Biochemistry.pdf

Biochemistry Alkanes - The study of the chemical H-H Alkanes have the general substances found in living - Share 1 pair valence formula CnH2n+2 where n = organisms and the chemical electron...

Biochemistry Alkanes - The study of the chemical H-H Alkanes have the general substances found in living - Share 1 pair valence formula CnH2n+2 where n = organisms and the chemical electrons 1,2….. interactions of these - Long bond length Contains single bond substances with each other. - weakest Alkanes are known as - Lowest Reactivity saturated hydrocarbons Biochemical Substances because they contain the Is a chemical substance O=O maximum number of found within a living organism - Share 2 pair valence hydrogen atoms that can electrons bond with the number of Chemistry - Medium bong length atoms present - is the scientific discipline - Intermediate Strength Alkanes are valuable as concerned with the atomic - Medium Reactivity fuels because they burn and composition and structure of release energy substances and the reactions N-/=N Melting point and boiling they undergo. - Share 3 pair valence point values of alkane rises at electrons the carbon chain increases Atom - Short bond length - Is the smallest particle of - Strongest Alkenes an element that has the - Highest reactivity Alkenes have the general chemical characteristics of formula CnH2n where n = that element. Atoms are the Covalent Bond 1,2….. basic particles of the -A covalent bond results Contain double bonds chemical elements. An atom when a pair of electrons is Alkenes are insoluble in consists of a nucleus of shared between them water and soluble in organic protons and generally solvents like benzene or neutrons, surrounded by an Organic Chemistry acetone electromagnetically bound The branch of chemistry Alkenes exist in 3 states. swarm of electrons. that deals with carbon First 3 alkenes are gases, compounds next 14 are liquids and higher 3 types of chemical bonds The study of the structure, alkenes are solids - Ionic Bond properties, composition, Melting point and boiling - Covalent Bond reactions and preparation of point values of alkene - Metallic Bond carbon-containing compound depends on its molecular structure Ionic Bond Functional Groups Alkynes - Metal Atoms Donates A group of atoms that is Alkynes have the general electron to non- mental largely responsible for the formula CnH2n-2 where n = atoms chemical behavior of the 1,2….. parent molecule. Contain triple bonds and Covalent Bond are unsaturated - Two non-metal atom share Aliphatic Hydrocarbons hydrocarbons electrons - Compounds whose carbon Alkynes are insoluble in atoms are arranged in chains water and soluble in organic Metallic Bond whether straight or branched solvents like benzene or - Electrons Move freely acetone between metal atoms Aromatic Hydrocarbons Aldehydes contained the Esters are common Aromatic Hydrocarbons are carbonyl functional group solvents circularly structured organic C=O compounds that contain It has a formula of RCOH Amines single and double bonds where R is a hydrocarbon or Lower aliphatic amines These compounds exhibit aromatic group have a fishy odor aromaticity or additional Aldehydes are important Simple amines are soluble stability because of the precursor during organic in water resonance synthesis, especially by Examples of amines are When burnt, aromatic acting as an electrophile amino acids, trimethylamine, hydrocarbons display as biogenic amine and aniline. trong and sooty flame Ketones Aldehydes contained the Occurrence and functions Hydrocarbons Derivatives carbonyl functional group of carbohydrates Hydrocarbon derivatives are C=O - Most Abundant class of formed from hydrocarbons, It has a formula of RCOR’ bioorganic molecules on but at least one of the where R and R’ are a planet earth hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon or aromatic - Abundance of hydrocarbon derivative is group carbohydrates in human body substituted with a different Ketone are usually used my is relatively how compare to atom organs and tissues as an the 75% by mass of dry alternative source of energy plants materials Alcohols - The average human diet Alcohols contained the Carboxylic Acids should ideally be about two- hydroxyl functional group It has a formula of RCOOH thirds carbohydrate by mass –OH where R is a hydrocarbon or It has a formula of R - OH aromatic group Carbohydrates Function to where R are a hydrocarbon Colorless