Psychology Chapter 6 PDF

**Chapter 6** **Associative Learning** Learning two events are connected\ Conditioning is the process of learning associations. Classical conditioning: learning an association between two stimuli Operant conditioning: learning an association between a behaviour and a consequence **Classical...

**Chapter 6** **Associative Learning** Learning two events are connected\ Conditioning is the process of learning associations. Classical conditioning: learning an association between two stimuli Operant conditioning: learning an association between a behaviour and a consequence **Classical Conditioning** **Phobias:** irrational fears off specific objects or situations **Classical Conditioning:** A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. **Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)** is a stimulus which evokes an unconditioned response without previous learning. **Unconditioned response (UCR)** is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous learning - Conditioned stimulus (CS) the previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. - Conditioned response (CR) is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning **Acquisition:** the likelihood of a neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus depends on factors such as: **stimuli novelty:** novel stimuli more likely to become CS **stimulus contiguity:** the temporal (time) association between two events **Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life** **-** taste aversions\ - conditioned fear/anxiety\ - music and conditioned responses\ - emotional responses to places/objects - advertisement\ - therapies **Extinction:** the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.\ CS is presented alone. **Counter-conditioning:** CS is paired with a new UCS, one that will elicit a much different (often opposite) response. **Spontaneous Recovery:** the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus e.g., Suppose Little Albert underwent extinction training so that the CS (rat) reverted back to an NS\...but then one day, out of the blue, he fears rats again (this is most likely if he were to return to the original lab where he acquired the fear). **'renewal effect':** Recovery of a conditioned response when an organism is placed in a novel context. e.g. suppose Little Albert's extinction training took place in a clinician's office and was further was maintained in his home\...but then he his family movesto another city. **Evaluative Conditioning:** change in the evaluation of a [neutral stimulus (NS)] that is learned through pairing it with either a positive or negative [unconditioned stimulus (UCS).] Through this association, it becomes a [conditioned stimulus (CS),] eliciting a positive or negative emotional response. Explaining unintended drug effects: **For example, caffeine use:** Caffeine (USC) elicits a stimulant effect (UCR), which increases blood pressure. However, there is a second parallel physiological effect, called a compensatory response (which is also a UCR), working to decrease blood pressure. So, suppose day after day, you drink coffee each morning from your favourite mug. The mug (CS) comes to elicit a compensatory response (CR) even before you take a sip of the coffee. What if you swallowed a caffeine tablet instead of drinking the coffee? Or what if it's cocaine instead of coffee and a person injects it in a totally different setting than usual? (Also, can you see how decafcoffee may have a stimulant effect without the caffeine?) **Operant Conditioning** When behaviour comes to be controlled by its consequences B.F. Skinner \"It\'s all a matter of consequences\" Organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favourable consequences. **Basic Terms and Processes in Operant Conditioning** **Reinforcement:** when an event following a response increases an organisms\'s tendency to make that response. **\ Punishment:** when an event following a response decreases an organisms\'s tendency to make that response. **Acquisition:** formation of a new response tendency through associating behaviour with consequence. Associative learning: the association is between the behaviour and the consequence. **Positive versus Negative Reinforcement** **Positive reinforcement:** when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus **Negative reinforcement:** when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus e.g., attending to a new baby when she cries\ Note: BOTH TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT STRENGTHEN A RESPONSE TENDENCY A. **Escape learning**: an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation B. **Avoidance learning**: an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring. Avoidance tends to be long lasting. C. **Two process theory** of learning explains why phobias are highly resistant to extinction. **Delayed vs. Immediate Reinforcement\ ** Learning occurs best when the reinforcement is delivered immediately after the response. This also applies to punishment. **Extinction**: gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. However, there is the problem of: **Resistance to extinction:** an organism continues to make a response even after reinforcement has been terminated. Resistance to extinction depends on the nature of the reinforcement schedule. Resistance to extinction depends primarily upon: **Reinforcement schedules**: a specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.\ 1. continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF)\ 2. intermittent/partial reinforcement schedule (IRF or PRF). Greater resistance with partial/intermittent. **Types of Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedules:** **2 ways to stop the kid from having a tantrum in the store** 1\. **Ratio**: require organism to make the designated response a certain number of times to gain the reinforcer. a\) fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses (McDonald's coffee cards, buy a certain number of coffees and get one free) b\) variable-ratio schedule: reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses (Tims cups, you might get something every so many cups) **Interval Schedules:** requires a time interval to pass between deliveries of the reinforcement **a) fixed-interval schedule:** response is rewarded after a fixed time interval has passed.\ **b) variable-interval schedule:** response is rewarded after a variable time interval has passed. **Extinction Burst**: when reinforced on a variable ratio schedule, behaviour may get worse before it gets better when reinforcement is withdrawn. **Spontaneous recovery** may also happen after extinction training in operant conditioning. 2\. **Punishment** occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response e.g. Time-out (although this is often coupled with extinction since, in many cases, you are simultaneously withdrawing the reinforcement) **Alternative 1 to Punishment**: reinforce the incompatible competing behaviour. Instead of punishing a child for leaving her desk, reinforce her for sitting at her desk. **Alternative 2**: The Premack Principle **The Premack principle:** requires that engaging in a high frequency behaviour (something you like doing and do frequently) is contingent upon first engaging in the low frequency behaviour (something you want to increase in frequency). Example: Something you like to do: watch YouTube. Something you'd like to do more of: read With this principle, you must read x number of pages before you watch the videos. **Shaping**: the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response. **Discriminative stimulus**: a stimulus that signifies a reinforcement or punishment is likely. **Stimulus generalization **in operant conditioning occurs when a learner engages in the target behavior in response to different but similar stimuli NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE STUDY OF CONDITIONING Biological Constraints on Conditioning **Preparedness**: \"an organism may be more or less prepared by the evolution of its species to associate a given CS and UCS or a given response with an outcome\" **In humans - taste aversions.** May also apply to some phobias. Evidence: snakes, houses and shock\ Practical Applications e.g., coyotes and sheep **Observational Learning** - Imitation or modelling - Many birds and mammals learn by observing others. 82 **Processes Involved in Observational Learning** **Biological Constraints** - Preparedness - Taste aversion - If an organism gets sick after eating a food, the organism often develops a long-term aversion to that food. - A single pairing of CS-UCS normally does not produce long term learning.