biological-and-learning-psychology-lectureexam-notes.pdf

lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Biological and Learning Psychology Lecture/Exam Notes Biological and Learning Psychology (University of South Australia) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsore...

lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Biological and Learning Psychology Lecture/Exam Notes Biological and Learning Psychology (University of South Australia) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Biological and Learning Psychology SP5 2018 TOPICS Principles of Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning Studying and Measuring Behaviour Research in Zoos Assessing effectiveness of enrichment in zoos using behavioural analysis Learned helplessness and optimism Ecological Learning Theory: animal welfare applications Limits of learning: Biological constraints and other influences Ecology: animals in natural environments Comparative cognition & Theory of Mind Linking genes, environment and behaviour: living primates Linking genes, environment and behaviour: wild primate behaviour and ecology Evolutionary origins of hominids Moral and legal challenges to use of primates in research Moral and legal challenges of genome projects Conservation psychology and behavioural research Keeping human-wildlife and human-domestic pet interactions safe 1 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Biological psychology Fear Thermoregulation Hunger Conservation Psychology Hero Rats 2 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Principles of Define principles of 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Define principles of Learning Operant Conditioning Simple Learning: Habituation 3. Define principles of  Occurs when a stimulus is presented/encountered Observational repeatedly, and the response to it weakens L rni Associative Learning  Classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning  Operant (or Instrumental) conditioning Classical Conditioning The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - The UCS involuntarily elicits the unconditioned response. - Simply presenting this stimulus will result in the UCR occurring. Examples of UCS are: o Meat (producing salivation, the UCR) o Puff of air to cornea (producing eye-blink, the UCR). The Unconditioned Response (UCR) - The UCR is an innate or unlearned response to the UCS. - The UCR is usually reflexive & a response of the autonomic nervous system. The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - The CS starts as a "neutral" event (NS) that does not elicit the UCR. - The CS is then paired with the UCS during the experiment. Examples of CS are: o A bell or tone o Metronome o Flash of light o Tactile stimulation. The Conditioned Response (CR) - The CR is a learnt response to the CS, which occurs as a result of the UCS and CS being paired. - It resembles the UCR but often is not identical. 3 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Pavlov’s Dog Experiment Before Conditioning During Conditioning After Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus Repeated pairing of The Neutral Stimulus is now elicits Unconditioned Unconditioned Stimulus & a Conditioned Stimulus, Response, Neutral Stimulus Neutral Stimulus which elicits a Conditioned does not Response Food (UCS) + Buzzer Food (UCS) Salivation (NS/CS) → Salivation Buzzer (CS) → Salivation (UCR) (UCR) (CR) Buzzer (NS) No Salivation Classical Conditioning in the ‘Real World’ Conditioned fear & anxiety: phobias - A phobia is an EXCESSIVE and IRRATIONAL fear of an object, place or situation (Mazur, 2006) E.g. Little Albert’s Classically Conditioned Fear of White Rats Before Conditioning During Conditioning After Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus Repeated pairing of The Neutral Stimulus is now elicits Unconditioned Unconditioned Stimulus & a Conditioned Stimulus, Response, Neutral Stimulus Neutral Stimulus which elicits a Conditioned does not Response Loud Noise (UCS) + White Loud Noise (UCS) → Rat (NS) → Fear/Crying White Rat (CS) → Fear/Crying (UCR) (UCR) Fear/Crying (CR) White Rat (NS) → No Fear/Crying OTHER CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSES - Pleasant & Unpleasant Emotional Responses Can Be Conditioned - Advertising campaigns often use classical conditioning e.g. Advertising Campaign Before Conditioning During Conditioning After Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus Repeated pairing of The Neutral Stimulus is now elicits Unconditioned Unconditioned Stimulus & a Conditioned Stimulus, 4 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Response, Neutral Stimulus Neutral Stimulus which elicits a Conditioned does not Response Product (UCS) + Beautiful Beautiful person/ scenery person/scenery (NS) → Product (CS) → Pleasant (UCS) → Pleasant Pleasant emotional response emotional response (CR) emotional response (UCR) (UCR) Product (NS) → No pleasant emotional Response Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning Reinforcement Spontaneous Recovery Higher-Order Conditioning Acquisition Generalisation Extinction Discrimination Operant Conditioning Principles of Operant Conditioning ‘Three-term contingency’ Reinforcement & Punishment (SR) - Reinforcers & punishers are consequences of behaviour - Come to affect the subsequent frequency of behaviour (whether frequency of behaviour will increase or decrease) - Reinforcement tends to increase tendency to make that response o Punishment tends to decrease tendency to make that response o BUT it suppresses unwanted behaviour without strengthening desirable behaviour; has side effects; & can be reinforcing if behaviour is attention seeking. 5 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Operant Response (R) - A behaviour that operates on its environment Discriminative Stimulus (Sd) - Stimuli that precede a response can also influence operant behaviour by acting as a ‘signal’ (that behaviour is likely to lead to a reinforcer) SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT - Experimental procedures specifying how an operant response will be reinforced - Continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces every response that occurs - If reinforcement is not continuous, then the schedule of reinforcement is intermittent 4 Basic Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement Fixed-Ratio (FR30): Reinforcer given after fixed number of non-reinforced responses Variable-Ratio (VR30): Reinforcer given after variable number of non-reinforced responses Fixed-Interval (FI 1min): Reinforces first response after a fixed period of time has elapsed Variable-Interval (VI 1min): Reinforces first response after a variable period of time has elapsed FR: ‘break-and-run’ pattern of responding with a high/rapid rate of response followed by a post-reinforcement pause VR: high/rapid rate of response with no common, regular pausing FI: ‘scalloped’ pattern of responding with a post-reinforcement pause VI: moderate to low response with no/rare post-reinforcement pauses OPERANT CONDITIONING IN THE ‘REAL WORLD’ Shaping by Successive Approximations 1. Specify target or goal ‘desired’ behaviour 2. Identify response to use as a starting point 3. Reinforce starting response, then require successively closer approximations, until desired response eventually occurs 6 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Observational Learning - Occurs when responding is influenced by observation of others (‘models’) - Classical & operant conditioning can occur through observational learning - In 1960s, Albert Bandura proposed his social learning theory: learning can also occur through vicarious reinforcement (modelling of a response) SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Necessary components to successful modelling (requires cognitive processes to occur) 1. Attention to the modelled response 2. Retention in the memory of the elements of the modelled response 3. Motor reproduction or the ability to carry out the modelled response, and 4. Motivation or incentive to display the modelled response MODELLING & AGGRESSION The Bobo Doll Experiment - Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961): - Do children imitate aggression observed in ‘live’ or ‘filmed’ adult models? adults ‘roughed up’ a 5-foot tall Bobo doll & observation of either a ‘live’ or ‘filmed’ aggressive model led to increased aggression in child observers In everyday life: - Aggressive models appear in various places & situations (e.g., family & mass media) - How much violence should be allowed on TV is still a controversial subject. - Observational learning can account for: o Influence of mass media on behaviour o Why physical punishment increases aggressive behaviour 7 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Applications 1. Define stereotypic behaviour in captive settings (e.g. zoos) and at Adelaide assess how 'severe' or ' bnorm l' it i Zoo Studying & Measuring Behaviour Behaviour is WHAT an animal does ‘The study of behaviour encompasses all of the movements and sensations by which animals... mediate their relationships with their external environments – physical, biotic, and social.’ (Alexander, 1975) Tinbergen’s (1963) four ‘whys’ or determinants of behaviour 1. Function (survival / adaptive value): what is it for? How does behaviour contribute to survival & reproductive success & what are consequences of performing it? (populations) 2. Causation (control): how does it work? What are the mechanisms which enable the behaviour to be performed? Physiology, learning, morphology, ecology. (individual) 3. Ontogeny (development): how does it develop? How the behaviour pattern develops in the individual & how the environment may modify it. (individual) 4. Phylogeny (evolution): how did it evolve? Evolutionary history of behaviour in a population or lineage. Genetics, culture (populations) Burghardt (1997) added (5): What is private experience of animal presenting the behaviour? Personal world, descriptive mentalism, subjective experience, heterophenomenology Example: chest-beating by gorillas 1. Function o Alarm, display, distance communication 2. Causation 8 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 o Arm & hand flexibility, inflatable chest sacs 3. Ontogeny o Begins as feeble chest slapping, full range of expression only in silverback males 4. Evolution o Relating to drumming in chimpanzees & humans? 