with synthetic oxides are usually a mixture of the oxide with one or more additional crying ingredients. The color is sometimes mixed with fine pure silica sand and applied by shaking the mixture over the freshly poured and floated surface. j. Set-inhibiting Agents - Specifications sometimes require that concrete surfaces be produced in which the aggregates are exposed for architectural effect. Certain inhibiting agents will prevent the cement paste from bonding to the surface aggregates but will not interfere with the set throughout the remainder of the pour. Two materials are used for this purpose. a. a liquid which is applied to forms for vertical surfaces immediately before pouring concrete and a b. powder which is applied directly to freshly poured horizontal surfaces The depth of penetration of the inhibitor depends on the amount used per square foot. Usual rates of application will vary from 1 1/2 to 3 lb. per -00 sq. ft. of surface. After three or four days of curing, the retarded surface concrete should be hosed or brushed off, exposing clean aggregate and leaving a rough cast effect. k. Non-skid Surfaces - To avoid making concrete surfaces slippery, use wood or cork floats which will leave a rough surface instead of steel troweling operation during the floor-finishing process. Another method is to use an abrasive material in the topping, applied as a dry shake in much the same way as metallic-aggregate topping is applied. The abrasive material is floated, into the top and the steel trowel operation is omitted. Materials commonly used for this purpose are fine particles of Flint, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, or emery. l. Surface Sealing Agents Used for two purposes. 1. To form a watertight coating which will prevent water from evaporating from a concrete surface and allow it to be retained for hydration. 2. To seal the pores of a concrete surface after it has hardened in order to prevent  the passage of water and the absorption of spilled materials such as oil, grease, or paint. Sealing agents used to prevent water evaporation are usually liquid waxes which can be sprayed over the surface but which are easily removed after curing is complete. m. Gas Forming Agents - Under normal conditions concrete undergoes settlement' and drying shrinkage, which in some situations, can result in undesirable characteristics in the hardened concrete. For example, voids on the underneath side of forms, block outs, reinforcing steel, or other embedded parts such as machinery bases may interfere with the bond and allow passage of water and reduce uniformity and strength. One method of reducing such voids is to add an expanding agent to the concrete. Aluminum powder, when added to mortar or concrete, reacts with the hydroxides in hydrating cement to produce very small bubbles of hydrogen gas. This action, when properly controlled. causes a slight expansion in plastic concrete or mortar and thus reduces or eliminates voids caused by settlement. n. Pozzolanic Admixtures - Materials sometimes used in structures where it is desirable to avoid high temperature or in structures exposed to seawater or water containing sulfates. These pozzolanic; materials are generally substituted for 10 to 35 percent of the cement. Pozzolans may be added to concrete mixes - rather than substituting for part of the cement-to improve workability, impermeability, and resistance to chemical attack. A number of natural materials such as diatomaceous earth, opaline cherts and shales, tuffs and puniicites, arid some artificial materials such as fly ash are used as pozzolans. (Fly ash is a fine residue which results from the combustion of powdered coal and may contain various amounts of carbon, silica, sulfur, alkalis, and other ingredients). 6. Concrete Products a. Concrete Block - Made with both stone and lightweight aggregates. 1. Hollow load-bearing concrete block-an 8”x8” 16" will approximately weigh 40 to 50 lb. made with heavyweight aggregate and 25 to 351b. when made with light weight aggregate. 