liquids with Humans or aromatic group disagreeable odors - Carbohydrate oxidation Soluble in water because of Acetic acid or vinegar is the provides energy the hydroxyl group most common example of - Carbohydrate storage, in Higher boiling point carboxylic acid form of glycogen, provides a Boiling point of carboxylic short term energy reserve Ethers acids are the same with - carbohydrate supply carbon Ethers contained R - O -R’ alcohols with the same molar atoms for the synthesis of linkage where R and R’ are a mass other biochemical substances hydrocarbon or aromatic (proteins, lipids and nucleic group Esters acids) Soluble in water because of It has a formula of RCOOR’ - Carbohydrates form part of the oxygen atom that forms where R and R’ are a the structural framework of hydrogen bonding with hydrocarbon or aromatic DNA and RNA molecules hydrogen atoms group - Carbohydrates linked to Boiling points of ether are Esters have pleasant smells lipids are structural the same with alkanes that Esters are the functional components of cell have a comparable molar group responsible for the membranes mass aroma of many fruits. - Carbohydrates linked to Esters are insoluble in proteins function in a variety Aldehydes water but soluble in inorganic of cell-cell and cell molecules compounds recognition process.  - based on the number of Chirality Carbohydrate carbon atoms - Characteristics of an object - Is a polyhydroxy aldehyde, - Based on the functional that are mirror image but are a polyhydroxy ketone or a group not superimposed. compound that yields - Based on their chirality or polyhydroxy aldehydes or distinguishing between a D or D (Dextrorotatory Compound) polyhydroxy ketones upon L compound - Is a chiral compound that hydrolysis rotates the plane polarized Based on the number of light in a CLOCKWISE 4 Classification of carbon atoms DIRECTION. Carbohydrates - Triose - Monosaccharides - Tetrose L( Levorotatory Compound) - Disaccharide - Pentose - Is a chiral compound that - Oligosaccharide - Hexose rotates the plane polarized -polysaccharide light in a COUNTER Triose CLOCKWISE DIRECTION. Monosaccharides - Contains 3 carbon atoms - Is a carbohydrates that Tetrose What are the D’s that contains a single polyhydroxy - Contains 4 carbon atoms important in aldehyde or polyhydroxy Pentose Monosaccharides? ketone. - Contains 5 Carbon atoms - D- Glyceraldehyde Hexose - Dihydroxyacetone Disaccharide - Contains 6 carbon atoms - D- Glucose - Is a carbohydrates that - D- Galactose contains two monosaccharide Triose - D - Fructose units covalently bonded to - D-Glyceraldehyde - D - Ribose each other. Tetrose - D-Threose D- Glyceraldehyde and Oligosaccharide Pentose Dihydroxyacetone - Is a carbohydrates that - D- Ribose - Simplest form of contains three to ten Hexose carbohydrates monosaccharide units - D- Glucose - These two trioses are covalently bonded to each important high energy other. 2 Based on the functional intermediate in the process of group or TYPE OF glycolysis Polysaccharide MONOSACCHARIDES - Glyceraldehyde in the body - is a polymeric carbohydrate - Aldose is converted into that contains many - Ketose glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate monosaccharides units by the enzyme covalently bonded to each Aldose glyceraldehyde kinase. other. - A monosaccharide that -Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate contains an aldehyde is a high-energy intermediate Monosaccharide functional group that provides the body with a - Simplest form of way of extracting energy to carbohydrate Ketose make ATP, which can then be - A monosaccharide that used to power other Classifying contains a ketone functional metabolic functions, such as Monosaccharides group muscle contraction. D-Glucose Reactions of There are multiple ways to - Also called as “dextrose” monosaccharides draw structural formula such and “Blood sugar” - Oxidation to produce Acidic as: - Most abundant Sugars 1. Lewis Structure - Most monosaccharides in nature - Reduction to produce Sugar common and most important from Alcohol 2. Condensed Formulas human nutritional standpoint - Glycoside Formation 3. Skeletal formulas - Cells use glucose as a - Phosphate Ester formation 4. Newman Projections primary source of energy - Amino Sugar Formation 5. Cyclohexane - Insulin and glucagon are conformations hormones that keeps the 6. Haworth projections glucose blood concentration Oxidation to produce Acidic 7. Fischer projections