5. What is the ‘actor’s’ private experience? o Probably confidence building Describing behaviour: The Ethogram A descriptive catalogue of the behaviours that occur within the species Purely descriptive: - No implication of whether they are purely innate, or if learning is involved Catalogue headings are not fixed: - Different categories are used by different authors/researchers (ideal to have a standardised ethogram that everyone uses, e.g. for orangutans that all researchers use) INNATE BEHAVIOURS FIXED ACTION PATTERNS (FAPs): - Strongly biologically determined; 2 different types (degrees): - Rituals: stereotyped (same form throughout the species) o Shaped by natural selection o Strongly controlled by genetic mechanisms - Displays: exaggerated ritualized signals o More stereotyped o More complex o May include autonomic responses (e.g., piloerection, changes in blood flow, intention movements, displacement movements etc.) - FACIAL GESTURES ARE FAPs 9 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Learning: modification of behaviour as a result of experience Types of learning (covered in Week 1a) - Associative learning: Learning by association between a stimulus & a response o Classical conditioning focuses on reflex or involuntary behaviours largely controlled by stimuli that come before the response o Operant conditioning focuses on voluntary or non- reflexive behaviour & is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by consequences (e.g., reinforcement or punishment) - Habituation: Learning not to respond to repeated stimuli Other Types of learning: - Observational learning: occurs when responding is influenced by observation of others (‘models’)- covered in Lecture 1 - Latent learning: Learning without obvious reward - Imprinting: Early learning limited to a short critical period; Irreversible; Prefigures later responses - Insight learning: Solving a problem through perceiving interrelationships (e.g. Köhler’s chimpanzee experiments in 1930s) Stimuli that elicit innate behaviours The classic case: - Chicks of herring gulls (Larus argentatus) peck at their parents’ beaks, to make them regurgitate food for them - Experiments using models show that the stimulus for pecking is the red spot on the parent’s beak (Tinbergen & Perdeck, 1950) o Supernormal Stimuli o Several red spots are better than one! SIGNALS - Signal: behaviour (act) or structure which alters behaviour of others- effective because of receiver’s response - Cue: feature of the world, animate or inanimate, that can be used as a guide to future action - Ritualization: evolutionary process that stereotypes a cue into a signal SIGNALS: COSTS & HANDICAPS Handicap: signal whose cost is greater than required by sheer efficacy (effectiveness): - Signal may be costly to produce (e.g. huge size, cheek flanges in adult male orangutans) - Signal may have costly consequences such as vulnerability (e.g., conspicuous colouration & behaviour of male patas monkeys; colouration of male mandrills) Cost: loss of fitness resulting from making a signal 10 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 TYPES OF SIGNALS Index: signal whose intensity is causally related to quality being signaled & which cannot be faked (e.g., olfactory secretions used for marking) Minimal-cost signal: signal whose reliability does not depend on its cost- i.e. not a handicap- & which can be made by most members of the population- i.e. not an index (e.g., communal troop defensive vocalisations) Icon: a signal whose form is similar to its meaning (e.g., pointing) Symbol: a signal whose form is unrelated to its meaning (e.g., language) WHY ARE PRIMATES SO INTELLIGENT? 1. Primates need to be intelligent to solve ecological problems o Fruit trees are patchy, seasonal; advantageous to form detailed mental maps of the sites where they are found o Many foods need considerable skill to process: nuts, roots & tubers, insect larvae, seeds, nettles 2. Primates need to be intelligent to solve social challenges o Detailed knowledge of kinship relationships o Understanding the nature of rank relationships o Participation in coalitions o Understanding of third-party relationships o Deception o Manipulation of other group members for strategic purposes STUDYING BEHAVIOUR - Beware of inaccurate nature of perception & different modes of perception (observer bias & observer effects)! - The observer interacts with the subject o Is the subject behaving ‘naturally’, or with one eye on the observer? Habituation (losing fear of humans): may benefit study animals & disadvantage their neighbours - Study animals are used to the observer, whereas unhabituated neighbours run away - Habituation process poses risks to animals (may increase crop-raiding, risk of disease, allow all humans too close including poachers) Wild vs captive: are they comparable? - Both in principle show same FAPs, but may have learned different stimuli for their production - In captivity, behaviours may be produced at different rates from the wild (animals can’t get away from each other) Ethics: experiments performed on wild populations may be unethical - e.g., Hans Kummer’s experiments on 2 wild baboon species. He released olive baboon (Papio anubis) females into hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) troops, & vice versa, to see whether they could adapt their behaviours. He now has severe qualms over the ethics of this. 11 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Studying primates in the field (the ‘wild’) - Earliest field studies by C.R. Carpenter in 1930s. When field study of primates revived in 1950s, easy-to-study species (e.g., baboons) were chosen. - Observers went to National Parks (e.g., Nairobi in Kenya & Cape Point in South Africa) & studied baboon troops habituated by tourists feeding them, often from land Rovers. - Observers took copious notes on conspicuous individuals & described interesting interactions. - When baboons weren’t doing anything interesting, observers had lunch. - Some individual baboons hardly ever did anything ‘interesting’. The Altmann (1974) revolution - Jeanne Altmann (1974) called attention to inadequacy of ad hoc method of study: o Not amenable to statistical analysis o No picture of social group as a whole: - Individuals not ‘interesting’ are more or less ignored - Entire society ignored unless something ‘interesting’ is going on - Does not distinguish between states of behaviour and events of behaviour: o Event: instantaneous or of very short duration o State: behaviour with measurable duration; onset of state may be treated as an event Methodologies classified by Altmann (1974) & when to use them State or Method Recommended for: Event? heuristic value only; suggestive; ad libitum (just write down what you see) either rare events focal animal (record everything about one % of time; rates; durations; either particular individual) nearest neighbours all occurrences* (everything that happens, to usually synchrony; rates all individuals) event sequence sampling* (described particular either sequential constraints sequences of behaviour) usually 1/0 (note whether a behaviour occurs or not) none really state instantaneous and scan (quickly scan all state % of time; synchrony; subgroups animals at regular intervals) * ‘behaviour sampling’ Theoretical revolution in the 1970s - Reproduction is to perpetuate your genes & behaviour is likely to assist your reproduction - But not only offspring share your genes... - Your behaviour should therefore assist others according to their coefficient of relatedness Coefficient of relatedness: average probability that 2 individuals share same allele through descent from common ancestor Parent-offspring 0.5 12 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Full siblings 0.5 Half siblings 0.25 Grandparent-grandchild 0.25 Aunt-uncle vs niece-nephew 0.25 First cousins 0.125 Unrelated individuals 0 This is the principle of kin selection. How does an animal recognize its kin? - Phenotype matching – very controversial! o smell o appearance - Contextual cues o more useful for recognizing maternal kin (obviously) o male may recognize his own probable offspring by its proximity to a female with whom he has consorted o age-mates are more likely to be paternal kin - why? – same father o familiar individuals are most likely to be kin Hamilton’s rule (William D. Hamilton, 1936-2000) - Altruistic behaviour favoured by selection if costs of performing the behaviour are less than the benefits - Discounted by coefficient of relatedness between actor and recipient Predictions of Hamilton’s rule - Altruism is normally limited to kin - Closer kinship facilitates more costly altruism o food sharing o grooming o coalition formation o support in conflicts - Exception: reciprocal altruism o individuals must interact often o they must keep track of support given & received o they must provide support mainly to those who helped them 13 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Research in the zoo setting: Study designs What is a Zoo? “...a collection of (mostly) wild animals, of different species, that is open to the public for a significant part of the year” (Hosey, Melfi & Pankhurst, 2009, p. 553) Includes: - Public and private facilities - Wildlife parks and sanctuaries - ~ 10,000 animal collections around the world (WAZA, 2006) - Accredited zoos are visited by > than 600 million people each year (WAZA, 2006) Brief History of Zoos - History of keeping exotic animals dates back at least 4000 years - By the 1900s, zoos were becoming more accessible to the general public - Historically, zoos kept 1 or 2 animals of each species, for visitor entertainment (menagerie) - Enclosures were barren & not naturalistic: easy to clean (‘DisinfectantEra’) ‘MODERN’ ZOOS - Improvements from about the 1950s: o Pressure from animal welfare & animal rights organisations for zoos to raise their standards & become conservation organisations o More naturalistic enclosures o Greater focus on animal welfare LIFE FOR ANIMALS IN ZOOS - Animals housed in zoos live a different life compared to their wild counterparts: SOME BENEFITS: SOME LIMITATIONS: - Free from predators - Space restrictions - Shelter - No live prey/less foraging - Regular food - Reduced choice/control - Regular health checks - Regular presence of people - Longer lifespan (typically) 4 GOALS OF ‘MODERN’ ZOOS Conservation; Education; Entertainment; Research RESEARCH IN ZOOS Increase in zoo research over the past few years (in some regions, it is a legal requirement): - Designed to fill gaps