2. Solid load bearing block - defined as one having a core area of not more than 25 percent of the gross cross-sectional area. 3. Hollow; non load bearing concrete block which the core area exceeds 25 percen cross sectional area. 4. Concrete building tile. 5. Concrete brick. Common Sizes 4" x 8” x 16" - for non-load bearing partitions 6" x 8” x 16" - for load bearing walls Quality a. Handmade-backyard industry  b. Machine made commonly sold c. Steam cured-manufactured by big and nationally known factories for load bearing walls. Usually specified for government and multi-storey buildings. Some companies manufacturing steam cured blocks 1. Ramrod 2. Jackbilt 3. Permanent 4. Superior d. Lightweight blocks-when perlite is added to the aggregate to reduce the weight to almost 50%. b. Cast Stone - Used - to simulate stone from concrete methods. By splitting a solid concrete block to expose two rough surfaces. By making a mortar of cement and very high quality silica sand and casting it in molds which produces a unit with the face shaped to simulate chipped sand stone, shale or slate done either by placing coloring material on the mold or either by mixing the color to the mortar. By mixing granite or marble chips with a mortar made with white cement and cast the mortar in a mold with a hard, smooth face. When the unit is partially cured, it is ground off to expose some stone in the surface resulting in a terrazo-like appearance c. Precast Facing Slabs - Units that can be custom-made any size to fit a particular structure. Facing slabs are precast with either or lightweight aggregates and are fixed to the building by pins or dowels to a steel frame and by metal strap anchors to a concrete or backup wall. d. Cellular Concrete Blocks - A lightweight block which is outstanding in thermal and sound insulation qualities. The basic ingredients are cement -made from silica-rich sand and limewater, and aluminum powder. They can be easily cut or sawed to any desired shape with woodworking tools and are laid up in masonry cement or cementlime mortar. Stucco and plaster can be applied directly to the face of the block, and other materials may be nailed directly to them. Another type of lightweight block Is made by mixing chemically treated wood shavings with cement paste and forming the resulting mixture into blocks. Three types are made. a. form blocks, b. insulation slabs, c. ceiling blocks. e. Other Products  1. Decorative and concrete blocks 2. Concrete sewer and culvert pipes 3. Cement tiles ADHESIVE AND SEALANTS Adhesive - a substance used for sticking objects or materials together; glue. Sealant - material used for sealing something so as to make it airtight or watertight. Mostly all materials have at least two common characteristics: 1. Cohesiveness - the ability of particles of a material to cling tightly to one another and 2. Adhesiveness - the ability of a material to fix itself and cling to an entirely different material. 1. Glue a. Animal Glue - Available in either solid or liquid form. Solid glue is melted and applied hot. It is slow setting and allows time for adjustment to the glue joint. Animal glue has excellent bonding properties with wood, leather, paper or cloth developing up to 12,000 psi in. shear. It has moderate resistance to heat and good resistance to cold but poor resistance to water. It cures by air drying at room temperature. b. Blood Albumin Glue - A special animal glue made for use particularly with leather and paper. It has only very moderate bonding/power with wood. It is usually sold as a dry powder which is mixed with water. It has fair resistance to both heat and cold but poor resistance to water, will dry from 150 to 200°F. c. Casein Glue - Made from protein materials, is a dry powder to be mixed with water. It has good bonding powder for wood-to-wood or paper-to-wood applications and will develop the full strength of the wood in most situations. Casein glue has good dry heat resistance and moderate resistance to cold. It has moderate resistance to water but does not perform well when subjected to high humidity or wetting and drying cycles. It is subject to attack from molds, fungi, and other wood organisms, will dry to as low as 359F with moderate pressure. d. Starch and Dextrin Glues - Available in both dry and liquid state, the dry glue being mixed with water. They have good bond with paper or leather and fair bond with wood, but strength does not compare with those of animal or casein glues. They have fair resistance to heat and cold but poor resistance to water. They dry at room temperature. e. Asphalt Cements - Are thermoplastic materials made from asphalt emulsions or asphalt cutbacks. They have a good bond to paper and concrete and are used mainly for roofing applications and for laminating layers of wood fiberboard. They have relatively poor resistance to heat but good resistance to cold and good water resistance. f. Cellulose Cement - Are thermoplastic in nature and have good bond to wood, paper, leather or glass, developing up to 1,400 