within normal range. Sugars - Weak oxidizing agent, Fischer Structure D- Galactose Oxidize a monosaccharide to - Mostly used for linear - In humans body,galactose form an acidic sugar monosaccharides is synthesized from glucose in the mammary glands for Acidic Sugar - Is a Haworth Projection use in lactose (milk sugar) a monosaccharide with a - Is a common way of to disaccharide carboxyl group at one end or represent the cyclic structure - Also called as “Brain Sugar” both ends of its chain. of monosaccharides with a - because it is a components simple 3D perspective. in glycoproteins found in Reduction to Produce Sugar brain and nerve tissue. Alcohols Glycoside Formation - The carbonyl group present - Is an acetal formed from a D- Fructose in a monosaccharide (either cyclic monosaccharide by - Fund in many fruits and aldose or ketose) can be replacement of the present in honey in equal redacted to a hydroxyl group, hemiacetal carbon -OH group amounts with glucose using hydrogen as a reducing with an -OR group - Also known as “Levulose” agent. - Digi Toxins, the active and “fruit sugar” Sugar Alcohol components of the digital - Sometimes used as a - Also called “alditols”. these preparations used for dietary sugar because less is are polyhydroxy alcohols that treatments of heart disease, needed for the same amount are products of the reduction is a glucoside consisting of a of sweetness. D-glucitol known by common steroid alcohol linked to a name D- Sorbitol trisaccharide. These 3 sugars D- Ribose Used ad moisturizing agent in are also linked to one another - Is a components of a variety foods and cosmetics by Glucoside bonds. of complex molecules, Also used as sweetening including nucleic acids agent in chewing gum Phosphate Ester Formation (RNAs) and energy-rich - Phosphate esters of compound such as Structural form glucose are stable in adenosine triphosphate - is a graphic representation aqueous solution and play an (ATP) of the molecular structure important role in metabolism showing how the atoms of carbohydrates. “Deoxy” possible arranged in the real - Minus an oxygen three-dimensional space Amino Sugar Formation - Amino Sugars are monosaccharides where one or more of the hydroxyl - Is made up of B-D groups -OH have been Galactose unit and a D- Storage Polysaccharides replaced with Amino -NH2 Glucose unit joined by a - Is a polysaccharide that is a groups. glycosidc linkage storage form for monosaccharides and is Disaccharides Sucrose used as an energy souce in - Formed When two - Sucrose is a disaccharide cells. monosaccharides are joined that is composed of one unit - Osmotic Pressure depends by glycosidic linkage of glucose and one of on the number of individual fructose that are formed by molecules present. Glycosidic linkage glycosidic linkage - Is the bond between two - Commonly known as “table Starch monosaccharides resulting sugar” - It is energy-storage from the reaction between Invert Sugar polysaccharide in plants the hemiacetal carbon atom - A glucose and fructose -OH group of one produce from hydrolysis or Glycogen monosaccharide and an -OH digestion of fructose - Liver cells and muscle are group of the other the storage sites for glycogen monosachharide. Oligisaccharides in humans. - Are carbohydrates that Disaccharide contain three to ten Glycogenesis and 1. Maltose monosaccharides units Glycogenolysis 2. Cellobiose bonded to each other via - Liver and Muscle tissue 3. Lactose glycoside linkage (human Convert the excess glucose 4. Sucrose being) to glycogen which is stored in - these the tissues. Maltose oligosaccharides,when - Also called as “malt Sugar” ingested in food,pass Structural Polysaccahired - Produced whenever the undigested into the large - Is a polysaccharide that polysaccharide starch breaks intestine, where bacteria act serves as a structural down upon them. elements in plant cell walls - Enzyme maltase and - Humans lack the digestive and animal exoskeletons isomaltase present in small enzyme necessary to intestine break down maltose metabolize either raffinose or 2 important structural into two glucose unit which stachyose. polysaccharides are absorbed 1. Cellulose - Used in alcohol production Polysaccharide 2. Chitin for fermentation - A polymer that contains many monosaccharide units Cellulose Cellobiose bonded to each other by - The most Abundant - Cannot be disgusted by glycosidic linkage. naturally occurring humans or fermented by - Alternative name for a polysaccharide yeast because it lack the polysaccharides is “glycan” - The structural component of enzyme cellobiose that -Most Abundant plant cell breaks the glucose-glucose carbohydrates found in food. - Serves as a dietary fiber linkage of it. - The “woody” portion of 1. Storage Polysaccharides plants like stem, stalks and Lactose 2. Structural Polysaccharides trunks have particularly high - Also called “ milk sugar” 3. Acidic Polysaccharides concentrations of cellulose.  