in our knowledge about a range of issues - Draws on various fields, including Psychology - Similar to conducting any other type of research - Some challenges due to the unique environment 14 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 WHO CONDUCTS RESEARCH IN ZOOS? - Large proportion conducted by undergraduate students & volunteers - Zoo keepers - Less likely to be published in peer-reviewed journals - University researchers, their PhD, Masters or Honours students & zoo-based research staff PSYCHOLOGY & RESEARCH IN ZOOS Psychology as a discipline has much to offer in terms of zoo research: - Knowledge about how animals (human and non- human) think, feel, & behave - Empirical methodologies for exploring different phenomena - Analytical/critical thinking about outcomes (causes & effects) BEHAVIOURAL RESEARCH IN ZOOS NON-INVASIVE behavioural studies with focus on improving well-being of captive animals: - Baseline studies to understand what animals do and how they behave - Exploring how animals interact with each other - Monitoring the impact of different housing/husbandry routines - Testing the influence/effectiveness of enrichment items/techniques (relevant to your assignment!) - Investigating the impact of people on animal welfare/well-being To understand how zoo animals respond to their captive environment is through observing their behaviour (“...the responses animals make to stimuli in their environment”, Hosey et al., 2009, p. 82) - Why do animals behave the way they do? - How do they acquire resources & avoid danger? - Do they have individual traits & personalities? - How can we improve their welfare & well-being? Research in the zoo setting: animal behaviour research ASSESSING ANIMAL WELL-BEING IN ZOOS - Does the animal display species-typical behaviour? o “The repertoire of behaviours that characterise how a particular species behaves in the wild” (Hosey et al. 2009, p. 552) - Does the animal display ‘abnormal’ or aberrant behaviour? o “Unusual or rare behaviour that might be pathological” (Hosey et al. 2009, p. 542) o Stereotypic behaviour STEREOTYPIC BEHAVIOUR 15 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - “A repetitive, invariant behaviour, which may be the result of frustration, attempts to cope with suboptimal environment, or a dysfunction of the central nervous system” (Hosey et al. 2009, p. 552) - Indicates compromised well-being Examples include: - Pacing - Weaving - Rocking - Bar-biting - Head-shaking - Self-mutilation - Feather plucking - Tail biting ENRICHMENT TO IMPROVE WELL-BEING Five Categories of Enrichment: 1. Food-based (centred on type & delivery of food) 2. Physical (changes to structural environment- permanent or temporary- or provision of objects to manipulate) 3. Sensory (stimulates senses- what they see, hear, or smell) 4. Social (interactions with other animals- same or different species- or people) 5. Cognitive (problem solving tasks) NON-INVASIVE BEHAVIOURAL RESEARCH WITH ANIMALS (NON-HUMAN) - Behaviour is the most common measure for exploring animal welfare and is widely used in zoo research - Used to understand how an animal is coping with life in the zoo and how it responds to its environment - Many benefits to measuring behaviour: o Easy to implement o Inexpensive o Non-invasive DEVELOPING BEHAVIOURAL MEASURES To compare behaviour in zoo to what we know about behaviour in wild we use: - Published Activity Budgets (a quantitative representation of proportion of time an animal spends engaged in behaviour or activities; Hosey et al, 2009)- as a guide for “normal behaviour” - Ethograms (a list of behaviours, with operational definitions, observed in a species or group; Hosey et al, 2009) - Enclosure diagrams (to investigate how animals use their enclosure or space) Research in the zoo setting: zoo visitor research ZOO ANIMAL RESPONSES TO PEOPLE: 16 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 UNFAMILIAR ZOO VISITORS (people they do not know) Zoo visitors may be seen as: Zoo visitors influence animals: - Enemy/predators - Noise - Prey - Numbers - Symbiont (living together) - Harm - Conspecific (same species) - Influence in different ways (at exhibits, - No consequence behind-scenes tours) FAMILIAR ZOO KEEPERS/CAREGIVERS (people they know) Zoo keepers have potential to be both more Three levels of contact: enriching & more stressful than zoo visitors: - Hands-off (limited interaction) - Spend more time with animals - Protected (mesh or fence in between) - Closer interactions - Hands-on (in with animal) - Positive reinforcement training ZOO VISITOR RESEARCH IN ZOOS - Zoo visitors are important to zoos who must try to understand & satisfy them: o Targets of zoo educational initiatives o Primary funding source for zoo business & conservation work - Zoos must maximise their ‘attractiveness’ to visitors by: o Providing an experience consistent with welfare, educational & conservation priorities o But also be enjoyable & entertaining Many types of zoo visitor studies: - Baseline studies to understand who zoo visitors are (demographics) - Tracking studies to see what they do & where they go inside the zoo - How visitor knowledge, attitudes, emotion & behaviour change as a result of zoo visit (general or specific; short & long-term) - Impact of different visitor experiences (e.g., viewing an exhibit versus listening to a keeper talk) - Impact of different zoo campaigns TYPES OF ZOO VISITOR EXPERIENCES - Many zoos offer ‘value add’ experiences, so visitors do not just view animals in enclosures - Additional experiences include: o Signage/educational material o Touch tables o Keeper talks at exhibits o Animal feeding/enrichment/training o Tours around zoo with volunteers o Behind-the-scenes tours IMPACT OF ZOOS ON VISITORS - Growing focus on understanding whether zoos are meeting their goals of: o Increasing visitor knowledge 17 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 o Encouraging positive attitudes to animals and conservation o Influencing emotions (positive & negative) o Encouraging conservation behaviour change (i.e. to be more sustainable in/outside zoo) VISITOR KNOWLEDGE Zoos are considered to be informal ‘free choice’ learning environments: - Evidence for learning in zoos, particularly at specific exhibits - Learning is influenced by many factors: o Past learning experiences (cumulative) o Education level o Motivation for visit (education or entertainment) o Animal variables (e.g. visibility, activity) o Type of experience (exhibit or interactive) VISITOR ATTITUDES - Less understood than knowledge - Some evidence to show attitudes are more favourable after a zoo visit - Attitudes are influenced by many factors: o Pre-existing attitudes (often already positive towards animals & conservation) o Knowledge about animals o Motivation for visit (education or entertainment) VISITOR EMOTIONS - Recently emerging as area of interest - Learning needs an affective (emotional) aspect to be most effective - Visitors experience a range of emotions: o Happiness, peacefulness, worry, fear, privilege - Emotions vary depending on species - Not yet understood how this links to knowledge, attitudes & behaviour VISITOR BEHAVIOUR - Goal of zoos: encourage visitors to engage in pro- conservation behaviours after their visit - Some support for behaviour change, but post-visit studies are lacking - Greater focus on proposed (behavioural intention) rather than actual behaviour change - Influenced by various factors: o Perceived ability to perform a behaviour o Opportunity to perform a behaviour o Socio-demographics o Motivation to perform a behaviour o Feelings of connectivity to nature DEVELOPING ZOO VISITOR MEASURES Most studies rely on surveying visitors (self-report questionnaires or interviews): - Combination of questions used in published research and new questions to suit the topic - Combination of different questions: o Rating (Likert) scale 18 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 o Yes/no o Open-ended - Demographic details (age, gender, etc.) - May include observation of visitors to explore behaviour in zoos (less common) –same principles as animal behaviour studies (but potential Ethics issues) STUDY DESIGNS FOR VISITOR RESEARCH - Either within groups (same visitors) or between groups (different visitors) - Experimental if randomly allocating participants to different groups & manipulating the Independent variable - One off survey or multiple surveying o Determining visitor characteristics = one off o Determining differences between different groups of visitors = one off o Determining change in visitor variables = multiple surveys (e.g., pre/post design; e.g. to see if change in knowledge/attitudes/behaviour after taking part in a tour) RECORDING DATA & DATA ANALYSIS FOR VISITOR STUDIES - If surveying zoo visitors, data will be recorded via a questionnaire (usually hard copy) - Then data is entered into Excel or SPSS for analysis - If observing zoo visitors, data is be recorded as per animal research (but note: it is harder to get Ethics approval for studies that observe people or film them) DATA ANALYSIS FOR VISITOR STUDIES - More acceptable to use parametric tests than in animal research (more participants) - Sample principles same as other research in Psychology: o Descriptive statistics (percentages/frequencies) for demographic data o t-tests for differences within and between individuals o ANOVAs for differences between multiple conditions o Regression analyses for predictions o Correlations for relationships 19 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 learned 1. Describe the original dog experiments that underpin the original Theory of Learned Helplessness 2. Understand the criticisms of the original Theory of L d H lpl helplessness/& optimism HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF EARLY RESEARCH 1967 ― Triadic experiments with dogs 1969 ― Theory of learned helplessness 1975 ― First human “helplessness” experiment published 1978 ― Attributional reformulation 1989 ― Hopelessness depression theory 1991 ― “Learned Optimism” published 1993 ― “Learned Helplessness” published ORIGINAL DOG EXPERIMENTS - In the 1960s, Bruce Overmier, Martin Seligman, Steven Maier at the University of Pennsylvania observed that: o Dogs that received electric shocks in a classical conditioning experiment were unable to learn to escape from shocks in a shuttle box (which dogs can usually do quite easily) o Why? LEARNED HELPLESSNESS IN DOGS Shuttle box 20 