psi in shear with wood. They have moderate  resistance to both heat and cold and good resistance to water. A common solvent is ethyl acetate. Cellulose cement cures by air drying and setting. g. Natural-rubber Adhesives - Are usually latex emulsions or dissolved crepe rubber. They have a good bond with rubber or leather and fair bond with wood, ceramics, or glass, developing strengths of about 350 PSI in tension with wood. They have fair resistance to heat and cold, good resistance to water, but poor resistance to creep. Room temperature is sufficient for drying. h. Nitrile or buna N Rubber - Available in both thermoplastic and thermosetting types. It has good bond with wood, paper, porcelain, enamel and polyester film or sheet. The thermosetting type will develop up to 400 psi shear and the thermoplastic type up to 600 psi. It has good resistance to heat and cold and excellent water resistance, while its creep resistance is fairly good. This adhesive cures under heat. i. Neoprene-rubber Adhesive - Are essentially thermoplastic in nature, though they may have some thermosetting characteristics. They have excellent bond with wood, asbestos board, metals, glass and some plastics with strengths up to 1,200 psi in shear. They have good resistance to heat and cold and excellent resistance to water. Creep resistance fairly good. Used to cement plastic laminates walls or flat surfaces. Also used in ceme gypsum board to studs and ceiling joists a laminating one layer of gypsum boa another. j. Urea Formaldehyde Resin Glue - Available in powder-form to be mixed with water, and in liquid form, which requires the addition of a hardener. They are thermosetting in nature, with excellent bond to wood, leather, or paper having a shear strength of up to 2,800 psi. They have good resistance to heat and cold and fair resistance to water. Creep resistance is Wood welding can be done by applying a high-frequency electric current directly to joint for rapid curing k. Phenolic Resin Glue - Are made in both dry and liquid form. They are thermosetting glues with excellent bond to wood and paper. Shear strengths up to 2,800 psi are developed. They have excellent resistance to heat, cold, creep, and water. Some set at room temperature, while others require a hot press. These hot-press glues are commonly used in the manufacture of plywood. l. Melamine Resin - Thermosetting glues manufactured as a powder with a separate catalyst. They have excellent bond with wood or paper resistance to heat, cold, creep, and water are all excellent. Melamine resins are cured under hot press at 300°F. Melamine-formaldehyde resin glues are manufactured as a powder mixed with-water and may be either hot setting or intermediate-temperature-setting types. m. Resorcinol Resin - Are usually made as a liquid with a separate catalyst. They have good bond with wood or paper, developing shear strengths up to 1,950 psi with wood. They have very good resistance to heat, cold and creep and are generally used where a water proof joint is required. Some cure at room temperatures, while others require moderate heat, up to 200F.  n. Epoxy Resin - Are thermosetting in nature, manufactured in liquid form with a separate catalyst. The amount of catalyst added determines the type of curing required. They have excellent bond with wood, metal, glass and masonry and are widely used in the manufacture of laminated curtain-wall panels of various kinds. They are also used in making repairs to broken concrete. They have excellent resistance to both heat and cold, while creep resistance and water resistance vary widely, depending upon how the glue is compounded. Adding a regular catalyst, curing is by hot press, up to 390F while adding a strong catalyst results in glue which will cure at room temperature. o. Polyvinyl-resin Adhesive - In the form of an emulsion. They have good bond with wood or paper or vinyl plastics and reasonably good bond with metal. Shear strengths up to 1,000 psi are developed with PVA wood. Resistance to cold is good, but heat, creep, and water resistance are only fair. These glues cure at room temperature. p. Sodium Silicate Adhesive - Are liquids which have excellent bond with paper or glass and reasonably good bond with wood or metal. Resistance to heat, cold and creep are good, but water resistance is poor. Some cure at room temperature, while other require moderate heat, in the 200°F range. 2.Sealer a. Liquid Asphalt - Either in cutback form or as an asphalt emulsion. Uses are:  To coat the outer surface of concrete below ground level to prevent the penetration of water to the interior through pores in the concrete.  