the cell membrane of another Chitin Simplex carbohydrate cell. - Function is to give rigidity to - is a dietary monosaccharide - The lipid or protein of a the exoskeletons of crabs, or disaccharide glycolipid or glycoprotein is lobsters, shrimp, insects and - Refereed to as a sugars incorporated into the cell other arthropods membrane structure and the - 2nd most abundant 2 sugar of simplex carbohydrate naturally occurring carbohydrates (oligosaccharide) part polysachharide. Natural Sugars functions as marker on the - Naturally present in whole outer cell membrane surface. Acidic Polysachharide foods - Is a polysaccharide with a Refined Sugars Glycolipids and disaccahride repeating unit - Sugar that has been Glycoproteins: Cell which one of the disaccharide separated from its plant recognition components is an amino source - In human reproductive sugar and one or both process a binding interaction disaccaride components has Complex Carbohydrate between: a negative charge due to - Not generally sweet to taste sulfate group or a carboxyl - Is a dietary polysaccharide group. Lipids - Involved in a variety of Glycolipids And - Also known as “Fats” cellular functions and tissues Glycoproteins: Cell - Is an organic compound recognition found in living organisms that 2 important acidic is insoluble (or sparingly polysaccharides Glycolipds soluble) in water but soluble 1. Hyaluronic Acid - A lipid molecule that has in non polar organic solvents. 2. Heparin one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units Lipids Hyaluronic Acid covalently bonded to it. Lipids have a great - Hyaluronic Acid solutions - Glycolipids called structural diversity are highly viscous and serve cerebrosides and The defining parameter for as lubricants in the fluids of gangliosides occur lipids is their solubility joints. extensively in brain tissue. All are insoluble in water Heparin Glycoprotein 2 Methods for subclassifying - Both Monosachharides of - Is a protein molecule that Lipids into families heparin contain two has one or more A. Based on Biochemical negatively charged acidic carbohydrate (or function groups carbohydrate derivative) 1. Energy Storage - Heparin is a blood - Glycoproteins called Lipids anticoagulant immunoglobulins are key (triacyglycerols) - It prevents the formation of components of the body’s 2. Membrane Lipids clots in the blood and retards immune system response to (phospolipids, the growth of existing clots invading foreign materials. sphingoglycolipids within the blood. and cholesterol) Cell recognitions 3. Emulsification Lipids 2 Dietary Considerations and - Involves the interaction (bile acids) Carbohydrates between the carbohydrate 4. Messenger Lipids 1. Simple Carbohydrate marker of one cell and a (steroid hormones 2. Complex Carbohydrate protein or lipid that is part of and eicosanoids)  5. Protective-coating 2. Fatty acids are soluble in lipids (biological Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA) organic solvents such as waxes) - Is a fatty acid with a carbon benzene and alcohol chain in which all 3. Solubility is inversely B. Based upon whether or carbon-carbon bonds are proportional to carbon chain not a lipid can be broken single length, solubility is increasing down into smaller units as carbon chain length through basic hydrolysis Monounsaturated fatty acid decreases and decreasing as 1. Saponfiable Lipids (MUFA) the carbon chain length (triacylglycerols, - Is a fatty acid with a carbon increases. phospholipids, chain in which one 4. Long chain saturated fatty sphingoglycolipids and carbon-carbon double bond acids are solid at room biological waxes) is present temperature, while long chain - saponifiable lipids are - Fatty acid present in unsaturated fatty acids are converted into 2 or more naaturally occuring lipids liquids at room temperature smaller molecules when almost always have the 5. Boiling points of saturated hydrolysis occurs following characteristics fatty acids keep rising