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Question: Did just being given electric shocks make dogs ‘helpless’ in the shuttle box? OR Did being given uncontrollable electric shocks make dogs helpless? In order to find out they designed a 3-group ‘triadic’ experiment. DESIGN OF YOKED ‘TRIADIC’ DOG EXPERIMENTS PHASE 1: Pavlovian Harness Group 1 ― escapable shock (dog can turn off shock with nose) Group 2 ― inescapable shock (yoked to group 1) Group 3 ― no treatment (control) PHASE 2: Shuttle box RESULTS OF YOKED ‘TRIADIC’ DOG EXPERIMENTS PHASE 2: Shuttle box Group 1 ― escapable shock: Normal Learning Group 2 ― inescapable shock― Interference (two-thirds failed to learn) Group 3 ― no treatment― Normal Learning LEARNED HELPLESSNESS IN RATS Exposure of rats to an unpredictable, inescapable moderate foot shock will induce response deficits in a subsequent shock escape test. This "helpless" behaviour may improve during treatment with antidepressant drugs. CRITICISMS OF YOKED ‘TRIADIC’ DOG EXPERIMENTS 1. Does not rule out possibility of instrumental response 2. Possible neurochemical explanation 3. Application of Church's (1964) critique of yoked control designs: a. Subjects may differ in sensitivity to shock b. Sensitivity to shock may fluctuate over time 4. Results could be due to unpredictability (NOT uncontrollability) ORIGINAL THEORY OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Exposing organisms to uncontrollable outcomes (outcomes independent of responding) will produce 3 deficits: 1. Cognitive deficit (belief that outcomes are uncontrollable); 2. Motivational deficit (lack of response initiation); 21 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 and, if the outcomes are aversive 3. Emotional deficit (fear & eventually depression) The theory goes well beyond the original experimental findings in 3 important respects: 1. Applies to all organisms (not just dogs) 2. Assumes even non-aversive uncontrollable outcomes can produce learned helplessness deficits 3. Claims to explain depression, but experimenters did not check for signs (symptoms) of depression in the dogs CRITICISMS OF ORIGINAL THEORY OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 1. Goes beyond the experimental findings (effect in dogs exposed to electric shocks) 2. Fails to explain why a third of subjects show no effect (do not become helpless) 3. As a theory of depression: a. paradox of self-blame b. fails to explain why not everyone is depressed SUBSEQUENT RESEARCH QUESTIONS - Can learned helplessness be shown in people? - Can learned helplessness be shown with non-aversive outcomes (in animals or people)? HIROTO & SELIGMAN’S 1975 EXPERIMENTS - Used human participants, with a loud irritating noise (instead of shock) as the uncontrollable stimulus. - All participants told noise would stop if they solved a puzzle correctly Group 1: could press series of buttons to turn off noise (could stop noise & control environment) Group 2: given puzzles that could not be solved (could not stop noise & could not control environment) Described 4 experiments using: - 2 different induction procedures (instrumental & cognitive) and - 2 different test tasks (instrumental & cognitive) Both induction procedures confounded various extraneous variables with uncontrollability so that the validity of the results is open to question - Unfortunately, many later experiments on human helplessness used similar procedures (see Winefield, 1982). - As a consequence, various alternative explanations have been proposed to account for the experimental findings PROBLEMS WITH EXPERIMENTS USING HUMAN PARTICIPANTS a. Amount & pattern of reinforcement (not all have used yoking) b. Yoking may produce “illusion of control” c. Instructional set: some experiments used different instructions d. Perceived success/failure: most experiments have confounded uncontrollability & failure e. Predictability/unpredictability: difficult to separate experimentally f. People don’t just give up altogether (like most of the dogs did) OTHER ACCOUNTS OF HUMAN HELPLESSNESS 22 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - Reactance (Brehm, 1966) - Hypothesis testing (Levine et al., 1978) - Egotism (Frankel & Snyder, 1978) - State vs Action Orientation (Kuhl, 1981) - Cognitive exhaustion (Sedek & Kofta, 1990) - Secondary control (Rothbaum et al., 1982) - Conditioned inattention (Lubow et al., 1981) REVISED THEORY OF LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (1978) When organisms experience uncontrollable outcomes, they explain the fact in terms of 3 attributional dimensions: a) Internal - External dimension: Determines personal or universal helplessness (& accordingly self-blame) b) Stable - Unstable dimension: Determines 'chronicity' (persistence) c) Global - Specific dimension: Determines generalisability to new situations Example 1: You fail exam (negative outcome) Two possible explanations: a) I’m stupid (internal, stable, global) b) Exam was unfair (external, unstable, specific) Example 2: You come top in exam (positive outcome) Two possible explanations: a) I’m brilliant (internal, stable, global) b) I was lucky (external, unstable, specific) The revised theory also assumes that some people have a depressive (pessimistic) attributional style: 1) a tendency to give internal, stable, global attributions for bad outcomes and 2) a tendency to give external, unstable, specific attributions for good outcomes DEPRESSIVE REALISM HYPOTHESIS (TAYLOR & BROWN, 1988) Alloy and Abramson (1979) showed that: - Depressed college students were more accurate (realistic) in making judgments about their performance in an experimental task - Non-depressed college students tended to over-rate their performance COGNITIVE THEORIES OF DEPRESSION - Usually assume that depressed patients’ cognitions of reality are distorted - For example, Beck’s theory proposes three types of distortion: o Negative distortions about the self o Negative distortions about the world o Negative distortions about other people BECK’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEPRESSION Depressives have negative schemas (sets of cognitions, beliefs, attitudes etc) about: - the self (I'm unlikeable) - the world (nothing ever goes right) 23 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - others (nobody cares whether I live or die) Information is distorted in order to maintain these negative schemas – For example: - if therapist is late (they don't want to see me, I'm too hopeless) - if therapist is early (I'm so sick they have to rush to the office) Beck believes that such distorted thinking is a major factor in maintaining depression HOPELESSNESS THEORY OF DEPRESSION (ABRAMSON, METALSKY, & ALLOY, 1989 ‘Hopelessness’ theory of depression: - Based on learned helplessness theory - Assumes depressed people generalise inappropriately from situations in which outcomes are uncontrollable to situations in which they are controllable - Assumes depressed patients display an unrealistic attributional style POSITIVE ILLUSIONS (TAYLOR, 1989) - Cognitive theories of depression are incorrect in claiming that depressed patients distort reality whereas mentally healthy people are realistic - It is the opposite: o Mentally healthy people distort reality (see world through ‘rose-tinted glasses’) o Depressed patients are more realistic OTHER APPLICATIONS OF HELPLESSNESS THEORY - Martin Seligman has been a strong advocate of attributional retraining: o To be both successful & happy: - Develop a healthy (‘optimistic’) attributional style LEARNED OPTIMISM (SELIGMAN, 1991) - Develop a positive attributional style to successfully combat life’s challenges - Pioneering the ‘positive psychology’ movement - Traditional psychology has overemphasised the negative (emotions & experiences) & neglected the positive, such as happiness & fulfilment (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) Ecological learning theory: animal welfare applications ENRICHMENT BASED ON BEHAVIOUR & ECOLOGY For animals in all captive environments: - Lab - Zoo - Sanctuary - Backyards / pets at home 24 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 During potentially distressing experimental situations there should always be a compatible companion close by, serving as a psychological support. Ecological Learning Theory to Minimise Human-Animal Conflict For all areas where people and wildlife come into contact: - Near last remaining natural environments / national parks - Tourism - BIGGEST PROBLEM: FEEDING WILD ANIMALS NON-LETHAL MANAGEMENT: PREDATORS & LIVESTOCK To protect sheep & goats: - Animal armour - protective collars - Guardian dogs – e.g. Great Pyrenees, Komondor, Akbash, Anatolian shepherd & Maremma NON-LETHAL ANIMAL CONTROL - Livestock guardian dogs in Namibia protect livestock herds from cheetahs to minimise cheetah-farmer conflict - Maremma dogs to protect bandicoots (Zoos Vic): o Have protected a penguin colony o Now being trained to protect bandicoots o Step 1: habituation to a toy bandicoot o Goal: protect 50 bandicoots with two dogs DISRUPTIVE OR AVERSIVE STIMULI e.g. scarecrow, radio-activated scare device, electric fence Challenges: - Animals become habituated to aversive stimuli - Stimuli may serve as discriminative stimuli for reinforcement o e.g. siren goes off when predator enters farmyard, then other predators know where food is WILDLIFE TOURISM (note Tiger Temple has now closed) - Issues related to close encounters with wildlife: o Ethical problems - Animals are drugged, chained, mutilated to make safer for human contact - Stress and human disease 25 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 new directions in the study of 1. Describe limits of conditioning Learning for an individual or species (e.g. physical characteristics, Limits of Learning indi idual diffe 1. Physical characteristics o The physical structure of an individual or species sets limits on what it can learn o For example: chimpanzees can’t learn to speak like humans because their anatomical vocal structures are not like ours 2. Learned behaviour is NOT inherited o Learned behaviour is not passed on to future generations: - Every individual has to learn many of the same skills acquired by its parents - This limits what any one individual can learn in a lifetime 3. Individual differences o Heredity does play a role in learning ability- but it is controversial - Genes contribute to differences within and between species - But environment also plays a role (e.g. enriched early learning environments) 