Another similar use is to seal the inside surface of wooden or concrete water tanks.  Another use is as a sealer or primer over a concrete slab before asphaltic tile adhesive is applied. Here, the sealer prevents liquids from being with drawn from the flooting or adhesive, allowing it to become dry and hard.  In order to be effective as a waterproofing membrane, sealers must be elastomeric in character. That is, they must be resilient enough to be able to expand over small cracks in the base surface without losing, their effectiveness and be able to bridge joints between members without rupture, in. case of movement at the joint. b. Solution of Sodium Silicate - Used to seal the inside surface of concrete liquid containers. The sodium silicate forms a gel-like film on the surface to prevent water penetration. c. Wax Compound - Made in the form of emulsions to be sprayed over the surface of newly placed concrete. The wax oxidizes to form a continuous film prevents the evaporation of water from concrete in this case the adhesion is only temporary. As the wax continues to oxidize it becomes hard and brittle and flakes or is worn off the concrete by traffic. Other waxes are used to make  sealers for concrete and terrazzo floors which prevent the penetration of oil and grease into the floor surface. d. Oils & Turpentines - Sealers used to seal wood surfaces before the application of paint or varnish. They penetrate into and are absorbed by the wood fibers so that the vehicle in paints and varnish will not be similarly absorbed. Similar sealers are used to seal wood which will not be painted against moisture penetration. e. Synthetic Plastic Products - Sealers for wood which form a film over the surface and allow better bonding of synthetic lacquers to wood. f. Epoxy-resin Formulation - Used as sealers over concrete, wood, or old terrazzo surfaces before epoxy-resin terrazzo is applied. The thin liquid adheres to and seals the old surface and provides good bond for the new application. Similar sealers are used under concrete surface repairs. INSULATING MATERIALS In cold weather, we are interested in transferring heat from furnaces, radiators, heating panels, into various rooms of our buildings. At the same time, we are interested in preventing that heat from being transferred from the interior of the building to the outside. During the summer it is important that prevent the transfer of hot outside temperatures to the working and living space within our buildings. All of these are done by the Judicio as use of materials which best prevent the transfer of COOL WARM heat, and this we call Thermal insulation. 3 Ways Heat is Transferred : CONVECTION the transfer of heat through a fluid liquid or gas) caused by molecular motion CONDUCTION the transfer of heat or electric current from one substance to another by direct contact RADIATION energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles 1. Conduction - The inside of a concrete wall which has one side exposed to outside winter temperatures feels cold to the touch. Heat is being conducted from the side of higher temperature to that of lower temperature. 2. Radiation - from this point, it is transferred to the outside air by radiation. 3. Convection - When air is heated, it expands and begins to circulate during the circulation, it comes in contact with cooler surface, some of its heat is given up to them. It is therefore important to try to prevent air currents (Convection Currents) from being set up in the walls and ceilings of our buildings. This can be done by keeping the layer of air relatively thin-not over 1 inch. and by dividing the space into small, enclosed compartments. The convection currents set up in the confined spaces are insignificant and can causes little heat transfer to prevent heat loss by conduction, we must use the materials that are poor conductors to prevent loss by radiation materials must be used which will reflect rather than radiate heat. 1. Kinds of Thermal Insulation a. Loose Fill - This bulky and divided into Fibrous & Granular. 1. Fibrous Type - made from mineral wool rock wool, glass wool, or slag wool or vegetable fiber-usually wood fiber. Fibrous Loose Fill is used to insulate walls of buildings that have been built without insulation. In such cases holes are drilled in the wall between each pair of studs, a hose inserted and the insulation blown in until the space in filled. 