with 2. Nonsaponifiable lipids 1. An unbranched carbon increasing carbon chain (cholesterol, steroid chain length hormones, bile acids and 2. An even number of carbon eicosanoids) atoms in the carbon chain Cell Membrane -nonsaponifiable lipids cannot 3. Double bonds are in cis - Is a lipid-based structure be broken up into 2 or more configuration that separate a cell’s smaller units since they do - These fatty acids differ from aqueous-based interior from not react with water. one another in the length of the aqueous environment their carbon chains, degree surrounding the cell In carbohydrate: of unsaturation (double bond) - A cell membrane controls -Monosaccharides are the and the position of the double the movement of substances basic structural unit, or bonds in the chains. into and out of the cell building block from which - 80% of the mass of a cell carbohydrate molecules are membrane is a lipid made. consisting primarily of three Polyunsaturated fatty acid types of membrane lipids In Lipids: (PUFA) - Fatty acid are the most - Is a fatty acid with a carbon 3 Types of Membrane Lipid frequently encountered lipid chain in which two or more 1. Phospholipids building block carboncarbon double bond is 2. Glycolipids - Is a naturally occurring present. 3. Cholesterol monocarboxylic acid - They are rarely found free in Physical Properties of Fatty Phospholipids nature but rather occur as Acids - is a lipid that contains one part of the structure of a more - Are largely determined by or more fatty acids, a complex lipid molecules the length and degree of phosphate group and a unsaturation of the fatty acid platform molecule. Types of Fatty Acids carbon chain - The platform molecule is 1. Saturated fatty acids 1. Fatty acids are insoluble in where the fatty acids and the 2. Monounsaturated fatty water phosphate group are acids attached, and an alcohol that 3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids is attached to the phosphate Sphingophospholipids have 2. There are no glycerol nor group. the same “head and 2 tails” sphingosone is present as structure like the platform molecule. Glycerophospholipids glycerophospholipids - Structure of Cholesterol Glycerophospholipids is a Sphingomyelins – are choline - Cholesterol is a steroid lipid that contains 2 fatty where the alcohol in acids and a phosphate group sphingophospholipids Steroid – is a lipid whose esterified to a glycerol esterified to phosphate group structure is based on a fused molecule and an alcohol ring system that involves esterified to the phosphate Spingogycolipids/ Glycolipids three 6-membered rings and group. – is a lipid that contains both one 5-membered ring - This are glycerol based a fatty acid, a carbohydrate phospholipids. group attached to -Cholesterol is a C27 steroid - Functions almost sphingosine molecule. molecule that is a component exclusively as components of of cell membranes and a cell membranes. Cerebrosides precursor for other - Simplest sphingoglycolipids steroid-based lipids Polar - Contain a single -Cholesterol regulates fluidity - Compatible with water monosaccharide unit either and permeability. - Soluble with water glucose or galactose - The structural portion of a - Occurs in the brain and - Cholesterol do not have the glycerophospholipad is said also present in the myelin “head and two” tails found in to be hydrophilic (water sheath of nerves. other membrane lipids loving) - The lack of large polar head Gangliosides cause the cholesterol to have Nonpolar - A complex limited solubility with water - Not compatible with water sphingoglycolipids - Insoluble with water - Contain a branched chain Cholesterol in human body - the structural portion of a single of up to seven - Cholesterol found in cell glycerophospholipid is said to monosaccharide residues membranes, nerve tissue, be hydrophobic (water - Substances occurs in the brain tissue and virtually all fearing) gray matter of the brain and fluids also present in the myelin - Every 100mL of human sheath of nerves. blood plasma contains about Sphingophospholipids Cholesterol 50mg of free cholesterol. - Structure of - The third major types of Cholesterol sources: sphingophospholipids is a membrane lipids 1. Obtained from dietary lipid that contains one fatty - A specific compound rather intake acid, one phosphate group than a family of compounds 2. Biosynthesized by the liver attached to a sphingosine like the phospholipids and and the intestine molecule