4. Critical periods: o Stages of development for optimal learning (e.g. imprinting in birds, maternal behaviour in primates) o Do they occur in humans? First 12 years may be critical for learning language 5. Neurological damage o Prenatal exposure to alcohol & other drugs can interfere with neurological development o Exposure to neurotoxins (substances that damage nerve tissues) in infancy & early childhood are a threat to learning ability: - Lead in old paint & drinking water - Pesticides, herbicides, solvents, medications, recreational drugs, some foods & food supplements o Head injury (blows to head, shaking child, car accidents, sports injury) o Malnutrition during foetal development & early childhood Biological Constraints on Conditioning 1. Instinctive drift & animal ‘misbehaviour’ o Breland & Breland suggested that food reinforcement elicited innate food foraging & handling behaviours, which caused a decline in the effectiveness of an operant response that was reinforced by food o Instinctive drift occurs when an animal’s innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes - Examples: pigs depositing coins in a piggy bank & miserly raccoons 26 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - Keller & Marian Breland trained animals for the IQ Zoo, a tourist attraction in Hot Springs that showcased operant conditioning - Training Chickens in the Classroom  They explored a variety of species for teaching, ultimately identifying the chicken (Gallus domesticus) as the best behavioural model for the classroom. - Bob Bailey’s Operant Conditioning Courses for Dog Trainers  Marian Breland’s 2nd husband, Bob Bailey, continues to run operant conditioning courses for dog trainers (same content as Bailey & Bailey chicken training workshops in Hot Springs, Arkansas). 2. Conditioned Taste Aversion o Aversions to food can develop, if: - Eating a particular type of food is followed by nausea (brought about by food poisoning, illness, or alcohol intoxication). - Animals readily make connections between taste and nausea. o From an evolutionary point of view this makes sense: - Animals quickly learn to avoid food that has made them sick (e.g., poisonous foods), because individuals that learn what not to eat will survive 3. Preparedness & Phobias o Martin Seligman suggests: ‘preparedness’ is a biologically programmed phenomenon. o Humans appear easily to develop phobias to: spiders, snakes, heights & darkness: - Posed threats to humans in our evolutionary history, and fear and avoidance of these items may have aided survival o “Preparedness involves a species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others” BEHAVIOR SYSTEMS APPROACH - William Timberlake (Indiana University) developed a ‘Behavior Systems Approach’: o Integrates innate & learned behaviour o Takes environment & adaptive functions into account o Learning modifies behaviour systems that already exist SCHEDULE-INDUCED BEHAVIOUR OR ADJUNCTIVE BEHAVIOURS IN ANIMALS - A variety of excessive (aberrant or ‘abnormal’) behaviours have been found to occur during fixed- interval schedules. - Typically occur just after reinforcement (during the post-reinforcement pause). - Examples: polydipsia (excessive drinking), excessive wheel-running and excessive aggression IN HUMANS - Excessive levels of ‘instinctive’ appetitive behaviours (eating, drinking) can occur. - In our societies: o Reinforcement often occurs on fixed-interval schedules (e.g., eat at certain times, get paid on certain days, relax on specific days, etc). 27 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 o Interval schedules may contribute to excessive drinking or alcoholism. Living great apes ADAPTIVE (SURVIVAL) FUNCTION OF BEHAVIOUR - Behaviour can evolve & change - Sometimes behavioural change allows individuals to survive o e.g., by finding & using resources more efficiently - Konrad Lorenz (1965) suggests that adaptive change in behaviour occurs through the action of two processes – ontogeny and phylogeny. Animals acquire & store environmental information: - Behaviour is altered in ways that reflect environmental change - Certain body/physical structures can pre-adapt a species for other behaviours PHYLOGENY - This kind of change is governed by principles of evolution by natural selection (Charles Darwin). - Phylogenetic change takes place across generations within a species. - Mechanism for change operates at level of individual: o Individual carries the genes o Genes are only passed on if the individual reproduces successfully - Phylogenetic change depends on ontogenetic change. ONTOGENY - Involves development or change in behaviour within the lifetime of an individual. - Changes in behaviour occur in response to changes in the individual’s environment and/or as a result of: o Maturation –pre-natal development of structures, growth, & age-dependent postnatal changes in an individual (e.g. an infant can only walk or talk at a certain stage of development after birth). o Learning – relatively age-independent changes in behaviour that occur as a result of experience. The learning aspect of ontogeny is crucial to survival, since rapid changes in behaviour (or new behavioural strategies) in response to environmental change, mean you may be more likely to survive. NOTE: OPPOSABLE BIG TOES & THUMBS! THIS IS GREAT FOR CLIMBING AND PICKING UP ITEMS, SUCH AS FOOD NOTE: NON-HUMAN APES HAVE: PROTRUDING BROW RIDGE & JAW & LARGE CANINE TEETH FAMILY: HOMINIDAE (Groves, 2017) - All great apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, orangutans) & humans - 2 subfamilies o Ponginae: - Orangutan (genus Pongo) o Homininae 28 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - Gorilla (genus Gorilla) - Chimpanzee (including bonobo, genus Pan) - Humans (genus Homo) TAXONOMY OF GREAT APES (GROVES, 2017) - Chimpanzees are more closely related to humans (genus Homo) than to other great apes - Gorillas are more closely related to the chimpanzee- human duo than to orangutans PHYLOGENETIC (EVOLUTIONARY) TREE - Inferred evolutionary relationships among the great apes: o orangutan (genus Pongo), gorilla (genus Gorilla), chimpanzee (including bonobo: genus Pan) and human (genus Homo). SEPARATION OF CHIMPANZEE LINEAGE FROM HUMANS (GROVES, 2017) - Molecular clock dates for this separation: o 678–116 MA (Langergraber et al., 2012); o Time Tree of Life gives median date of 640 MA; o ‘estimated time’ of 665 MA (623–707 MA), based on 74 studies. OUR MORAL RESPONSIBILITY TO OTHER APES Non-human great apes are very like humans: - Genetically - Anatomically - Cognitively When in zoos, our responsibility to afford them: - Dignity - Some freedom of choice in surroundings & husbandry processes (choice & perceived control). ORANGUTANS (Groves, 2017) 2 species Bornean orangutan Sumatran orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) (Pongo abelii) 29 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 NEW ORANGUTAN SPECIES (2017) Tapanuli orangutan (Pongo tapanuliensis) SUMATRAN ORANGUTANS Distribution in the wild - Live in the northern tip of Sumatra, in provinces of Aceh & North Sumatra - a population lives further south, near west coast of Sumatra, and is a new species- Tapanuli orangutan - Knowing about taxonomy (species/sub-species) is important for deciding where rescued orangutans can be released Distinguishing features - Longer & more oval faces - Fully mature males have smaller cheek flanges that lie flat against the face - Males have long beards & moustaches, & arm hair is very long, hanging down like a curtain - in both sexes the face is conspicuously sprinkled with short, gingery hair. - Denser & usually more cinnamon body hair - Body shape/build tends to be more linear. BORNEAN ORANGUTANS Distinguishing features - tend to have broader faces - very deep infraorbital fossa give them figure-8- shaped faces - Fully mature males have heavier cheek flanges that curve out from the face - less dense & darker (more maroon) body hair - larger & more pendulous throat pouches - Especially in captivity they tend to become quite obese. MALE ORANGUTANS - Reproductively mature by 10 years old or younger (especially in captivity) - May not become physically mature (with cheek flanges & enormous body size) until many years later, depending on their social status This is ‘arrested adolescence’: – some sexually mature males do not mature physically WILD MALE ORANGUTANS: Arrested Adolescence In the wild: - Only 1 fully physically mature male lives in a particular area but developmentally arrested males can still impregnate females - If a physically mature, flanged male dies or moves away, 1 of arrested adolescents begins to mature, becomes large & flanged within a year & becomes the dominant male. - Arrested adolescence is much more frequent in Sumatra than in Borneo EVOLUTIONARY SPECIES CONCEPT - Different species have consistent, heritable differences between them (Phylogenetic criterion)- no longer use interbreeding criteria 30 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - The 2 orangutan species differ in: o physical appearance o there is a chromosome difference o DNA clocks show a separation of 2.7 – 5 million years (Goossens et al., 2009), or only 1 million years (Locke et al., 2011) GORILLAS (Groves, 2017) 2 species 1. Western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), 2 subspecies: a. Western/coast gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) b. Cross River gorillas (Gorilla gorilla diehli) 2. Eastern gorillas (Gorilla beringei), 2 subspecies: a. Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) b. Grauer’s gorillas (Gorilla beringei grauerei) GORILLAS; Distribution in the wild Gorilla beringei (Eastern gorillas): - Mountain gorillas (G. b. beringei) live in the Virunga Volcanoes region (Congo/Rwanda) & Bwindi- Impenetrable Forest (Uganda) - Grauer’s gorilla (G. b. graueri) live in mountains & lowlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), east of Lualaba River Gorilla gorilla (Western gorillas): - Western gorillas (G. g. gorilla) live in southern Cameroon, south to mouth of Congo River & east to Ubangi River - Cross River gorillas (G. g. diehlei) live in small remnant populations in Cross River district on Nigeria–Cameroon border WESTERN GORILLAS Distinguishing features - Usually blackish–brown in colour, mostly with red hair on scalp - Hair of mature males turns grey–white on their back & flanks, down onto the legs as far as the knees - Cross River gorillas seem to have longer beards & some differences in skulls compared to Western gorillas EASTERN GORILLAS Distinguishing features - Jet black in colour - Hair of mature males turns grey – white only on their back & flanks - Term ‘silverback’ for adult male gorillas most accurate for Eastern gorillas - much larger jaws, teeth & very long bony palate big toe less deeply divided from other toes - Grauer’s gorillas jaws & teeth not as big & their faces are longer & narrower & their body hair is shorter than for mountain gorillas POOR FOSSIL RECORD FOR CHIMPANZEES - There are possible fossil ancestors for gorillas - But for chimpanzees only a set of teeth from East African Rift Valley dating from 284,000 – 545,000 years ago, probably closer to the latter (McBrearty & Jablonski, 2005). 