British Studies Summary PDF

British Studies Lesson 1: Early History and Geography Lesson Goals After this lesson, students… … can place the main events in Britain’s early history in the correct place in a timeline. … know who invaded Britain during the Roman Invasion, when they invaded, wh...

British Studies Lesson 1: Early History and Geography Lesson Goals After this lesson, students… … can place the main events in Britain’s early history in the correct place in a timeline. … know who invaded Britain during the Roman Invasion, when they invaded, why they invaded, what the consequences of the invasion were, and which remnants of the invasion can still be found today. … know who invaded Britain during the Germanic Period, when they invaded, why they invaded, what the consequences of the invasion were, and which remnants of the invasion can still be found today. … know who invaded Britain during the Norman Conquest, when they invaded, why they invaded, what the consequences of the invasion were, and which remnants of the invasion can still be found today. … know when and how Christianity was introduced to Britain … know the importance of the Domesday Book and when it was compiled … know the difference between geographical and political terms and how to be sensitive when it comes to using certain (place)names. Britons and Invaders British Early history is filled with wave after wave of invasions and settlements. This history of invasions resulted in conflict, faith, war, and (sometimes) wealth. Besides this, each new set of invaders shaped the language, art, and destinies of the peoples of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. One of the most famous remnants of the very early stages of what we now call Britain is Stonehenge (2150 BC). However, though undoubtedly the most famous one, Stonehenge is not the only stone circle found in Britain, nor are they solely found in England. The Callanish stone circle in Lewis, Scotland is another example of one of these remnants of ancient times. During the Iron Age, which started around 800 BC, the Celts lived across most of Europe. These were, then, also the people the Romans invaded when they arrived in Britain, along with the Scots and Picts, who mostly lived in present-day Scotland. It is important to realise that the histories of Ireland, Scotland, Wales and England differ quite a lot. For example, Ireland was never invaded by the Romans, nor was Scotland ever as fully conquered by the Romans as England was. These history lessons focus mostly on the island of Great Britain (Scotland, Wales, England). After the Iron Age, Britain’s early history is divided into three main periods: the Roman Period, the Anglo- Saxon Period and the Norman period. Each of these periods are the result of invading parties who decided to settle in Britain and influenced the country and its inhabitants to varying degrees. These three invasions are the core of this lesson. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 18-04-2023 The Roman Invasion 43 AD Before the Romans finally settled in Britain in 43 AD, they had already made multiple attempts to invade the country. It was only in this final attempt, initiated by emperor Claudius, that they were successful. The Romans dubbed most of present-day England and Wales the province of Britannia. The term ‘Britain’ probably derives from the Greek and Latin names given to England and Wales by the Romans. With the Romans in charge, Britain knew a time of relative peace and prosperity. The Romans did not interact as much with the locals, who they called ‘Britons’, as succeeding invaders would. Though the Romans themselves maintained a significant Roman lifestyle, and urged the Celtic aristocracy to do the same, most Celts did not adopt this lifestyle. This meant that the Romans took their culture with them when they withdrew between 409-410. What they left behind were some imposing structures, many buildings, and certain placenames. Of these remnants, none is more famous than Hadrian’s Wall. This wall was built in AD 122-130 and spans 117 kilometres. Built with the intention of keeping out the ‘wild’ Scots and Picts, it marked the northern border of the Roman province of Britannia and more or less coincides with the current English-Scottish border. It is still partially intact. A similar structure was begun in AD 142: the Antonine Wall. This wall was built further north, which shows the increasing expansion of the Roman empire. However, as the lands there were not as fertile and the northern tribes were quite rebellious, the Romans soon gave up on their wish of conquering present-day Scotland. Apart from these two walls, the Romans left behind many roads, forts, villas and baths. However, many of these decayed or were destroyed after the Romans left. More lasting evidence of the Roman occupation can be found in current-day placenames such as London (Londondinium), and Colchester, Lancaster, and Gloucester (which include variants of the Latin word castra (a military camp). Interbellum 409-410 After the Romans left, the country fell into chaos as native (Celtic) tribes and foreign invaders battled each other for power. Many of the Roman towns in Britain crumbled as people went back to living in the countryside. Germanic Invasions - The Anglo-Saxon Period 410-1066 Angles, Saxons, and Jutes 5th century In the 5th century, Germanic tribes invaded the south, gradually moving west and northwards. The Anglo- Saxon period takes its name from the largest two of these tribes (the Angles and the Saxons), with the Jutes being the third tribe that invaded Britain during this time. The main difference with the Roman invasion is that this time, the invaders settled in large numbers. The country was divided into seven separate, warring Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England, with isolated ‘Celtic’ areas in Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Anglo- Saxons did integrate with the existing population (for example through intermarriage) and hugely Heleen Kluitenberg, version 18-04-2023 influenced their culture. An agricultural lifestyle was introduced to Britain, along with new farming methods and the foundation of thousands of self-sufficient villages. Besides this, the Celtic language was supplanted by a Germanic dialect which forms the basis of the Old English language. One of the main archaeological finds from this time period is the Sutton Hoo Ship Burial. This burial site, which is located in Suffolk, was excavated in 1939 when archaeologists explored the largest of about twenty Saxon burial mounds on the site. The most significant artefacts from the ship-burial, which are now displayed in the British Museum, are those found in the burial chamber, including a suite of metalwork dress fittings in gold and gems, a ceremonial helmet, a shield and sword, a lyre, and many pieces of silver plate from the Byzantine Empire. All these finds show the wealth of the kings who ruled the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of East Anglia, to which Sutton Hoo belonged in the early AD 600s. The extraordinarily rich grave goods suggested that the ship burial commemorated a very high-ranking man – possibly even a king. The Sutton Hoo helmet is the most iconic object to survive from Anglo-Saxon England. It is decorated with pictures of warriors and powerful animals, weighs 2 ½ kg, and has leather lining and holes under the nose to breathe. Christianity in Britain The Anglo-Saxon period is also the time in which Christianity was introduced to Britain. Christianity spread through the country from two different directions: Ireland and mainland Europe. In 432 AD, St Patrick converted Ireland to Christianity, which then spread to the north of Britain (starting in Scotland) in the 5th century. Later on, in the 6th and 7th century, Christianity was introduced into the south of England by the Roman missionary St. Augustine, who converted the Kentish King Aethelbert around 579 and who became the first Archbishop of Kent (in Canterbury). Viking Invasions 8th and 9th century Viking raids on the British Isles began in the eighth century, growing in frequency until the sack of the monasteries of Lindisfarne and Jarrow in 793–94. While initially the Scandinavians would come, plunder, and leave, their armies began to stay over winter in the 800s. Finally, in the 870s, in the ominous words of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: “they divided the land, settled down and began to plough”. Most of the Vikings settled in the North of Britain. However, there was a lot of interaction between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings. The cultural differences between Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings were comparatively small since they had the same agricultural lifestyle and spoke different varieties of the same Germanic tongue. As the Vikings interacted with their English neighbours, first through farming and trading activities and later through intermarriage, the two languages (Old Norse and Old English) mixed as well. This process is evident in place names such as Grimsby, Thornby and Derby (the suffix -by is the Scandinavian word for “homestead” or “village”), or Lothwaite (-thwaite meaning “meadow” or “piece of land”). “Give,” “window” and “dream,” among other common English words, also derived their modern meanings from the Viking influence. As Vikings began to take over parts of Britain, many of the old Anglo-Saxon kingdoms disappeared. However, there was one larger kingdom that continued to repress the Viking invaders: Wessex. This kingdom was led by King Alfred the Great, who is one of the most celebrated Anglo-Saxon kings. Apart from being known as the king who withstood the Vikings, thus becoming the first King of all Anglo-Saxons, Alfred Heleen Kluitenberg, version 18-04-2023 the Great is known for his promotion of learning and education. For, as he is quoted to have said, “without wisdom, nothing can be done to any purpose”. He went on to commission the translation of many books into the English vernacular, thereby elevating the language and allowing English to become a language of prose literature. In the late 9th century the south of Britain was mostly inhabited by Britons (descendants from the Anglo- Saxons), who ruled and lived in the kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, whereas the north of the country was taken up by the Danelaw; the area in which the Scandinavian settlers lived. The whole Anglo-Saxon period (including the Viking settlement) lasted nearly 6 centuries, thereby having an enormous effect on the country, its inhabitants and its customs. The part of Britain which is present-day England had become quite sophisticated, while Ireland, by contrast, remained disunited with no one kingdom or ruler to create any form of hegemony. In the 920s, there was even an Anglo-Saxon king (Athelstan) who could rightfully call himself ‘King of the English and ruler of all Britain’. He is often considered the first English king. For a time, there was stability and prosperity. However, everything was about to change in the year 1066. The Norman Conquest 1066 The Norman conquest ended half a millennium of Anglo-Saxon England, and the year 1066 marks the last successful invasion of Britain. When the young Danish King Harold II inherited the ‘English’ throne, this did not sit well with the Duke of Normandy. William, sometimes called William the Bastard and later called William the Conqueror, claimed that the throne had already been promised to him. Another Scandinavian king made the same claim. Both attacked England, but because of the wind the Scandinavians arrived first, so Harold II travelled north to fight them off. After he defeated them, he learned that the Duke of Normandy had landed on the southern shores from France, so Harold marched what was left of his army to the south to battle the Normans. The Battle of Hastings was won by William the Conqueror on 14 October 1066, killing Harold in the process. Whether by an arrow in the eye or simply hacked to death remains unclear. The victor was crowned William I on Christmas Day of the same year. This battle and the events leading up to the Norman Conquest was commemorated on the Bayeux Tapestry, an embroidered cloth of near 70 meters (230 ft) long and 50 centimetres tall. It is thought to date from the 11th century, within a few years after the battle. It tells the story from the point of view of the conquering Normans but is now agreed to have been made in England. This conquest is not only important because it was the last time Britain was successfully invaded, the Normans also had a huge impact on its language and society. After William was crowned king, the ruling class was systematically removed: of the 1,400 chief tenants in place on the eve of Williams invasion only two were left in 1086. This was a time of massive change, and the Conquest was long remembered as “a bitter wound for our dear country”. With the chief tenants replaced by French nobility, the language spoken at court changed to French. Poetry and literature were written and read in either French or Latin, while the peasants and serfs spoke English. Thousands of French words entered the English language, resulting in a language that even today has clear Germanic roots and grammar, but a vocabulary hugely influenced by the French language. The fact that mainly the common folk spoke English and rich nobility spoke French can be seen when comparing the words for animals and the meat that they provide. Obviously, the English serfs would be the ones rearing the animals, which they called cows, sheep, and pigs (all words derived from Old English), while the people who had the money to eat the meat used the French words beef, mutton, and pork. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 18-04-2023 Besides the major changes in the English language, William I introduced the Feudal System to Britain. After replacing the entire ruling class by Norman nobles, he introduced a system where he, as king, was at the top. He would then give lands over to his barons (rich noblemen), who in turn gave land to the knights in return for protection and military service. Finally, the knights gave lands to the peasant farmers (the English) who provided food for everyone else. This system was justified by the fact that king was deemed to have the divine right to rule: this means that people thought that God had decided that he was supposed to be king. Naturally, a system like this made the king quite rich, as he would tax the people below him. To keep track of what everyone owed him, King William commissioned the Domesday Book, which was finished in 1086. This nickname for the book that was originally called the Winchester Book (Liber de Wintonia) was given to the book because it reminded people of the Last Judgement in the Bible. For this Great Survey contained information on all nobles, barons and knights and their annual value; in other words it listed how much they owed the king in taxes. It is through this manuscript that we know so much about this historical period and the feudal system, as it includes records of the number of people in every household, the amount of livestock they held, and the bridges, mills and roads on their estates, etc. The manuscript is still intact, and you can even access it online. The Norman period ended in 1485, which marked the start of the Tudor Dynasty – more on this in lesson 2. Geography What country do we include when teaching ‘British’ studies? Which places, regions, provinces does that entail? When discussing the terms connected to a country and its people, we can differentiate between two types of terms: geographical terms and political terms. Geographical names are names for geographical entities, such as the ‘British Isles’, (the two larger British islands and all the smaller islands surrounding them), ‘Great Britain’ (the biggest of the two British Isles). Political names are used to identify political entities such as countries. So the (geographical) island of Great Britain includes the countries (political) of England, Scotland, and Wales. Another example is the use of ‘Ireland’, which is the geographical name of the smaller of the largest two islands of the British Isles, versus the political terms for the countries of ‘Northern Ireland’ and the ‘Republic of Ireland’. Besides this difference, we – as language users – also have to be sensitive to the negative (or positive) connotations that certain terms have gained through to the history of a country. For example, when we are talking about Northern Ireland and use the world ‘Ulster’ to define this part of Britain, we are unwittingly choosing sides in years-long a long battle (siding with the Protestants, rather than the Catholics). Also, when calling a Scottish person you meet in a pub ‘English’, you are more than likely to get into a fight. It’s not just political terms (such as ‘England’ in the example above) which can have negative connotations. The term ‘the British Isles’, for example, is also problematic as it suggests that the Republic of Ireland (which is the political country on the geographical isle of Ireland) is also dominated by the British. However, the people living in the Republic of Ireland are decidedly not British, and would not take it kindly if you were to label them that. You have to study two things regarding Geography for your test which are not included in this summary, but can be found on Blackboard: 1. Geography Assignment 1 – locating the cities, regions, National Parks, etc. on the map. 2. Geography Assignment 2 – knowing what the different political/geographical terms mean. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 18-04-2023 Works consulted Britannica. (n.d.). What was the importance of literacy and learning to Alfred’s rule? Companion. https://www.britannica.com/story/what-was-the-importance-of-literacy-and-learning-to-alfreds- rule O’Driscoll, J. (2009). Britain for Learners of English. Oxford UP. Oakland, J. (2019). British Civilization: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis Ltd. Pattison, P. (n.d.). The Roman Invasion. English Heritage. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/richborough-roman-fort-and- amphitheatre/history/invasion/#:~:text=In%20AD%2043%2C%20the%20Roman,into%20territory %20now%20in%20Scotland. They gave us the greatest of All Britons (2018, October 4). History. Retrieved from: https://www.pressreader.com/uk/bbc-history-magazine/20181004/282110637532055 Wood, M. (2019, November 22). 10 Ways the Anglo-Saxons Changed the Course of British History. History Extra. https://www.historyextra.com/period/anglo-saxon/michael-wood-how-what-did-anglo- saxons-do-british-history/ Heleen Kluitenberg, version 18-04-2023  British Studies Lesson 2: Historical Figures and their Times 1 Lesson Goals After this lesson, students… …know how and when the Domesday Book came about and why it is still significant today; …know what characterised the reign of King John; …know how and when the Magna Carta came about and why it is still significant today; …know how British society functioned in the Middle Ages; …know what the effect of the Hundred Years’ War was on England; …know what the Wars of the Roses were about, when it was fought, who the main parties and people involved were and what the outcome of the final battle was; …know what the Tudor Dynasty was and how it started; …know who the following monarchs were and what characterised their reigns: Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I, and James I; …know the basic facts about the Reformation: when did it happen, who were involved, what was the cause, what were the consequences for Britain; …know why Elizabeth I’s reign is called the Golden Age; …know why and when the Spanish Armada attacked and how they were repulsed; …know what the Union of the Crowns is, when it happened, who the main people involved were, and what the consequences were for the union between Scotland and England; …know who commissioned the King James Version of the Bible and why it is such a popular translation; …know the basic information about the Gunpowder Plot and what effect it has on Britain today. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Domesday Book and Magna Carta Setting: The Norman Conquest Last lesson we ended with the Norman Conquest of 1066; the last time Britain was successfully invaded. At that point, England had become a Germanic nation settled by the Angles and Saxons. The Vikings, the most recent invaders before the Normans, had made peace with the Angles and the Saxons, the country had been relatively united, and the name England had been coined. When William the Conqueror invaded and was crowned king William I, a new era began for Britain. The main consequences of this invasions were dealt with last week: the influence on the English language and the introduction of the feudal system. The Domesday Book (1086) With the feudal system in place and William I securely on the throne, much of the English lands had been given to Norman barons in return for their fealty (in lieu of the feudal system). In 1085, an ageing William ordered a survey of land and ownership in England. This survey (often called The Great Survey) was meant to determine how much William could levy in taxes because, after all, invading and conquering England had been an expensive affair. In addition, an overview like this could end disputes among the barons as it settled who owned which pieces of land. Public officials were therefore sent out and recorded every settlement in England south of the River Tees. They were very thorough in their survey, recording ownership of land, buildings (e.g. castles, churches, farms, mills), how the land was used (e.g. woodland, meadow), what animals were kept and how many, and who lived on the land. This record of property ownership contains valuable information for historians as it gives an accurate representation of the demographic and geographic situation in England at the time. It gives us an insight into the feudal system and how society functioned then. Originally, the final recording of the survey was called the Winchester Book. It got the ‘nickname’ Domesday Book from the Saxons, who were reminded of the Christian Day of Judgement when everyone would have to account for their actions (in the same way that they now had to account for their possessions) and ‘because its decisions, like those of the Day of Judgement, are unalterable’. The original Domesday Book still exists in the National Archives in London today. Magna Carta (1215) Years later, in 1215, another king had inherited the throne: King John. He succeeded his brother Richard Lionheart, who is famous for his crusading efforts. King John was such an unpopular king that no later king took on his name (there is no English King John II, though there have been plenty of kings called Henry, Richard, or James). He is one of the country’s most unpopular monarchs due to his political failures, financial mismanagement, conflict with the Church (he was even excommunicated at one point), his arbitrary rule (like imprisoning his political opponents without trial), and his unreliability. One of the things that made John especially disliked among the barons were the high taxes he levied in order to pay for his equally unpopular war with France (which John lost). In June 1215, the barons confronted King John at Runnymede, a meadow near Windsor Castle, and presented him with a list of demands which eventually became the basis for the Magna Carta (Latin for The Great Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Charter). The charter established fundamental rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection from arbitrary arrest, and limitations on the power of the monarchy. The most important (and revolutionary) point that the Magna Carta established was that everyone was subject to the law: even the king! Considering the fact that for years monarchs had ruled under the Divine Right, this was a complete change in the mindset of the people. King John was forced into signing the charter right then and there. In a way, the charter failed at the time as King John ignored it and civil war broke out. However, the Magna Carta it is still a landmark document in the history of English constitutional law. It was updated and reissued several times after the death of King John and it can be said to form the basis of the English (unwritten) constitution, as it laid down important principles that can still be seen in the English constitution today. Four