and an alcohol sphingoglycolipids. - Ingested cholesterol attached to the phosphate decreases biosynthetic group Cholesterol structure is cholesterol production Sphingosine – have different: - However, the reduction is structure based on the 18 1. There are no fatty acid less than the amount carbon monounsaturated residues present ingested aminodialcoho - Therefore, total body cholesterol levels increase with increased dietary intake secondary sex characteristics water-insoluble substances of cholesterol. at the onset of puberty and as colloidal particles in an for regulation of the aqueous solution Cholesterol in the body is menstrual cycle - Emulsifiers are materials distributed throughout the - Also stimulate the that stabilizes an emulsion body for various uses via development of the bloodstream mammary glands during Bile Salts pregnancy. - Made of bile acids that are Lipoproteins – conjugated with glycine or cholesterol-protein Androgens(testosterone) taurine combinations, where protein - Synthesized in the testes - Produced in the liver directly is a carrier system of and adrenal cortex and from cholesterol cholesterol for its distribution. promote the development of - Important in solubilizing male secondary sex dietary fats in the water Lipoproteins characteristics environment of the small 1. LDLs – low-density - Promote muscle growth intestine. lipoproteins 2. HDLs – high-density Progesterone(progesterone) Bile Acid - is a cholesterol lipoproteins. - Synthesized in the ovaries derivative that functions as a and the placenta and prepare lipid-emulsifying agent in the Messenger Lipids: Steroid the lining of the uterus for aqueous environment of the Hormones implantation of the fertilized digestive tract Hormone ovum - is a biochemical substance, - Suppresses ovulation Bile - The medium where the produced by a ductless bile acids are supplied to the gland, that has a messenger 2 Subclasses of small intestine function Adrenocorticoid Hormones - Is a fluid containing - Serve as a mean of 1. Mineralocorticoids – emulsifying agent that is communication between control the balance of Na secreted by the liver, stored various tissues anions and K cations in cells in the gallbladder, and Steroid hormone – is a and body fluids released into the small hormone that is a cholesterol 2. Glucocorticoids – control intestine during digestion derivative glucose metabolism and - Is made up of bile acids, counteract inflammation bile pigments, cholesterol and electrolytes such as 2 Major classes of steroid Emulsification Lipids: Bile bicarbonate ion. hormones Acids 1. Sex hormones Messenger Lipids: 2. Adrenocortical hormones What is emulsification? Eicosanoids - The process of combining - Is an oxygenated Sex Hormones two immiscible liquids into as C20-fatty-acid derivative that Estrogen (estrodiol) single mixture functions as a messenger - Synthesized in the ovaries - Emulsification has to ensure lipid and adrenal cortex (the outer the physiochemical stability - The term eicosanoid is part of the adrenal glands, of the product derived from Greek word which are located on the top eikos, which means “twenty” of each kidney) What is emulsifier? - Responsible for the - A substance that can - Eicosanoids are development of female disperse and stabilize hormone-like molecules rather than true hormones - Leukotrienes are found in because they are not leukocytes (white blood cells) transported in the blood - Various inflammatory and stream hypersensitivity (allergy) - They exert their effects in responses are associated tissues where they are with level of leukotrienes synthesized - They have profound physiological effects at extremely low temperature -They have very short “life” being broken down, often within seconds of their synthesis to inactive residues. 3 Principal types of eicosanoids: 1. Prostaglandins 2. Thromboxane 3. Leukotrienes Prostaglandins - s a messenger lipid that is a C20-fatty acid derivative that contains a cyclopentane ring and oxygen-containing functional groups Thromboxane - Is a messenger lipid that is a C20-fatty acid derivative that contains a cyclic ether ring and oxygen-containing functional groups - Important function of thromboxane is to promote the formation of blood clots - Thromboxane are produced by blood platelets and promote platelet aggregation Leukotrienes - Is a messenger lipid that is a C20-fatty acid derivative that contains three conjugated double bonds and hydroxy groups