31 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 TWO SPECIES OF Pan Pan troglodytes - Chimpanzee o live in rainforests & savannah woodlands of west, central & east Africa o 100 years ago: >1 million across Africa o Now: < 300,000 Pan paniscus - Bonobo o Restricted to south of the Congo River (Democratic Republic of Congo) o Now: ≈ 10 000 bonobos left CHIMPANZEES (Pan troglodytes) 4 SUBSPECIES (Groves, 2017): - Western Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) - Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) - Central Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) - Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) - (possibly small southern subspecies, P.t. marungensis) WESTERN CHIMPANZEES (P.t.verus) Distinguishing features Juveniles: - Dark mask over eyes & nose- contrasts with pink face - Central parting of hair on scalp Adults: - Black faces, sometimes with traces of dark mask visible - Tend to go bald on skull, more so in females - Sideburns long & hanging - Brow ridges more arched Older: - Full rounded white chin beard CENTRAL CHIMPANZEES (P.t. troglodytes) Distinguishing features Juveniles: - Pink faces Adults: - Black faces - Tend to go bald on skull, more so in females - Sideburns long & hanging - Brow straighter & less prominent Older: - More straggly white chin beard EASTERN CHIMPANZEES (P.t. schweinfurthii) Distinguishing features Juveniles: - Pink faces 32 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - May develop large tan spots on face which then fuse Adults: - Black faces - Tend to go bald on skull, more so in females - Sideburns fuller & more backswept - Brow straighter & less prominent Older: - More straggly white chin beard Pan paniscus - Bonobo - Pygmy chimpanzee - Gracile chimpanzee - Restricted to south of the Congo River - no more different from ‘common’ chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) than Sumatran from Bornean orangutans, or Western from Eastern gorillas - But in their behaviour they seem to be very different 33 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 1. Describe different techniques used to investigate cognition in other species 2. Understand Theory of Mind as a concept COMPARATIVE COGNITION The study of information processing across species, including humans. Some research topics include: - Memory - Categorisation - Decision-making - Problem solving - Language use - Deception THEORY OF MIND - The ability to attribute mental states to others, such as knowledge, intentions and beliefs (de Waal, 2016). - Sharing or concealing information from others requires an animal to understand that it is: o Separate from other individuals (self-awareness) o Content of its mind is different from others CLASSIC TEST OF SELF-AWARENESS The mark and mirror test: - Place a mark on the animal’s face or body; - give them access to a mirror; - code behaviour of animal in response to image in the mirror - Developed by: o Gordon Gallop (1970), an animal behaviourist, & o Beulah Amsterdam (1972), a clinical child psychologist Dolphin Cognition - It is difficult to design cognitive tests for marine mammals: dolphins & whales don’t have hands! - Cognitive tests for dolphins include: cooperative tasks & the mirror recognition test - Echo Location Visualization & Interface System (ELVIS) allows Dolphins to aim their echolocation at shapes projected onto a board to make choices & answer questions (e.g. about food) 34 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 ALARM CALLS IN VERVET MONKEYS (Seyfarth, Cheney & Marler, 1980) - Vervet monkeys make alarm calls in presence of predators to warn other vervet monkeys nearby. - Researchers recorded alarm calls, & observed reactions of monkeys when particular calls were replayed from hidden speakers (Playback experiments). Primitive form of language: - infants vocalised calls imperfectly, but improved with age & experience - Separate calls- (1) look up for predatory eagles; (2) look around on ground for pythons; (3) take to trees to escape leopards PROBLEM SOLVING IN CROWS - Dr Alex Taylor (Lecturer in Evolutionary Psychology, University of Auckland, New Zealand) set a crow, named 007, a complicated 8-step puzzle task to solve for a food reward CAPUCHIN MONKEYS & ‘FAIRNESS’ (RECIPROCITY) TEST - Sarah F. Brosnan & Frans B. M. de Waal (2002) designed the ‘fairness’ or reciprocity test, for 2 capuchin monkeys to perform. 1 monkey gets a reward of cucumber, the other monkey gets a grape, which results in the first monkey getting ‘upset’ 35 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 African Great Ape 1. Describe differences between the three African Great Ape species (chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas) behaviour in the 'wild' CHIMPANZEE – pan troglodytes Found across middle of africa APPEARANCE - Infant chimpanzees have light faces & a white tuft of hair on their behinds to signal their special status as a youngster - Adult male chimpanzees are moderately larger than adult females (contrast with extreme size difference between adult male and female gorillas and orangutans) - Compared with bonobos, chimpanzees have a more robust appearance, with a stouter more muscular build CHIMPANZEE SOCIAL STRUCTURE (GOMBE, TANZANIA) - Live in large communities (unit-groups): o Usually 40-60 chimpanzees, but can be 15-120 – sex ratio approximately equal - Community home ranges about 50 km2 o In miombo woodland in Ugalla district, Tanzania, community home range is 600 km2 - Broadly territorial o Ranges may overlap by 20%, but always > 5 km between two groups - Usually travel in small groups: o up to 10 in Gombe, up to 20 in rainforest - Bisexual groups (males & oestrous females) move about 4.5 km/ day o adult males, in particular, have preferred travelling associates - Nursery groups (females & young) move only 3 km/ day 36 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - Individuals(especiallymales)indulgeinelaborate greetings, such as embracing, after reuniting CHIMPANZEE DIETS: RIPE FRUIT SPECIALISTS Diet mainly fruit (especially figs) - Eat 100+ plant species - spend 6-8 hours a day feeding o feeding peaks 7–9 a.m. & 5 p.m. - termites eaten at the beginning of rainy season - nut cracking at some sites (hammer & anvil) - also eat meat o hunt Red colobus & other monkeys o occasionally bushbuck, young bushpig ECOLOGICAL VARIATIONS - Population densities vary greatly, but always less than gorillas where they are sympatric: o In rainforest & open forest: usually 1-7/km2 o They extend into dry woodland (e.g. Tanzania & Senegal)- but at very low densities: 50% of 3000 survey respondents in SA expressed fear of dog attacks (South Australian Health Commission, 1991; Thompson, 1997) o 43% of participants in a community survey in SA (n = 292) were afraid of dogs (Boyd et al., 2004) DOG ‘ATTACKS’ ON PEOPLE IN AUSTRALIA - Major public health risk? o 5% of SA respondents in 1991 SA government survey ‘attacked’ during previous 3 years 63 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 o In 2004, 46 % of SA community sample experienced at least 1 dog attack during lives o ≈ 6,500 dog ‘attacks’ annually in Adelaide require some kind of treatment: 800 people seek treatment at public hospital ER (250 children 100,000 Australians bitten by dogs (varying degrees of severity) - 12,000 ―14,000 seek treatment in ER of public hospitals (1,400 of these warrant hospitalisation) - two thirds of bites involve family or neighbour’s dog - 60% of bites occur in younger children (to head & neck) - most dog bites occur because people (adults & children) not educated about appropriate behaviour around dogs 3 TYPES OF DOG AGGRESSION 1. Play aggression 2. Predatory aggression 3. Dominance aggression POSSIBLE CAUSES OF DOG AGGRESSION Aggression is part of normal behavioural repertoire of dogs: - Lack of firm direction, may result in dogs using aggression to get what they want - If not socialised and trained, dogs may become nervous & aggressive - If owners & victims don’t recognise early signs of aggressive behaviour, aggressive situations get out of hand - Genes may contribute to aggression in dogs DELTA DOG SAFE SA PROGRAM Promoted what a child should do when: - Patting a friendly dog - how to approach - How & when to leave a dog alone – what are the real signs - What to do when approached by an unleashed, unknown dog - What to do if an unleashed unknown dog knocks you down & - How parents can help in getting the message across to children & adults alike Life-sized toy dogs were used rather than real dogs because: - no risk of children being bitten - no stress to dog or children - toy dog will not cause classroom distraction - toy dog may be manipulated to provide appropriate response to a child's behaviour - toy dog can travel on hot days 64 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - toy dog does not provoke anxiety in children who have a fear of dogs 3/10/2018 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING & DOG SAFETY MODELING (Observational Learning) - Teach and model the DELTA DOG SAFE messages to your child as you would road safety SCENARIO 1: HOW TO PAT A FRIENDLY DOG - Ask the adult with you first - Ask the dog owner next - Ask the dog as well by: o Standing quietly next to dog o Placing hand near dog, curl your fingers & allow dog to sniff o Waiting to see if dog wants to be patted & comes to you - If it’s OK then just a tickle under the chin or on the chest is most welcome o Do not pat a dog on its head o Do not stare at the dog SCENARIO 2: WHEN TO LEAVE A DOG ALONE - Lifts its lips - Growls - Backs away - Raises the hair on its back SCENARIO 3: WHEN AN UNLEASHED, UNKNOWN DOG APPROACHES - Stand still. Be absolutely quiet - Hug yourself - tuck