versions of the original document still exist, one of which can be found in the British Library. Medieval Britain (1066 – 1485) Both the Domesday Book and the Magna Carta were products of the Middle Ages, a period lasting from 1066-1485 (starting with the Norman Conquest and ending with the Wars of the Roses). This period saw extensions of the English territory, the rise of Parliament and the Black Death. It was a time in which the Catholic church held a lot of power and had a huge impact on the way people lived at the time. Extension of the English territory In 1170, the English nobleman nicknamed “Strongbow” helped an Irish king to regain his throne. In return, he was granted extensive lands in the east of Ireland. This established a foothold for the English in Ireland, which was expanded on in the following centuries. Another way in which the English territory grew in Medieval times was through the Conquest of Wales by Edward I, which was completed in 1284. A consequence of the Annexation of Wales that is still noticeable today is the fact that the heir apparent of the British throne has since then been known as the Prince of Wales. Parliament Another development in Medieval Britain was the gradual forming of Parliament. The powerful monarchs began to consult with a group of advisors known as the Great Council, consisting of high- ranking nobles and church officials. In the years following the Magna Carta, the Great Council began to evolve into a more formal representative body. This body eventually became known as Parliament, and by the 14th century, it had a clear legislative function and was comprised of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Black Death Around 1350 the first wave of the Bubonic Plague reached Britain. A third of the population was wiped out by the plague, which led to a shortage of labour and weakened the feudal system (as there were not enough serfs to support the system anymore). Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 The Hundred Year’s War (1337-1453) One of the wars that was fought in Medieval Times was the Hundred Years’ War; a series of military conflicts between England and France. In spite of its name, the war lasted no less than 116 years, although there were intermittent periods of peace during this time. The primary cause of the war was a dispute over the succession to the French throne, but they also fought over the ownership of some lands in France whose English ownership dated back to the times of William the Conqueror (who was also Duke of Normandy). These territories were important sources of revenue for the English crown. In the end, England lost the war. This loss caused unrest among the nobles. They were less than pleased with losing their lands on the continent, and the fact that the English had lost a war in which investment had been so great weakened the prestige of the monarchy. This dissatisfaction of the English nobles helped lead to the Wars of the Roses. The Wars of the Roses (1455 – 1485) The Wars of the Roses was a power struggle for the right to the English crown that lasted from 1455- 1485. The wars were fought between two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the House of York, whose symbol was the white rose, and the House of Lancaster, whose symbol was the red rose. When King Henry VI had a mental breakdown in 1453, Richard Duke of York was installed as Lord Protector and felt that he had a better claim to the throne than the person sitting on it. At this point, barons started choosing their sides. The barons had become powerful lords with their own private armies, which is why they could challenge the king and the conflict lasted this long. The conflict saw many changes in power, with both sides winning and losing battles and alternating Yorkist and Lancastrian kings. During the final stages of the war, the House of York was led by Richard III, while Henry Tudor led the House of Lancaster. Richard III was eventually beaten by Henry Tudor in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. Henry Tudor was crowned Henry VII and in a smart political move he married Elizabeth of York shortly thereafter, thus combining the two houses and ending the war. The two house symbols were then combined into the Tudor rose: the start of the Tudor Dynasty. The Tudor Dynasty (1485-1603) The Tudors ruled England for 118 years, from 1485 to 1603. The five monarchs of the Tudor Dynasty were Henry VII (formerly known as Henry Tudor), Henry VIII and his three children: Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. The Tudor dynasty is known for its significant contributions to English history, including the establishment of the Church of England, the expansion of the English navy, and the beginning of the English Renaissance. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Henry VII After winning the Battle of Bosworth Field, marrying Elizabeth of York, and establishing the Tudor Dynasty, Henry VII reigned for another 24 years. In general, Henry VII was seen as a good king who strengthened the central government and reduced the power of the nobles (thereby lessening the chance of another revolt). He was a thrifty king who built up the country’s financial reserves and arranged for a political union between his eldest son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon from Spain; uniting the powers of two Catholic strongholds. When Arthur died, Henry’s second son (who’d later become Henry VIII) was married to the widowed Catherine. Henry VIII One of the two Tudors who has had the most lasting influence on British culture is undoubtedly Henry VIII (the other being Queen Elizabeth I). Crowned king at 17 years, his reign lasted from 1509 to 1547. Initially, Henry VIII was a devoted Catholic monarch, so when the Protestant Reformation started to take root on the continent, Henry VIII responded by publishing a book defending the Catholic faith against Luther’s teachings. This led to the pope granting Henry VIII the title “Defender of the Faith”. Ironically, Henry VIII would go down in history as the monarch responsible for breaking away from the Catholic church. Having married his brother’s widow, Catherine of Aragon, shortly after ascending the throne at 17, there seemed to be enough time to produce a male heir. Unfortunately, only one of Catherine’s eight children survived infancy: Mary (who would later become known as Bloody Mary). After 18 years, Henry’s patience was up, and he applied to the Pope to have his marriage to Catherine annulled. In the meantime, he had also fallen in love with Anne Boleyn. However, the Pope refused to annul the marriage, having previously given Henry special dispensation to marry his brother’s widow. When the Pope continued to refuse, Henry VIII decided to step away from the Catholic Church and found the Anglican Church, an event that has become known as the Reformation. It is important to note here that the British Reformation was a political reform, rather than based on doctrinal (religious) differences. Nonetheless, the Church of England is a Protestant church, although it resembled a watered-down version of Catholicism that was now independent from Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy was passed which declared that the monarch was now the supreme leader and head of the church. The response from Rome was excommunication. This shift in religion had a profound influence on the country. Not only was the anti-Catholic sentiment a change that society needed to get used to (as, for example, rosary beads and saint cults were suddenly outlawed), the shift to Anglicanism also caused a change in power. Before the Reformation, the church’s influence rivalled that of the king. Apart from holding spiritual authority over the population, the churches were very wealthy due to the tithes they collected. In addition, clergymen often held positions of political power. With the king now being the head of church, he was able to exert his influence over the church by appointing church leaders and seizing the churches’ land and wealth; making him incredibly powerful and wealthy. This increase in funds also allowed Henry to found the Royal Navy. After his marriage with Catherine was annulled, Henry VIII went on to wed another five wives. A popular rhyme to remember the fates of all of Henry’s six wives is: ‘divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived’. In total, Henry VIII fathered three legitimate children: Mary I, Elizabeth Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 I and Edward VI. In his final will, he declared that all three of his children were to be his heirs and they all did, in fact, become monarchs. Edward VI Edward VI inherited the English crown upon his father’s death in 1547. At the time, Edward was only 9 years old, which meant that he relied heavily on his advisors; Protestants who focused mainly on furthering the Protestant reforms that were kickstarted by Henry VIII’s Reformation. His reign was short-lived, however, as he died at the age of 15 – presumedly of tuberculosis. Mary I Henry’s oldest child, Mary I, now inherited the throne. Having grown up in a Catholic environment, Mary I had remained a staunch Catholic. During her short reign, from 1553 to 1558, she fervently tried to restore Catholicism in England. Protestants were relentlessly persecuted, with approximately 280 of them being burned at the stake for heresy, earning her the nickname “Bloody Mary”. Many others faced imprisonment, exile, or other forms of punishment for their Protestant beliefs. When she died without an heir, her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth inherited the crown. Elizabeth I Often seen as (one of) the greatest English monarch(s) of all time, Elizabeth I reigned from 1558 to 1603 and was the last Tudor Monarch. Her nicknames include “Gloriana” and “the Virgin Queen”. Currently ranking the third longest-reigning Queen of the UK (behind Elizabeth II and Victoria), her long reign marked a period of stability, cultural flourishing, and expansion for England that is nowadays known as the Golden Age. The Golden Age Elizabeth reinstated Protestantism in the country and ruled by good council, which means that she depended on a group of trusted advisors. At long last there was political and religious stability in the country. Elizabeth was a patron of the arts who loved poetry, music, and drama. This caused a flourishing of the arts in which, for example, Shakespeare produced most of his works. The Golden Age also saw a huge surge in exploration, which laid the foundation for the future British Empire. Elizabeth invested in the development of a strong navy and encouraged the English colonisation efforts. It was during her reign that the famous explorer Sir Walter Raleigh sailed to North America, laying the foundation for what was later to become the state Virginia – which was named after Elizabeth: The Virgin Queen. Elizabeth received (and used) this nickname because she was never married, a fact that she used as a diplomatic tool. For one, she used the possibility of marriage to negotiate political alliances, maintain stability and demonstrate her independence from foreign powers. The title “Virgin Queen” also Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 became a symbol of her commitment to her role as the ruler of England; she presented herself as a devoted monarch who prioritised her duty to the nation above personal desires. The Spanish Armada Years of religious and political differences led to the conflict between Catholic Spain and Protestant England now known as the Anglo-Spanish War. The Spanish saw England as a competitor in trade and in the expansion into the 'New World' of the Americas, as well as a religious rival. In 1588, Philip II of Spain sent the Spanish Fleet to England to rid him of this annoying problem once and for all, and to avenge the death of the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots (who had been executed on Elizabeth’s orders). What was supposed to be an “Invincible Armada” turned out to be quite vincible as they were intercepted by the skilled English navy in the English Channel and defeated in a night raid. The victory was helped on by a favourable “Protestant wind”, which caused the Spanish ships to be in danger of running aground. This