2. Granular Insulation - are made from expanded minerals such as perlite and vermiculite or from ground vegetable matter such as granulated cork. Granules are graded into four sizes, 1, (3/8 in. to no.16 sieve) and sizes 2 (no. 4 to no. 30 sieve used as Loose-Fill insulation for sidewalls and ceilings over suspended ceilings, between wood sleepers over a concrete floor slab, as fill for the cores of concrete blocks and sizes 3 (no. 8 to no. 100 sieve) size 4 (no. 16 to 100 sieve). b. Blanket Insulation - Is made from some fibrous material such as mineral wool. wood fiber, cotton fiber, or animal hair, manufactured in the form of a mat, 16, 20 or 24 in. width, in 8ft. lengths or put up in rolls of from 40 to 100 linear feet, with controlled thicknesses of 1, 1/2, 2, 3 and 4 in. Some are made with no covering at all, son e with a paper back on one side only, some with vinyl cardboard or wire mesh one side, while others are completely enclosed in an envelope. Those with backing or envelopes are usually provided with a stapling flange so that they can be stapled to the sides or edges of studs and Joists. Blankets are used where large areas must be insulated. These include such places as sidewalls in new construction, over head i floored attics between joists in unflooked attics, in crawl spaces and over suspended ceilings. c. Batts - Similar to blankets but they are restricted to 48 in. long or less they are always covered with paper, and made especially for installation between stud spacings. Batts usually have paper tabs along the edges for easier attachment to the frame. d. Structural Insulation Board - Made from organic fiber-wood, cane, straw or cork. The wood and cane raw material is first pulped, after which it is treated with waterproofing chemicals. The fibers are then formed into sheets of various thicknesses in a continuing process and cut into standard lengths. Some boards are impregnated with asphalt during the manufacturing process, while others are given a coat of asphalt after they are made. A. Strawboard is made from carefully selected straw, fused under heat and pressure into a panel 2 in. thick and 4ft. wide. Boards are  completely sealed in paper covers of various types to provide the proper surface for painting, papering, plastering, stucco or roofing. B. Corkboard is made from granulated cork mixed with resin and pressed into sheets of several thicknesses depending on the use to which they will be put. A common thickness is 3 in. the board being used for roof insulation. (see ceiling acoustical board) C. Structural Insulation Board is used in exterior wall sheathing roof decking, roof insulation under builtup roofing, shingle backer. interior finish board and insulating form board. (See sizes below) o Exterior Sheathing is 1/2 in. thick, square edged sheets, 4 ft. wide and from 6 to 12ft. long, impregnated with asphalt. o Shingle Backer is made 5/16 or 3/8 in. thick in strips 11 3/ 4, 13 1/ 2. 15, 15 1/2 in wide and in. long, o Roof Insulation is made from 1/ 2 to 3 in. thick in single or multiple layers and in several dimensions. o Interior Wall Board is made 5/16, 3/ 8 and 1/2 in. thick in sheets of 4 x 8 and 4 x 10ft. e. Block or Rigid Slab Insulation - This type of insulation is so called because the units are relatively stiff and inelastic. In most cases inorganic materials are used in their manufactures. This include mineral wool with binder, framed plastic, cellular, glass, foamed concrete, cellular hard rubber, shredded wood and cement. The basic material is a nonconductor and that the finished product contains millions of isolated air cells which makes these materials high in insulative value. A. Mineral wool from perlite or vermiculite, when mixed with a binder and processed or fixed to a rigid back, sheets are produced which are suitable for roof-deck insulation. Foamed Plastic Insulation is made from expanded polystyrene and expanded polyurethane formed into slabs of various dimensions and thicknesses. (one popular brand is styropor). B. Cellular Glass Insulation is made from expanded molten glass cast into block form and cut various sizes and shapes, thicknesses. of 2, 2 1/2 and 3 and 4 in. are available in 12 x 18 in. blocks, a 1.112 in thickness is produced in 24 x 48 in. slabs. Method of application on flat surface is in bot asphalt or asphalt emulsion. For vertical surface, mastic is used. C. Foamed Concrete is an important insulating material because of its closed cell construction. Foamed concrete precast roof slabs are used for insulative as well as structural pur