your fingers under your armpits - Look away from the dog - Wait for the dog to go away - Tell a responsible adult SCENARIO 4: WHEN AN UNLEASHED, UNKNOWN DOG KNOCKS YOU DOWN - Curl your body up like a snail to hide from the dog - Stay quiet - Wait for the dog to go away - Tell a responsible adult MESSAGES FOR CHILDREN SOME DOGS ARE FRIENDLY - they appear relaxed, calm & interested SIMPLE MESSAGES FOR CHILDREN - No owner, no leash, no pat - Never intentionally frighten a dog - Happy dog 65 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 SOME DOGS ARE NOT FRIENDLY - If dog is sleepy, angry, sick, frightened: it may not want contact - If dog is eating or playing with favourite toy: it may not want to be interrupted ANGRY OR FRIGHTENED DOGS ARE NOT FRIENDLY Angry dog will: stand up straight, prick its ears, look at you, straighten its tail, might growl, lift its lip or bark Frightened dog will: cower, look away, put its head down, raise its hackles (hair on the back of the neck) “DON’T” MESSAGES FOR CHILDREN DON’T TEASE DON’T APPROACH ANGRY DOGS DON’T APPROACH FRIGHTENED DOGS DON’T DISTURB WHEN SICK DON’T CUDDLE FACE TO FACE DON’T ALLOW DOGS NEAR PARTIES DON’T DISTURB WHEN SLEEPING DON’T DISTURB WHEN WITH PUPS DON’T DISTURB WHEN FEEDING DON’T CLIMB ON FENCES WHAT IS THE DOG TELLING YOU? DOG BODY LANGUAGE HAPPY/RELAXED - Body usually relaxed - head held slightly raised - Tail either still or in slow wag - tongue hangs out in relaxed manner NERVOUS/FRIGHTENED - Reduces size by crouching or rolling over to show belly - May tuck tail between legs or move side to side in lowered position - Ears back or flat on head - Eyes may appear slightly closed, looking away or flicking side to side 66 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - May be panting or licking lips ANGRY - Stands up on tips of paws - Hair on neck & back stands up - Tail held high & may wag slowly - May snarl with lips lifted, exposing teeth - Eyes are wide open and staring; Ears held forward - Growling and snarling CAT BODY LANGUAGE HAPPY - Body is usually relaxed - Tail is high with tip hanging over the back or relaxed and low - Ears are pointing forwards - Eyes open or if completely relaxed may be half closed - Whiskers held out to the side FRIGHTENED/TIMID - Body is low to ground - Ears are laid flat on head - Whiskers laid back or flattened against face - Tail low DEFENSIVE - Tail is low and still or swishing - The back may be arched and ears flat to the head - Whiskers are back and pupils dilated - Hissing KNOWN DANGEROUS (FIGHTING) DOGS (In Hong Kong) - Securely muzzled, short leash, special collar (striped red and yellow) DOG ‘ATTACKS’ ON PEOPLE IN HONG KONG Major public health risk? - Similar issues exist relating to responsible dog ownership, problems with bites, and messages about dog behaviour and how to behave around dogs are found in Hong Kong: RULES FOR PREVENTING DOG BITES IN HONG KONG: 1. Do not approach a sleeping dog 2. Do not approach a dog that is eating or gnawing on a bone 3. Do not approach a bitch that is caring for her puppies 4. Do not make sudden movements, run or scream near a dog 5. Do not stare at a dog 6. Do not come between dogs that are fighting. Separate them by throwing water on them HONG KONG LAWS FOR LARGE DOGS - “Large dogs” must be securely held on a leash not longer than 2 metres in public places 67 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - Owners who believe they have a well- trained large dog and would like to exercise their large dog off leash, can participate in the exemption examination for large dogs o Test 1- Assessment of temperament (protocol developed by Australian RSPCA)  Dog should not demonstrate signs of overt aggression towards other dogs or humans  Bring the dog being tested to another dog which is separated by wired fencing to assess its reaction [Both dogs must be on leash] o Test 2- Assessment of control  Walking with dog off leash  Encounter with a stranger  Recall dog  Encounter with a stranger walking a dog on a leash PHOBIAS OF DOGS Little Albert and the White Rat PHOBIA TREATMENTS - Exposure-based treatment of phobias - Hypnotherapy 68 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Biological Psychology 1. Describe differences between endotherms and ectotherms biology of fear 2. Describe different ADAPTIVE FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS methods of - Fear → alerts us to escape from danger - Anger → directs us to attack an intruder - Disgust → tells us to avoid things that may cause illness - Adaptive value of happiness, sadness, embarrassment? Emotions provide useful guide in: - Making quick decisions & - Understanding/ communicating needs & probable actions FEAR SYSTEM OF THE BRAIN - Very old in evolutionary terms - Existed before humans experienced ‘fear’ - To understand fear system, neuroscientists study underlying neural systems evolved as behavioural solutions to problems of survival - Many common psychiatric disorders are ‘emotional’ disorders: o Many of these are related to the brain’s ‘fear system’ o Public Health Service in US: ≈50% of ‘mental’ problems (not related to substance abuse) are anxiety disorders:  Phobias  Panic attacks  Post-traumatic stress disorder  Obsessive compulsive disorder  Generalised anxiety Pathways connecting emotional processing system of fear (amygdala) with the thinking brain (neocortex) are not symmetrical - Connections from neocortex → amygdala are much weaker than those from amygdala → neocortex - This may be why once an emotion is aroused, it is hard for us to turn it off at will Amygdala 69 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 fMRI SHOWING ACTIVATED AMYGDALA (in response to ‘frightful’ faces) EFFECTS OF FACIAL EXPRESSIONS ON AMYGDALA - Response pattern of intracranial event-related potentials (ERPs) recorded from depth- electrodes in the human amygdala - Amygdala presented a preferential response to eyes expressing fear and joy- especially fear - Special role of the amygdala in processing emotions conveyed by the eye region of the face FEAR SYSTEM OF THE BRAIN 70 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 The asymmetry of connections between the amygdala & neocortex: - May help explain why psychotherapy is a difficult & lengthy process Relies on imperfect channels of communication between: - Brain systems involved in cognition & emotion AMYGDALA (Dr Joseph LeDoux) - Most of the time the amygdala is quiet - Amygdala is designed to detect predators - A strong stimulus can result in: o Piloerection (hair standing on end) o Heart racing o Fight/flight hormones flooding body - If rats are threatened they emit very high frequency screams - If another rat hears this scream, a signal goes from auditory cortex (where sounds are processed) directly to amygdala - When these sound waves penetrate rat brain: o Amygdala is instantly activated even though rat does not ‘know’ the sound is coming from another rat Ultrasonic rat vocalisations (>above 20 kHz) - Infant distress calls: Infants cannot regulate their own body temperature & when they are cold they emit high pitched (40 kHz) distress calls - Long distress calls (20 kHz): when unhappy or stressed (e.g. when defeated socially, see a predator, experience/anticipate pain). - Short, chirping calls: higher pitched (50 kHz) & thought to be positive (e.g. during play, courtship, in anticipation of feeding, when tickled by person- laughter?) In humans a visual stimulus (e.g., snake on path) travels to the amygdala in a few thousandths of a second - Human amygdala contains cells that fire in response to: o Expressions of fear on faces of other humans o Objects of fear Thalamus 71 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 EMOTION VS FEELING OF ‘FEAR’ - Amygdala is specialised for reacting to stimuli & triggering physiological response (i.e., emotion of fear) - Different to conscious feeling of fear, which arises from slower 2nd pathway (ear→ amygdala →higher cortex) - Higher cortex analyses frightening stimulus in detail (using info from many parts of brain) & message is sent back down to amygdala PHYSIOLOGY VS FEELING OF ‘FEAR’ - ‘Fear’ is used scientifically in two ways: o Conscious feelings and o Behavioural and physiological responses. - Joseph LeDoux suggests that: o ‘fear’ should denote feelings and o ‘threat-induced defensive reactions’ should be used for responses FEELINGS OF ‘FEAR’ - If fear message is a false alarm: o it’s a stick on the path NOT a snake o Cortex tries to abort amygdala’s alarm signals - But person will have a jolt of fear, because of initial arousal of amygdala TRACING FEAR RESPONSES - When fear circuit is actually traced: o Hippocampus & other ‘limbic’ structures do not play a big role - Amygdala alone sits at centre - Sensory info comes in & motor commands are sent out - Emotion & cognition are separate - Interacting mental functions mediated by separate but interacting brain systems PROBLEMS CONTROLLING EMOTIONS - This ‘double wiring’ creates problems in humans: o Neural connections down from: cortex → amygdala are less well developed than connections up from: amygdala → cortex o Amygdala exerts greater influence on cortex than vice versa:  Once an emotion is ‘turned on’, it’s difficult for cortex to ‘turn it off’ 72 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 AMYGDALA & OTHER EMOTIONS - Fear is just one emotion - Amygdala has 12─15 distinct regions (only 2 clearly implicated in fear) - Other emotions might reside in similar circuits, but this has not been traced yet: o Sexual arousal in rats? o ‘love’ in humans? AMYGDALA & MEMORY HUMAN EMOTION OF FEAR - For traumatic memory, two memory systems are important: o Explicit (conscious) memories:  Mediated by hippocampus & other parts of temporal lobe memory system and  Blood pressure & heart rate rise, begin to sweat & muscles tighten up o Implicit (unconscious) memories:  Mediated by amgydala & neural connections - If return to scene of accident: o You remember accident:  Where you were going, who you were with and  memories may cause your body to respond with ‘fear’ as a result of the accident o Conscious memory of the accident & physiological responses elicited reflect 2 separate memory systems operating in parallel CLASSICAL FEAR CONDITIONING TO STUDY EMOTION - Fear conditioning is used as a behavioural measure of ‘fear’ that humans experience - Studies using lab rats & other mammals have helped map how the fear system of the brain works - Results in all mammal species lead to the same conclusion - Learning & responding to stimuli warning of danger involves: o Neural pathways sending info about the outside → amygdala - Amygdala then determines significance of the stimulus & triggers: 73 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 o Emotional responses (e.g., freezing or fleeing) & o Changes in inner workings of body organs & glands AMYGDALA & FEAR RESPONSES ACROSS SPECIES - Amygdala of reptiles & birds similar functions: o Humans with damage to amygdala (neurological disease or surgery to control epilepsy) show our brains work in the same way - Early in evolution: o Brain wired to produce responses to keep organism alive in dangerous situations o So effective that it is same in rats, humans & other vertebrates FEAR RESPONSES ACROSS SPECIES - Stimuli that trigger fear in rats & humans may be very different, but the brain’s responses to danger appear similar - Therefore, neuroscientists often study other animals to find out how emotional situations are detected & responded to by the brain - In humans, once fear system detects & responds to danger: o Our complex brain assesses what is going on & tries to figure out response o Fear may then result o To be consciously ‘fearful’, you need a complex brain- aware of its own activities o Not clear which other species have this ability AMYGDALA & SLEEP DEPRIVATION ANANDAMIDE: THE ‘BLISS’ MOLECULE - Read about the chemical anandamide and its effect on behaviour: o It is a ‘messenger’ molecule, which influences appetite, memory, pain, depression and even fertility. 