was taken as a sign of God’s favour for the Protestant cause. Finally, the Spanish were forced to escape home via Scotland and Ireland, where they were scattered by the storm. One third of the ships failed to return to Spain. One of the commanders of the English fleet during the battle was Sir Francis Drake, the most renowned seaman of the Elizabethan Age and the first Englishman to sail around the world. The defeat of the Spanish Armada is considered to be one of England’s greatest military achievements and considerably boosted Elizabeth I’s popularity. Elizabeth’s Succession The monarch’s deliberate choice to remain unmarried produced one problem: a lack of heir. To secure a Protestant succession, Elizabeth passed the English crown on to her favourite nephew: James VI of Scotland. Ironically, he was the son of Mary Queen of Scots, whose attempt to overthrow Elizabeth because of her Protestantism had failed and who had been duly executed. Elizabeth I died on 24 March 1603. James VI/I Union of the Crowns (1603) Upon Elizabeth’s death in 1603, the Protestant James VI of Scotland ascended the English throne and became King James I of England (besides his role as Scottish King). This event marked the start of the Stuart Dynasty and is called the Union of the Crowns. This was a personal union, which means that there the realms were unified under one monarch, but there was no political union besides this. Scotland and England remained autonomous states with their own governments, though James I would have preferred a complete unification. When addressing his first English Parliament he famously said: “What God hath conjoined let no man separate. I am the husband and the whole isle is my lawful wife…”, with which he declared his intention to truly unify the nations. However, it took more than a hundred years for Scotland and England to be politically unified, when the Act of Union was passed in 1707. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 King James Bible (1611) Besides King of England and Scotland, James I was a great scholar. He commissioned a new English translation of the Bible, which was published in 1611. This King James Bible is still of the most printed books ever and remains the most famous Bible translation in history. It is praised for its majesty of style and was considered a most faithful and scholarly translation, which resulted in widespread use. One of the main aims of this translation was to make it sound good, especially as the people would often hear Scripture being read out loud. This translation was so poetic and the imagery so vivid that it was often said to resemble the “Sound of God”. The Gunpowder Plot (1605) “Remember, remember, the Fifth of November, the Gunpowder Treason and Plot. I know of no reason why the Gunpowder Treason should ever be forgot.” This rhyme commemorates James I’s lucky escape from an assassination attempt. On the eve of the State Opening of Parliament in 1605, Guido “Guy” Fawkes was discovered with 36 barrels of gunpowder in the cellars underneath the Houses of Parliament. Leading a group of Catholic conspirators, blowing up parliament and the king was supposed to be the first step in a plan to ultimately overthrow the Protestant monarchy. The conspiracy was discovered because one of the rebels had warned a Member of Parliament to stay at home during the ceremony. After Guy Fawkes’s arrest, the other conspirators were quickly caught, too. Two were killed resisting capture and the remainder were tried and condemned to death. They were executed outside Parliament by being “hanged, drawn, and quartered”. The public were encouraged to light bonfires to celebrate the King’s escape. Even today, people in Britain celebrate ‘Bonfire Night’ or ‘Guy Fawkes Night’ on the fifth of November by making huge bonfires on which effigies of Guy Fawkes are burnt, and by letting off fireworks in celebration. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Works consulted "Francis Drake." (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 22, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francis-Drake Grant, R.G., et al. (2011). History of Britain and Ireland: The Definitive Visual Guidee. DK. "James VI & I - Life Story." (n.d.). Tudor Times. Retrieved May 22, 2023, from https://www.tudortimes.co.uk/people/james-vi-i-life-story/union-of-the-crowns "King James Bible: The Most Popular Version." (n.d.). HISTORY. Retrieved May 22, 2023, from https://www.history.com/news/king-james-bible-most-popular O’Driscoll, J. (2009). Britain for Learners of English. Oxford UP. Oakland, J. (2019). British Civilization: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis Ltd. "Spanish Armada: Facts about the Spanish 'Invincible' Armada of Elizabeth I." (n.d.). HistoryExtra. Retrieved May 22, 2023, from https://www.historyextra.com/period/elizabethan/spanish- armada-facts-elizabeth-i-medina-sidonia-catholic-philip-ii/ The Royal Household. (n.d.). Henry VII. Retrieved May 15, 2023, from https://www.royal.uk/henry-vii Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023  British Studies Lesson 3: Historical Figures and their Times 2 Lesson Goals After this lesson, students… …know what characterised the reigns of James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II, and William III. …know what it was like living in England/Britain during the 17th, 18th, 19th, and early 20th century. …know the main events that led to the Civil War, which parties fought in the Civil War, and what the outcome and consequences of the Civil War were. …know what, and when, the Commonwealth of England is. …know what took place during the Restoration, when it took place, the parties involved and the consequences for England. …know when the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London took place, how they came about, and what the consequences of both were. …know what took place during the Glorious Revolution, when it took place, the parties involved and the consequences for England. …know that the Bill of Rights laid the foundation for Britain’s constitutional monarchy. …know how the unification of the United Kingdom came about. …know when the Industrial Revolution took place in Britain, which important factors contributed to this revolution, and what the consequences were for Britain and its society. …know basic facts about Queen Victoria, her reign, and the Victorian Era. …know when and how Women’s Suffrage came about in Britain and what Emmeline Pankhurst’s role was in this movement. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Part 1 – the 17th Century James VI/I Last lesson ended with the moment that James VI of Scotland inherited the throne from Elizabeth I of England, thereby also becoming James I. This event marked the start of the Stuart Dynasty, and is remembered as the Union of the Crowns (1603); with the crowns of England and Scotland united in one personal union. James I was further known for his commission of the still widely used King James Bible. He was also a Protestant who took a hard line against the Catholics. Finally, he was the target of the Gunpowder Plot, when Guy Fawkes and his Catholic comrades tried to kill James I by blowing up the Houses of Parliament on November 5th, 1605. 17th Century The 17th century was a time of great political and social turmoil in England, marked by civil war and political unrest. For much of the 17th century, England was in a state of persistent crisis. Between religious quarrels, civil war, plague, and the recurrent crop failures that accompanied the so-called ‘Little Ice Age’, the mid-1600s must count as one of the most difficult periods in English history in which to survive. This first part of the lesson, our historical journey starts with Charles I, after which we move on to the Civil War, the Commonwealth, and the Glorious Revolution more than 60 years later. Then we will zoom in on the plague and the Great Fire of London and we will end this part with the political Union of Scotland and England (and Ireland). Charles I (r. 1625 – 1642) King Charles I succeeded his father, James I, in 1625. He is one of the least liked kings in English history. Like his father before him, Charles I believed in the Divine Right of Kings. This made him an authoritarian ruler who felt very comfortable in his position, who did not feel the need to compromise with his Parliament. Moreover, the Protestants thought Charles I was too Catholic for an English king. For even though he was head of the Anglican Church, and therefore a Protestant, Charles I had married a Catholic woman. In addition, the new and powerful religious protestant group called the Puritans felt that Charles I led a lifestyle that was too luxurious. By the time that Charles I gained the throne, these Puritans had become a powerful force in the House of Commons. Charles’s disputes with his Parliament increased over time. Whenever he felt that Parliament interfered with his rule too much, he would dissolve Parliament for days or months. This way, he could bypass Parliament when implementing new laws. In 1629, he got rid of Parliament altogether. For the next 11 years, Charles I ruled alone. During this time, he attempted to force the Scottish Church follow the liturgy of the Anglican Church. The Scots refused, which resulted in the Bishops’ War in 1640. This, and other wars that Charles I fought, were expensive. In order to raise money quickly, Charles had to reinstate Parliament. They were willing to grant him the money to finance his war, but after 11 years of being set aside they also demanded reforms. Two years later, in 1642, Charles I suspected a few Members of Parliament to support Scotland in the war. He subsequently burst into the House of Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Commons and tried to arrest these “Five Members”, as they are now known. The MPs had by then fled the House of Commons, as they had been warned of Charles’s arrival beforehand, leaving both Charles I and Parliament furious. This storming of the House of Commons is the last time a monarch has been allowed to set foot in the House of Commons. More disagreements followed and Charles I was now at war with his own Parliament. 1 Civil War (1642 – 1649) The Civil War – in fact a succession of three civil wars – was essentially a confrontation between the monarchy and Parliament over the definitions of the powers of the monarchy and Parliament's authority. These disagreements were made worse by religious quarrels and financial disputes. The two opposing armies were quite evenly matched. This resulted in a period of bloody battles, sieges and massacres. Charles’s supporters were called Royalists or Cavaliers, while the Parliamentarians were known as the Roundheads for their short-cropped hair, in contrast to the long hair and wigs associated with the Cavaliers. The Roundheads were led by the Puritan Oliver Cromwell. He was an intensely religious man, who believed that God was guiding his victories. His nickname was ‘Old Ironsides’, which reflects his ruthlessness. He was later condemned for his cruel attacks on the Catholics in Ireland after the Civil War. Interestingly, Cromwell’s statue still stands on Parliament Square today, even though he was an obvious opponent of the monarchy and has been dubbed a war criminal because of the massacres he caused in Ireland. Eventually, the Roundheads were victorious and captured Charles I. In a revolutionary trial, Charles I was tried for high treason. The idea that a monarch could be tried for treason challenged everything that people believed in in those days, as many still believed in the Divine Right of Kings. A special High Court of Justice was assembled for Charles’s trial, all members of which were supporters of Cromwell. Charles was charged with betraying England and conspiring against its people, and was sentenced to death. He was beheaded on January 27, 1649. History has it that he had asked for an extra shirt because he was cold, and he did not want people to think that he was shivering with fear when he walked up to the scaffold. The Commonwealth of England (1649 – 1660) After Charles’s beheading in 1649, Parliament declared England a republic through “An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth”, and the office of king was formally abolished. These eleven years are also known as the Interregnum (Latin for ‘between reigns’), or the Commonwealth of England. First, England was ruled by a military government, but in 1653 Parliament was once again abolished and Oliver Cromwell was installed as Lord Protector. During this time, Britain became a Puritan country. Life in Puritan Britain was not a fun affair, as these religious zealots advocated a life of austerity and contemplation. This meant no public pleasures as, for example, theatres were shut down and people were not allowed to celebrate Christmas. 1 Please note that this is a simplified version of the events leading up to the Civil War. You do not need to know more than what is described in this summary. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 The Restoration (1660) The outcome of the Civil War was, then, as follows. Charles I was executed, while his son, Charles II, was in exile in France. The English monarchy had been replaced by a republic, which was known as The Protectorate when Cromwell ruled as a de facto dictator. After Oliver Cromwell’s death in 1658, his son Richard took over as Lord Protector, but he was not nearly as successful as his father. As he was set aside, voices in Parliament began to call for a return to the Monarchy, not in the least because the Commonwealth had become an oppressive regime. Charles II, the rightful heir to the English throne, had tried to invade England back in 1651 with the help of the Scottish, but was forced to flee back to France after being defeated in battle. In 1660, Charles II was invited to restore the monarchy by Parliament, the very institution that had tried and executed his father. This event has become known as The Restoration. With Charles II on the throne, Britain was no longer Puritan. The new king restored popular celebrations; reinstating maypoles and festivities. Charles II was known as the ‘Merry Monarch’, with his mistresses being nearly as numerous as the parties he threw. Charles’s apparent leaning towards Catholicism did cause tensions between him and Parliament. Like his father before him, Charles was a typical Stuart absolutist. The reign of Charles II saw to major events in British history: the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London. The Great Plague (1665-1666) The plague started in the East, probably China, and quickly spread through Europe. The first occurrence of the bubonic plague in England was in the 14th century, after which it came in waves. During the first wave, an estimated 40-60% of the population of Europe died. The Great Plague of 1665 was the final outbreak of the bubonic plague in England. It began in London, and started slowly at first. By May of 1665, 43 had died. In June 6137 people died, in July 17036 people and at its peak in August, 31159 people died. In all, 15% of the population perished during that terrible summer. Whole communities were wiped out and corpses littered the streets as there was no one left to bury them. Incubation took a mere four to six days and when the plague appeared in a household, the house was sealed, thus condemning the whole family to death! These houses were distinguished by a painted red cross on the door and the words, ‘Lord have mercy on us’. At night the corpses were brought out in answer to the cry,’ Bring out your dead’, put in a cart and taken away to the plague pits. A song about the plague is still sung by children. ‘Ring-a-ring of roses‘ describes in great detail the symptoms of the plague and ends with ‘All fall down’. The last word, ‘dead’, is omitted today. The Great Fire of London (1666) The Great Fire of London is thought to have started on Sunday, 2 September 1666 in a baker’s shop on Pudding Lane. It destroyed the City of London, burning through the dry wooden houses in its path until it was mostly under control by Wednesday, 5 September. After the fire, London had to be almost totally reconstructed. The wooden medieval houses were rebuilt in stone. The famous architect Christopher Wren had a big hand in redesigning London; building no less than 52 new London churches, including St Paul’s Cathedral. Another silver lining was that the Great Fire of London got rid Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 of the bubonic plague for good. Another nursery rhyme, London’s Burning, commemorates this second disaster of Charles II’s reign. The Glorious Revolution (1688) When Charles II died of a stroke in 1685, his brother James II took over. Resistance to the new king was big. Not only did he rule like a typical Stuart king, without paying much heed to Parliament, he was also a Catholic. As Parliament was still mainly Protestant, a Catholic absolutist King was the last thing they wanted. Therefore, a group of nobles wanted to replace James II with the Protestant William III of Orange. This Dutch king was married to Mary II, the daughter of James II and through that line, had some claim to the throne. In 1688, they overthrew James II and co-ruled the country. This event became known as the Glorious Revolution, as it was a revolution without (much) bloodshed. James’s officers simply fled when William III’s fleet arrived, with James II fleeing to France, where he lived out the rest of his life in exile. The Glorious Revolution was a turning point for England’s constitutional history, as the two new rulers accepted more restrictions from Parliament than any previous monarchs. These changes meant that the monarch was still head of state, but became much more of a ceremonial leader. The Bill of Rights (1689) William III and Mary II both signed the Declaration of Rights in 1689, which became known as the Bill of Rights. Many historians see this as the first step to Britain becoming a constitutional monarchy, which is a system of government in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government. The Bill of Rights acknowledged several constitutional principles, including the right for regular Parliaments, free elections without royal interference, freedom of speech in Parliament, and the freedom to petition the king. Additionally, it forbade the monarch from being Catholic. Magna Carta (1215) and the Bill of Rights are together regarded as the “unofficial written constitution” of the United Kingdom. The Unification of the United Kingdom The Unification of the United Kingdom did not happen overnight. As mentioned before, the Unification of Scotland and England started with a personal union when James VI of Scotland also became King of England in 1603 (Union of the Crowns). It took more than 100 years more before Scotland and England were politically united, through the Acts of Union in 1707. This caused the formation of a new state: the Kingdom of Great Britain. The separate parliaments were dissolved and a new British Parliament was formed. Ireland had been in a personal union with England since 1542, under King Henry VIII. In 1801, with the passing of another set of laws (Acts of Union), Ireland joined the union which was now called The Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, the Republic of Ireland gained independence through the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which also stated that Northern Ireland could remain part of the UK, which they did. The political union that unites England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland was called The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from then on. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Part 2 – 18th, 19th, and early 20th century All the information from this part of the summary, illustrated with useful videos and pictures, can also be found in this Sutori: https://www.sutori.com/en/story/britain-in-the-18th-20th-century-- H7cpU2nDVKCKhrzMDUZddbmH The Industrial Revolution in Britain (1760-1820) The Industrial Revolution was a time when the manufacturing of goods moved from small shops and homes to large factories. This shift brought about changes in culture as people moved from rural areas to big cities in order to work. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain for a reason. Some important factors that contributed to this were: - The Agricultural Revolution - Economic and political stability - The steam engine - Geology and geography - The intellectual climate Agricultural revolution The Agricultural Revolution was period of technological improvement which modernised agriculture. New machinery, better drainage, scientific methods of breeding, and experimentation with new crops and systems of crop rotation all contributed to agriculture becoming more rewarding and production to increase significantly. This meant that agriculture could sustain a large portion of the population and there was less need for farmers. The abundance of workers drifted to the cities in search for employment. Economic and political stability The British began to establish overseas colonies in the 16th century. By 1783, Britain had an enormous empire with colonies in America and the West Indies. This ‘first British Empire’ was an important factor starting the Industrial Revolution in Britain, as it meant economic growth and stability. There was, however, a sinister trade that brought these fortunes: Britain transported 3,1 million Africans (2,7 million arrived) to the British colonies in the Caribbean, North and South America and other countries. The captured men and women from Africa were sold to the Spanish colonisers in America in exchange for Spanish gold and gemstones, which were then sold in England. This practice was called Triangular Trade. The steam engine The Industrial Revolution was a time in which big inventions changed the way people lived and worked. In this period, the production of goods was industrialised on a large scale. Previously, goods had been produced in the home. During the Industrial Revolution, however, power-driven machines took over handmade inventions. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 An important invention was the steam engine. Though the first steam engine had already been patented in 1698, well before the birth of James Watt in 1736, it is this Scottish inventor who is often credited with inventing the steam engine. What he did, in fact, was improving the designs of the model Newcomen and patented these improvements. After Watt entered a partnership with Boulton, an entrepreneur who provided the finances, they began to manufacture steam engines together. He had made the steam engine efficient enough for general use. Watt died in 1819 and the term for a unit of power is named after him. Due to inventions like the improved steam engine, factories with a power-driven production of goods, such as the power loom, became the standard. Such power-driven machines allowed for more production to take place at a faster pace than ever before. Also, power-driven transport such as steam trains meant enormous changes in the country. Britain’s first railway line opened in 1825. Geology and Geography Coal became extremely important during the Industrial Revolution, as it was used to power steam engines, heat buildings, and generate electricity. Coal is abundant in Britain, and also near the sea, which makes transport easy. Industrial cities near sources of coal and steel grew. These cities can be found along the Pennines (e.g. Manchester and Birmingham), in Southern Scotland (e.g. Glasgow), and Southern Wales. The intellectual climate Britain had a very stable parliamentary monarchy, which provided political stability and a clear rule of law. The monarch did not control the economy and social life, which gave way to a unique intellectual climate compared to the European continent. There was no censorship, and free thinking and a free exchange of ideas was possible. Free thinking enabled inventions such as the steam engine to come about. Changes in society In pre-industrial society, the majority of people lived in rural areas. During the Industrial Revolution, people living in small farming communities moved to the cities. Workers were looking for wage labour in the newly developed factories. Working conditions Working conditions were terrible during the Industrial Revolution. As factories were being built, businesses were in need of workers. With a long line of people willing to work, employers could set wages as low as they wanted because people were willing to do the work as long as they got paid. Living conditions The percentage of the population living in the cities exploded. Where in 1750 only 15% of the population in Britain lived in cities, this rose to 50% in 1850 and to 85% in 1900. The infrastructure of cities was not ready for this. Families were living in small rooms, in dirty places. The air quality was seriously bad, neighbourhoods looked like slums, there was a lot of crime, people suffered from health problems. For example, people had to share a privy with 100 other people. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Education During the Industrial Revolution it was not common for children to go to school because they needed to help earn money by working in the factories. Since children were a lot smaller than adults, they could fit into small places such as between the weaving machines on the ground, where leftover pieces of cotton had fallen. The children would have to pick up these pieces of cotton, which was a very dangerous job – many children were seriously injured and killed. People began to realise that child labour was not a good thing and this resulted in the Factory Acts. These laws stated that children under the age of 9 were no longer allowed to work in the factories and had to attend 2 hours of compulsory education a day. In 1844 a law was introduced which meant that children from the age of 8 to 13 were not allowed to work more than nine hours, and another law in 1847 stated that children and women under the age of 18 were not allowed to work more than 10 hours a day. Queen Victoria (1819 – 1901) Reign – 1837 - 1901 Queen Victoria can well be said to be one of the most tragic queens that ever reigned Britain. On the one hand, her reign saw cultural expansion, advances in industry, scientific improvements, the building of railways and the development of the London Underground. Her personal life, on the other hand, was fraught with depression, loss, and mourning. After she had married the love of her life, Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1849, they had no less than nine children together. Victoria hated being pregnant, though, and most probably suffered from postpartum depression after many of these pregnancies. In 1861, she lost Prince Albert to typhoid fever, something from which she never really recovered. Even after climbing out of the severe depression she subsequently suffered, she remained in mourning for the rest of her life and mostly withdrew from public life. She died aged 81, on 22 January 1901 and was buried in a white dress and her wedding veil. She had reigned for 63 years, seven months and two days. Her reign was longer than any of her predecessors, and the longest of any queen until Elizabeth II surpassed her in 2015. The Victorian Era Victoria’s reign became known as the Victorian era. This era is known for its stability and prosperity. However, there was a big difference between rich and poor in Victorian times. The upper class could afford large mansions, employees, holidays, fancy clothes, and even telephones when they were invented. Poor people, and their children, had to work in factories, mines or workhouses. They were underpaid and their living conditions were poor. However, during Victorian times laws, rights and voting rights did change for the better, also for the working class. Victorian values Victoria was seen as a symbol for Britain’s success in the world. She was the personification of Victorian values: a Christian with strong morals, a hard worker, dutiful, serious, modest and properly behaved. The idea that the monarch should set this kind of example in life was new. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 The British Empire When Queen Victoria ascended the throne in 1837, Britain already governed Canada, large areas of India, Australia, New Zealand, and small parts of South America and Africa. Together, these countries formed the British Empire. In 1876, Victoria even took the title “Empress of India”. By the end of Victoria’s reign, the British Empire extended over about one-fifth of the earth’s surface and almost a quarter of the world’s population owed allegiance to the ‘Queen Empress’; at least theoretically. This is summarised in a saying from that time: ‘The sun never sets on the British Empire’. The term ‘the white man’s burden’ is often used to allude to this period, as it explains the alleged duty of white colonisers to care for non-white indigenous subjects in their colonial possession. It was actually a phrase used to justify British and European imperialism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; the phrase implies that imperialism was not only motivated by economy, wealth, and greed but also by a high-minded desire of the British to uplift and educate people of colour, providing them culture and society. Unions Effects of the Industrial Revolution were capitalism and the constant need of economic growth. This lead to terrible working conditions in the factories. A middle class emerged during the Victorian Era, but the majority of people did not profit from the positive effects of the revolution. This is when the first Unions are formed. The working class mobilised and fought for better working conditions, wages, and hours. In the Victorian Era, social reform happened and benefitted the working class: regulation of conditions in factories and trade unions, paid sick leave, state pensions, etc. The Monarch’s power During Victoria’s reign, the power of the sovereign became more limited. The modern role of the Monarch evolved and the constitutional Monarch was to be non-partisan and above all political parties. An example of the decline of Sovereign Power was that the choice who would be prime minister was increasingly restricted, and no longer the Queen’s choice. Queen Victoria herself certainly was not always non-partisan and she took the opportunity to give her opinions at times. Despite this decline in power, Victoria showed that a monarch who had high level of prestige and who was prepared to master the details of political life could still have an important influence. Women’s Suffrage in Britain The women’s suffrage movement in Britain was increasingly taken up in England from the 1850s on, and in the 1870s numerous petitions were submitted to Parliament demanding women’s right to vote. In the years that followed, every major suffrage bill brought before Parliament was defeated, mainly because the politicians of those days did not dare affront Queen Victoria, who was notoriously against the Women’s Rights movement. Women’s suffrage societies – groups who campaigned for the right to vote – began to emerge in Britain in the mid-19th century. Those involved in the first wave of the campaign are known as suffragists. Suffragists believed in peaceful, constitutional campaign methods. In the early 20th century, after the suffragists failed to make significant progress, a new generation of activists Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 emerged. These women became known as the suffragettes, and they were willing to take direct, militant action for the cause. One of the founders of the suffragette movement is Emmeline Pankhurst. Together with her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, she founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903. These women adopted militant, direct action tactics. For example, they chained themselves to railings, disrupted public meetings, and damaged public property (e.g. through bombing campaigns). In 1913, Emily Davidson stepped out in front of the King’s horse at the Epsom Derby. Her purpose remains unclear, but she was hit and later died from her injuries. Suffragettes were arrested and imprisoned, but continued their protest in prison through hunger strikes, though initially many of these women were force-fed if they did so. Emmeline Pankhurst herself was jailed and released 11 times. Historians do not agree on the effectiveness of these acts of civil disobedience and violent actions in attaining the right to vote, but it cannot be ignored that women like Emmeline Pankhurst, who was also an impassioned speaker at rallies, had a major influence on the women’s suffrage movement. Even though general support for the movement had grown over the years, it took a World War (The Great War, i.e. WWI) to really change matters. With the majority of men either fighting or dying on the battlefields, both suffragettes and suffragists stopped their campaign in support of the government’s war effort. In July 1914, 3.3 million women worked in paid employment in Britain. By July 1917, 4.7 million did. British women served in uniform as well in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force. Their effectiveness did much to win the public wholeheartedly to the cause of woman suffrage. After the war ended, women finally gained the right to vote when the Representation of the People Act was passed in 1918. Under this act, all women age 30 or over were now allowed to vote. It was not until 1928, 60 years after campaigning began, that parliament finally equalised the voting age between men and women. Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Works consulted BBC. (2014). BBC - History - James Watt. Bbc.co.uk. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/watt_james.shtml Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2015, December 4). agricultural revolution. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/agricultural-revolution Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2022, October 19). women’s suffrage. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/woman-suffrage British Library Learning. (2018). What is the difference between the suffragists and the suffragettes? The British Library. https://doi.org/https://www.bl.uk/votes-for- women/articles/suffragists-and-suffragettes Commonwealth of England. (2020, November 5). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England Diary entries from September 1666 (The Diary of Samuel Pepys). (n.d.). The Diary of Samuel Pepys. https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1666/09/ Emma.Goodey. (2016, February 3). Charles II (r. 1660-1685). The Royal Family. https://www.royal.uk/charles-ii English Civil Wars - The first English Civil War (1642–46). (2019). In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/English-Civil-Wars/The-first-English-Civil- War-1642-46 Five Members. (2022, September 13). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Members History.com Editors. (2018, February 20). Glorious Revolution. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/topics/british-history/glorious-revolution Industrial Revolution Working Conditions. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. https://youtu.be/_6ZFUkENEOI Ireland - Independent Ireland to 1959. (2019). In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Ireland/Independent-Ireland-to-1959 Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 Johnson, B. (2019). The Great Plague 1665 - the Black Death. Historic UK. https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/The-Great-Plague/ Kingsford, P. W. (2022, August 21). James Watt. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Watt London Fire Brigade. (2003). The Great Fire of London. London-Fire.gov.uk. https://www.london- fire.gov.uk/museum/history-and-stories/the-great-fire-of-london/ Martin, J. (2017). The Black Death. Uiowa.edu. http://hosted.lib.uiowa.edu/histmed/plague/ On This Day: War criminal Oliver Cromwell’s Massacre of Drogheda in 1649. (2022, September 11). IrishCentral.com. https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/oliver-cromwells-massacre-of- drogheda-1649#:~:text=Catholic%20priests%20and%20friars%20were Oram, K. (2015, December 30). Charles I (r. 1625-1649). The Royal Family. https://www.royal.uk/charles-i Suffragettes vs Suffragists: Did violent protest get women the vote? (n.d.). www.youtube.com. Retrieved November 24, 2022, from https://youtu.be/pw0IAFIhVfA The British Library. (2018). The turbulent 17th century: Civil War, regicide, the Restoration and the Glorious Revolution. The British Library. https://doi.org/https://www.bl.uk/restoration-18th- century-literature/articles/the-turbulent-17th-century-civil-war-regicide-the-restoration- and-the-glorious-revolution The Industrial Revolution (18-19th Century). (2017). YouTube. https://youtu.be/xLhNP0qp38Q The Industrial Revolution: Crash Course European History #24. (2013). YouTube. https://youtu.be/zjK7PWmRRyg The National WW1 Museum and Memorial. (2018, July 25). Women in WWI | National WWI Museum and Memorial. National WWI Museum and Memorial. https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/women The Protectorate. (2020, November 5). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protectorate Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023 The suffragettes : Emmeline Pankhurst (1858 - 1928). (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved November 24, 2022, from https://youtu.be/VDXR6cjmSbc Triangular Trade | Schoolshistory.org.uk. (2018, July 15). https://schoolshistory.org.uk/topics/british-empire/economic-consequences-of- empire/triangular-trade/ Victorian Era Women’s Suffrage | The Victorian Era. (n.d.). Author vl McBeath. https://www.valmcbeath.com/victorian-era-england-1837-1901/victorian-era-womens- suffrage/ Vox. (2020). How British suffragettes fought for the vote [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0EIFDSb7tWc Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, January 28). Queen Victoria. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, June 13). Suffragette. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragette Williams, E. Trevor and Veldman,. Meredith (2022, October 18). Victoria. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Victoria-queen-of-United-Kingdom Heleen Kluitenberg, 2023  British Studies Lesson 4: Identity and Attitudes Lesson Goals After this lesson, students… …know how the separate Home Nations (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) became part of the United Kingdom; …know the national symbols for each of the Home Nations; …know who the patron saint of each of the Home Nations is; …know what is typically associated with each Home Nation (e.g. stereotypes); …know what powers each of the separate parliaments of the Home Nations hold; …know why Northern Ireland is considered a polarised society, can give examples of this polarisation, and can explain its origins; …know what the North/South divide and the English/British identity crisis is; …know what the biggest groups of ethnic minorities living in the UK are, where they are from, when they came, and what is typically associated with this group; …know what the Windrush Generation is and which troubles they are facing. The Union Jack The Union Flag, more commonly known as the Union Jack, is the national flag of the United Kingdom. It is so called because it combines the crosses of three countries united into one political union, under one Sovereign: the kingdoms of England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Of course, since 1922 only Northern Ireland has been part of the United Kingdom. The flag consists of three heraldic crosses. The cross of St George, patron saint of England since the 1270s, is a red cross on a white ground. After James I succeeded to the throne in 1603, it was combined with the cross of St Andrew in 1606. The flag was then called the King’s Colours. The cross saltire of St Andrew, patron saint of Scotland, is a diagonal white cross on a blue ground. The cross saltire of St Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, is a diagonal red cross on a white ground. The present design of the Union Flag dates from a Royal proclamation following the union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. The Welsh flag, with the impressive Dragon of Cadwallader (meaning battle leader) on it, is missing from the Union Jack. This is because the Annexation of Wales had already taken place a long time before the formation of the Union Jack, namely in 1284. This meant that Wales was no longer a separate principality by the time the flag was created in 1606. Remember that the heir to the British Crown receives the title Prince of Wales; this practice dates back to 1284. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 17-02-2023 The Home Nations The terms Home Nations and Home Countries are used in administration of sports in the United Kingdom. The terms refer collectively to England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and in certain sports (e.g. rugby football and cricket) include the whole island of Ireland. The term “Home Nations” is used in this second sense partly because Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland have a unified association structure in certain sports, such as the Irish Football Union and Cricket Ireland, even though they are not politically united. Scotland Union Scotland first came to be in a personal union with England when James VI of Scotland became King James I of England, succeeding Elizabeth I in an event that is now known as the Union of the Crowns (1603). It took more than 100 years more before Scotland and England were politically united, through the Acts of Union in 1707. The Treaty of Union is the name usually now given to this agreement which led to the creation of the new state of Great Britain, stating that England (which already included Wales) and Scotland were to be "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain”. This caused the formation of a new state: the Kingdom of Great Britain. At that time, the monarch was Queen Anne (who was a siter of Mary II, who came to power during the Glorious Revolution). The separate parliaments were dissolved, and a new British Parliament was formed. Devolution: The Scottish Parliament The Scottish Parliament is the result of a process known as “devolution”. Devolution is the transfer of power and funding from national to local government. This ensures that decisions are made at a more local level; closer to the people, communities and businesses they affect. In the UK there are several examples of devolution, including the: Scottish Parliament Senedd Cymru / Welsh Parliament Northern Ireland Assembly In 1997 there was a referendum where the Scottish people voted for Scotland to have a Parliament again. The current Parliament was established by the Scotland Act 1998. The first meeting was on 12 May 1999. Since then, the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood can pass laws on matters devolved to Scotland. Some examples of reserved matters (which are the responsibility of the UK Parliament) and devolved matters can be found in this table: Reserved matters Devolved matters Broadcasting Agriculture, fisheries, forestry and rural development Consumer protection policy Economic development Currency Education and training Defence and national security Environment Foreign affairs Fire services Postal services Health and social services Trade and industry Housing Quarantine Sport and the arts Heleen Kluitenberg, version 17-02-2023 Scottish Independence The call for Scottish Independence has been strong in recent years. Economic and political developments hugely influence the number of Scots who see independence as something that is to be desired. The last vote on the issue of Scottish independence was held in 2014, when voters rejected the prospect of independence by 55% to 45%. A record number of voters (85%) turned out to vote during the referendum. The independence question then rose back up the agenda as a result of the EU (Brexit) referendum in June 2016, at which 62% of Scottish voters backed ‘remain’. Since then, the pro-independence SNP has dominated politics in Scotland. So far, the call for another referendum has been denied by Westminster, with Boris Johnson claiming that it was ‘uncalled for and irrelevant’. During the corona crisis, support for an independent Scotland fluctuated, with many Scots supporting independence at the beginning of the pandemic (when they argued that Westminster was not handling the situation well), but a majority wishing to remain with the Union in 2021. In November 2022, Britain’s Supreme Court ruled that Scotland’s government cannot hold a second referendum on whether to break away from the United Kingdom without Westminster’s permission. Interestingly, the first polling conducted after this Supreme Court ruling shows that support for Scottish independence has increased. If a second independence referendum were held today, 49% of people in Scotland would vote Yes, compared to 45% who would vote No. The remaining 5% of respondents said they did not know how they would vote. Scottish Religion The national church in Scotland is, quite unsurprisingly, called The Church of Scotland. It is a Presbyterian (Protestant) church and recognises only Jesus Christ as 'King and Head of the Church'. Since the sixteenth century, British monarchs have sworn to maintain the Church of Scotland. Scottish Symbols There are several symbols which are associated with Scotland and Scottishness. Some well-known examples are the kilt, a skirt with a tartan pattern worn by men, and haggis; a dish consisting of different sheep organs cut up with onions and spices and cooked inside a sheep's stomach. The national colour is blue, and the national flower is a thistle. The legend of the thistle is one of the stories which supposedly explains the thistle being Scotland’s national flower. The story goes that some raiding Norsemen wanted to attack some Scottish Clansmen. To make a stealthy approach, the Norsemen removed their footwear. As they crept near the encampment, they crossed an area filled with sharp spiny thistles. An unfortunate Norseman stepped on one of these thistles, driving thorns deep into his bare foot. He uncontrollably screamed out in pain; alerting the Scottish clansmen. The Scots rallied, took up their arms, and drove the Norwegians back into the sea, thereby ending their invasion of Scotland. Of course, this may never have happened but it does make for good storytelling. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 17-02-2023 Wales Union Wales has been united with England much longer than any of the other home nations. The annexation of Wales did not happen overnight. As far back as 1267, the Prince of Gwynedd (a kingdom in Wales) had been recognised by the English crown as Prince of Wales. However, when a new king came to power, he revolted against the English domination in Wales. The English monarch at the time, Edward I, struck back hard; conquering Wales through three major invasions. He then proceeded to build a tremendous ring of powerful castles encircling Gwynedd, with each castle sheltering a borough where English colonists were settled. Edward completed the Conquest of Wales in 1284, with the Statute of Rhuddlan (or Statute of Wales), which included the king’s arrangements for the governance of Wales. The fact that Edward chose to exert his dominance through the building of castles has resulted in Wales being the country with the highest castle density in Europe. The Welsh Parliament Although still a country in every sense, before September 1997 Wales was governed by the UK Parliament based in London. In that year, a referendum determined that a small majority of Welsh people wished for a separate Welsh Parliament. In 1998, the UK Parliament passed the Government of Wales Act, providing the legal basis for the National Assembly for Wales, which met for the first time in 1999. Initially, the Welsh Parliament had fewer powers than the Scottish Parliament, as the Scots could overturn existing UK legislation and introduce legislation in areas not retained by Westminster, while the Welsh Assembly could only amend Westminster legislation in the areas conferred to it. However, in 2017 it was decided that the Welsh government would move to a “reserved powers” model of devolution similar to that of the Scottish Parliament. In May 2020 the National Assembly of Wales changed its name to ‘Senedd Cymru’ (Welsh Parliament). Devolved matters include health, education, economic development, transport, the environment, agriculture, local government and some taxes. Welsh Symbols One of the first obvious characteristics of the Welsh is their unique language. The Welsh language is a Celtic language and has an official status in Wales but is spoken by less than 30% of its people. Besides this, Wales is often associated with sheep, coal mines, and boy choirs. Red is its national colour, and it even has two national flowers: the daffodil and the leek. As with the Scottish thistle, many old wives’ tales surround the origin of the leek. For example, it has been said that Welsh soldiers would fight with a leek in their helmets to be able to recognise their own countrymen in the battles against the Saxons, or that there was once a brave battle that was fought in a field of leeks. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 17-02-2023 Northern Ireland Union Even though Ireland has never been completely conquered by the English or Brits, power struggles between the nations date back a long time. In 1169, there was an Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland, which was sanctioned by King Henry II of England. Later on, Henry II invaded with an army himself. This invasion again resulted in a partial conquest of the island and marked the beginning of more than 800 years of English political and military involvement in Ireland. While the Crown and settlers of English origin maintained colonies in Ireland from 1171 to 1542, Ireland as a whole was never colonized. From 1542 until 1800, Ireland was a kingdom ruled by the English (later, British) monarch, with the crowns in personal union Another turning point in Irish history happened with the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century, which was the organised colonisation (i.e. plantation) of the northern provinces of Ireland during the reign of King James I; in order to maintain a firmer grip on Ireland. In this time, the Irish (Catholic) nobles were replaced by Scottish and English Protestants. This plantation can be seen as the basis for many of the sectarian issues (or troubles) in Northern Ireland. With the Protestants now forming the ruling class, the Catholics became second-rate citizens. The differences in opportunities and powers have since proven to be the cause of many tensions, and even civil war. This course does not attempt to include the entire history of (Northern) Ireland. Below you can find a few important events in Irish history: 1845-1849 The Great Famine, later called the Irish Potato Famine, was a period of starvation and disease in Ireland. The potato blight (a mould that infects potatoes) caused a huge crop failure. As potatoes were one of the main sources of food for the Irish, they were hit harder than any other country in Europe. Roughly a million people died and more than a million fled the country. Controversially, the British still exported food (such as peas, beans, onions, and salmon) out of the country during the famine. This all happened during the reign of Queen Victoria. 1916 The Eater Rising was a rebellion against British rule in Ireland, which was launched by Irish republicans with the aim of establishing an independent Irish Republic while the United Kingdom was fighting the First World War. This is the first conflict in the Irish Revolutionary period. 1921 In 1921, the Irish War of Independence came to an end through the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. This treaty meant that the Irish Free State came into being. It also provided Northern Ireland with the option to opt out of the Irish Free State, which they exercised. This meant that Northern Ireland remained a part of the UK. 1948 The Republic of Ireland Act confirmed, for once and for all, that Ireland was now a republic – independent of the UK. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 17-02-2023 The Troubles Not everyone was happy that Northern Ireland chose to remain part of the UK. As mentioned before, the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century meant that the majority of the population in Northern Ireland was Protestant. Most of these protestants supported the union between Northern Ireland and the UK, but a large number of people from the catholic minority wanted Northern Ireland to become part of the Republic of Ireland. This resulted in a violent sectarian conflict from the late 1960s to 1998, when the Good Friday Agreement officially ended this period which we nowadays know as the Troubles. The Protestants were also called Unionists or Loyalists (as they were loyal to the British Crown), while the Catholics are also labelled Nationalists or Republicans. During the Troubles, rallies and protesting were followed by years of violent conflict, with the main participants being the Northern-Irish police force called the RUC (Royal Ulster Constabulary), the British Army, and paramilitaries such as the Republican IRA and the Unionist UDA (Ulster Defence Association) and UVF (Ulster Volunteer Force). The Republicans carried out a guerrilla campaign against the British forces, while the loyalists attacked nationalists in what they described as retaliation. The Troubles also involved numerous riots, mass protests, and acts of civil disobedience. A few notable events are the Bloody Sunday massacre in 1972 (the deadliest year of the Troubles), when 14 peaceful protestors were shot and killed during a protest march in Derry, and the Brighton Bombing of 1984, when the IRA attempted to kill the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. More than 3,500 people were killed in the conflict, more than half of which were civilians. The Good Friday Agreement of 1998 ended most of the violence of the Troubles. Approved by voters in a referendum across the island of Ireland, the agreement meant that the Unionists and Republicans would from then on share power in the Northern-Ireland Assembly. It was also decided that Northern Ireland will remain within the United Kingdom unless a majority of the Northern Irish electorate vote otherwise. Polarised society Occasional violence did (and does still) occur in Northern Ireland, as the Troubles have led to a deep polarisation in Northern Ireland. This can still be seen in, for example, the educational system of Northern Ireland, where most state schools are predominantly Protestant, while the majority of Catholic children attend schools maintained by the Catholic Church. 93 per cent of schools remain segregated two decades after the Good Friday Agreement. Other examples of the polarisation of Northern Ireland are housing (with Catholic and Protestant neighbourhoods being separated by peace walls), employment (with Protestants traditionally having the better jobs – though this has improved in recent years), and the lack of intermarriage between members of both groups. Northern-Irish Symbols The most well-known symbol for (Northern) Ireland is its national flower: the Shamrock (three-leaf clover). Other symbols often associated with Northern Ireland are the Red Hand of Ulster (mostly associated with the Protestant community) and the harp. The national colour is green, and the patron saint of Northern Ireland is Saint Patrick. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 17-02-2023 England British or English? What does it mean to be British? This is a question that many of the inhabitants of the British Isles have asked themselves over the years. Often, Britishness is associated with Englishness. The dominance of England over the other Home Nations is often felt by nationalists of the other Home Nations (i.e. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland). One Welsh nationalist politician, Gwynfor Evans, even claimed that “Britishness is a political synonym for Englishness which extends English culture over the Scots, Welsh and the Irish”. This English dominance is also felt where the national anthem is concerned. The English national anthem, God Save the King, is also considered to be the British national anthem, though there have been calls for a separate English anthem with Land of Hope and Glory being one of the contenders. Similarly, the (British) Union Jack is abundantly used in England, even though St George’s Cross is used as well. Symbols and stereotypes The national flower of England is the rose, and its national colour is white. Other symbols associated with England are the afternoon tea, double-decker buses, and conservatism. This love for tradition has permeated nearly every aspect of life in English society, with the monarchy, education, law, and the political system all firmly rooted in history. A few other areas which show the English’s love for tradition are driving on the left side of the road, the refusal to adapt to Central European Time, the start of the financial year being on the 6th of April (rather than the first day of the month), and finally the fact that they never even considered changing currency when they were a member of the European Union. There are quite a few stereotypes associated with the English. One of the main symbols for the stereotypical Englishman is the British Bulldog, which represents the toughness and tenacity of its people. Also, the English are often seen to repress their emotions, keeping a stiff upper lip. Englishness can also be perceived in language use, with the English stereotypically understating things (e.g. ‘a spot of bother’, ‘rather splendid’, and ‘quite angry’). Being competitive in sports, modesty, and a sense of humour at their own expense are also all considered to be typically English. The North/South divide It has long been recognised that there is a north/south divide in the UK, and specifically in England. Apart from the very tangible differences in wealth, health, house prices, and education – with the south being wealthier, healthier, with more expensive housing and generally higher grades for students – there is also a perceived cultural divide in England between the north and south. Naturally, these cultural differences are mainly expressed in stereotypes: People in the south claim that those in the north are poor, tough but kind, uneducated and uncultured, while people in the north suppose those in the south to be rich, hypocritical, privileged, unfriendly but soft, and well-educated. Heleen Kluitenberg, version 17-02-2023 Multi-Cultural Britain The Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary organisation of 56 independent and equal countries that work together for prosperity, democracy and peace. It is the result of the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories in the second half of the twentieth century. Modern Immigration in the UK The three biggest groups of ethnic minorities that migrated to the UK in modern times are the Afro Caribbeans, Indians, and the people from Pakistan/Bangladesh. Most of the modern immigrants came to the UK after World War II, when there were huge labour shortages in the UK. The Brits solved this issue by actively promoting the migration of subjects from the British Empire to the British Isles, by abolishing all visa requirements through the British Nationality Act in 1948. As this meant that all 800,000,000 people living in the (former) British Empire were now allowed to legally come and work in the UK, the unanticipated and unwelcome side effect was mass migration. Once it was clear that more people immigrated than were required to fill the vacancies in the UK, legislation was passed to restrict the number of Commonwealth immigrants to Britain. Applicants now had to have work permits, which were mostly given to skilled migrants, such as doctors. Later, several more laws were passed to restrict immigration. The Commonwealth Immigration Act in 1971 brought a definitive end to this mass migration to Britain and gave the Commonwealth Citizens already living in the UK indefinite leave to remain. Afro Caribbean Immigrants When the British Nationality Act was passed, thousands of people from the Caribbean came to Britain. The first ship to arrive was the Empire Windrush, on 22 June 1948, bringing workers from Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and other islands to help fill post-war UK labour shortages. The ship carried 492 passengers – many of them children. Most of the arrivals found work in the NHS and the London transport service, becoming manual workers, cleaners, drivers, and nurses and moved into the inner cities. Naturally, they also brought with them their own culture, music, and language (which later developed into the street language Jafaican). This generation of immigrants has become known as the Windrush Generation, which nowadays holds a mostly negative connotation. For even t