74 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 biology of thermoregulation REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS FOR REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE - POIKILOTHERMY o Body temperature fluctuates with environment - ECTOTHERMY o Body heat derived from environment - HOMEOTHERMY o Body temperature remains constant - ENDOTHERMY o Body heat derived from metabolism ENDOTHERMS - “Warm blooded” - Homeotherms: maintain thermal homeostasis or keep body temperature constant irrespective of ambient temperature - Main source of heat is from own body through metabolic activity 75 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 ECTOTHERMS - “Cold blooded” - Poikilotherm: internal temperature varies with ambient environmental temperature (not all ectotherms are poikilotherms) - Main source of heat is from environment THERMOREGULATION - Insulation o Fur o Feathers o Blubber o Colouration - Metabolic heat production/physiological thermoregulation o METABOLIC ACTIVITY  Shivering  Panting  Evaporation of water from respiration and/or sweating o PHYSIOLOGICAL THERMOREGULATION  Altering metabolic generation of heat to regulate temperature  For example: 76 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649  Metabolism increases to raise internal body temperature in a colder environment - Countercurrent heat exchange o Warm and cold blood flow in opposite directions to regulate the temperature (arteries & veins) o Usually around the brain/head region e.g. Leatherback Turtle, Sea Gull - Behavioural thermoregulation o Using posture, orientation and/or microclimate selection to regulate body temperature o e.g. lizard wanting to increase temperature will “spread eagle” (posture) on top of a hot rock (microclimate) & turn its back to the sun (orientation) o OTHER BEHAVIOURS  Torpor, hibernation, estivation  Torpor (mini hibernation): Reduced metabolic activity and body temperature for less than a day (endotherm) e.g. bats, hummingbirds, small Australian marsupials (stripe-faced dunnarts)  Hibernation: Long-term torpor (can be 6 months) occurring in the winter months (endotherms & ectotherms), to conserve energy o e.g. European ground squirrels, adders, some bears  Estivation: Long-term torpor (can be 6 months) occurring in the summer months (ectotherms) to avoid damage from high temperatures (dessication- extreme dryness or drying out) o e.g. lungfish, salamanders, land snails, Australian water- holding frog, cane toads  Timing of activities  NOCTURNAL – active at night o e.g. owl, mice, koala  DIURNAL – active during daytime o e.g. “grazers” – gazelles, elephants  CREPUSCULAR – active at dawn & dusk o e.g. deer, rabbits, most birds, red pandas, cats  CATHEMERAL – active at periods throughout 24-hours o e.g. some lemurs  “Cooling off” techniques  Rolling or wallowing in mud  Taking a “dip” or standing in the water  Going underground, using caves or lying in shade  Flying in high altitudes 77 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Energy Balance: About 50% used for Body Heat BODY TEMPERATURE BALANCE IN HOMEOTHERMS - Metabolic heat production is usually required to maintain balance - Balance is very narrow range, usually higher than environment - Thermo neutral zone represents ambient conditions where heat gain by animal equals heat loss (= thermal comfort; 28-310 C in naked humans) 78 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 THERMOREGULATION HOMEOSTATIC BALANCING OF BODY TEMPERATURE - Peripheral & body core receptors – sense change - HYPOTHALAMIC THERMOREGULATORY CENTER – integrates & initiates: o Shivering o Non-shivering thermogenesis o Vasoconstriction THERMOREGULATION: PREVENTION OF OVERHEATING - SWEAT: evaporates from skin – cooling - Vasodilation of cutaneous vessels transports heat from core - BEHAVIOUR:  activity, exposure to heat THERMOREGULATION: PATHOLOGIES 79 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - HYPERTHERMIA: body temperature too high o Fever: pyrogens fight pathogens o Heat exhaustion (1020F/38.80C) o Heat stroke (1060F/410C) death o Malignant hyperthermia – defective Ca++ release - HYPOTHERMIA: body temperature too low o Metabolism slows loss of consciousness, death o Surgical applications: heart surgery SUMMARY - Eating provides carbohydrates, proteins, & fats for metabolism - Energy is used for body heat & work: transport, synthesis, storage - Metabolic rate changes with age, sex, body fat, activity & diet - Insulin regulates anabolic cell activities & glucose uptake in cells - Maintaining homeothermy takes 50% of our energy - Hypothalamic thermoregulatory center controls heat homeostasis 80 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 biology of hunger 1. Describe factors that influence eating FEEDING STRATEGIES ACROSS SPECIES behaviour (biological, - REPTILES psychological and o Eat a huge meal & sometimes don’t eat again socio-cultural for weeks or months influences) - BEARS THAT HIBERNATE 2. Describe why adult o Huge feasts, ‘fatten up’, periods of humans have problems ‘starvation’ with milk consumption - SMALL BIRDS 3. Describe the Body o Eat what they need & store almost no fat Mass Index (BMI) - HUMANS 4. Understand that there o Eat more than we need is a global problem o Influenced by learned & unlearned with obesity mechanisms 5. Understand how Learning Theory is HUMANS: FACTORS INFLUENCING EATING applied in the "real BEHAVIOUR world" example of 'Hero Rats' for land mine and tuberculosis detection HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - Function of digestive system is to break food down into smaller molecules that cells can use - Glucose is the body’s main ‘fuel’ ADULT PROBLEMS WITH MILK CONSUMPTION - Newborn mammals rely on mother’s milk - After weaning most mammals lose intestinal enzyme lactase─ needed for metabolising lactose (sugar in milk) 81 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 - In humans, about two thirds of adults have low levels lactase (recessive gene) & can eat small amounts dairy but then get cramps or ‘gas’ HUMANS: LEARNING WHAT TO EAT TASTE & DIGESTION CONTROL: HUNGER & SATIETY - ORAL FACTORS o Humans like to eat: like to taste & chew even when not hungry (e.g., chewing gum) - STOMACH & INTESTINES o Main signal to stop eating is distention of stomach: stomach sends satiety messages to brain via:  Vagus nerve (info about stretching stomach walls)  Splanchnic nerves (info about nutrient contents of stomach) o Also stop when duodenum partly distended (part of small intestine adjoining stomach) & hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) limits meal size HUNGER: BASIC PHYSIOLOGICAL NEED Stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger HUNGER: BODY CHEMISTRY - Glucose o Form of sugar that circulates in the blood o Provides major source of energy for body tissues 82 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 o Insulin (a hormone) levels go up, glucose goes down o When level is low, we feel hunger - Set point o An individual’s natural level or “weight thermostat” for weight regulation o When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger & a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight - Basal metabolic rate o Body’s base rate of energy expenditure HUNGER & THE BRAIN The hypothalamus controls eating & other body maintenance functions - The lateral hypothalamus: o Controls:  Insulin secretion  Alters taste responsiveness o Electrical stimulation of this area:  Animal increases eating & food-seeking behaviours o Damage to this area:  Animal refuses food and water as if food distasteful  Animal may starve to death if not force-fed - Ventromedial hypothalamus: o Tumors lead to overeating & weight gain  Alters taste responsiveness - Damage to areas in or around the ventromedial hypothalamus: o Animal has increased appetite, gains lot of weight, then becomes ‘finicky’ eater o Eat normal meals more often (overeat) - Damage to paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus: o Animal eats larger meals (overeat) 83 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|28762649 Hypothalamus monitors appetite hormone levels EATING DISORDERS - OBESITY (considered medical condition) - ANOREXIA NERVOSA (considered psychiatric condition) o Unwilling to eat as much as they need; become extremely thin & may die - BULIMIA NERVOSA (considered psychiatric condition) o Alternate between extreme dieting and binges of overeating - EATING DISORDERS (ALL OF THEM) o Include elements of biology (e.g., hunger) & psychology (e.g., social factors, customs, advertising- think can eat more if ‘low fat’, alcohol with meal increases calories) PSYCHOLOGY OF HUNGER - Factors other than biological ones influence hunger & eating: o Memories of last meal o Taste preferences: cultural o Social eating; trends; food security o Cravings as a result of mood? FEEDING THE PLANET: INSECTS 84 Downloaded by Alexia Jones ([email protected])