BIM Handbook - 2018 - PDF

BIM Handbook Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Engineers, Contractors, and Facility Modeling for Owners, Designers, A Guide to Building Information BIM Handbook Charles Eastman Paul Teicholz Rafael Sacks Ghang Lee Third Edition Managers Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License This book is printed on acid-free paper. ♾ Copyright © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and the author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accu- racy or completeness of the contents of this book and speciﬁcally disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or ﬁtness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any loss of proﬁt or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information about our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Names: Sacks, Rafael, author. | Eastman, Charles M., author. | Lee, Ghang, author. | Teicholz, Paul M., author. Title: BIM handbook : a guide to building information modeling for owners, designers, engineers, contractors, and facility managers / by Rafael Sacks, Charles Eastman, Ghang Lee, Paul Teicholz. Description: Third edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identiﬁers: LCCN 2018001037 (print) | LCCN 2018001340 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119287544 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119287551 (epub) | ISBN 9781119287568 (oBook) | ISBN 9781119287537 (cloth) Subjects: LCSH: Building information modeling—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Building—Computer simulation—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Building management—Data processing—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Communication in the building trades—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Architectural practice—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Architects and builders—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Construction industry—Information resources management—Handbooks, manuals, etc. Classiﬁcation: LCC TH437 (ebook) | LCC TH437.E22 2018 (print) | DDC 690.0285—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018001037 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: Courtesy Mortenson Set in 10/12pt and LifeLTStd by SPi Global, Chennai, India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents Foreword to the Third Edition xvii Preface xxi CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 1.0 Executive Summary 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 The Current AEC Business Model 2 1.2.1 Design-Bid-Build 4 1.2.2 Design-Build 6 1.2.3 Construction Management at Risk 7 1.2.4 Integrated Project Delivery 7 1.2.5 What Kind of Building Procurement Is Best When BIM Is Used? 9 1.3 Documented Inefﬁciencies of Traditional Approaches 9 1.3.1 CIFE Study of Construction Industry Labor Productivity 10 1.3.2 NIST Study of Cost of Construction Industry Inefﬁciency 12 1.4 BIM: New Tools and New Processes 13 1.4.1 BIM Platforms and Tools 13 1.4.2 BIM Processes 14 1.4.3 Deﬁnition of Parametric Objects 17 1.4.4 Support for Project Team Collaboration 17 1.5 BIM as a Lifecycle Platform 18 1.6 What Is Not a BIM Platform? 19 1.7 What Are the Beneﬁts of BIM? What Problems Does It Address? 20 1.7.1 Preconstruction Beneﬁts to Owner 21 1.7.2 Beneﬁts for Design 21 1.7.3 Construction and Fabrication Beneﬁts 23 1.7.4 Post Construction Beneﬁts 25 1.8 BIM and Lean Construction 25 v Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License vi Contents 1.9 What Challenges Can be Expected? 28 1.9.1 Challenges with Collaboration and Teaming 28 1.9.2 Legal Changes to Documentation Ownership and Production 29 1.9.3 Changes in Practice and Use of Information 29 1.9.4 Implementation Issues 29 1.10 Future of Designing and Building With BIM 30 1.11 Case Studies 30 Chapter 1 Discussion Questions 31 CHAPTER 2 Core Technologies and Software 32 2.0 Executive Summary 32 2.1 The Evolution to Object-Based Parametric Modeling 33 2.1.1 Early 3D Modeling 34 2.1.2 Degrees of Parametric Modeling 44 2.1.3 Predeﬁned versus User-Deﬁned Parametric Objects and Libraries 45 2.2 Beyond Parametric Shapes 48 2.2.1 Property and Attribute Handling 48 2.2.2 Drawing Generation 50 2.2.3 Scalability 52 2.2.4 Object Management and Links 53 2.2.5 Some Commonly Asked Questions 55 2.3 BIM Environments, Platforms, and Tools 57 2.3.1 Considerations for BIM Design Applications 60 2.3.2 Considerations for a BIM Environment 62 2.4 BIM Model Quality and Model Checking 62 2.5 BIM Platforms 64 2.5.1 Allplan 65 2.5.2 ArchiCAD 66 2.5.3 Bentley Systems 68 2.5.4 DESTINI Proﬁler 69 2.5.5 Digital Project 70 2.5.6 Revit 72 2.5.7 Tekla Structures 73 2.5.8 Vectorworks 74 2.5.9 AutoCAD-Based Applications 75 2.6 Design Review Applications 76 2.6.1 Model Viewers 77 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents vii 2.6.2 Model Integration Tools 79 2.6.3 Model Checkers 80 2.7 Conclusion 82 Chapter 2 Discussion Questions 83 CHAPTER 3 Collaboration and Interoperability 85 3.0 Executive Summary 85 3.1 Introduction 86 3.2 Different Kinds of Data Exchange Methods 88 3.3 Background of Product Data Models 95 3.3.1 Modeling Languages 95 3.3.2 ISO-STEP in Building Construction 96 3.3.3 buildingSMART and IFC 100 3.3.4 What Is the IFC? 100 3.3.5 IDM and MVD 105 3.4 Other Efforts Supporting Standardization 107 3.4.1 buildingSMART Data Dictionary 107 3.4.2 OmniClass 107 3.4.3 COBie 108 3.4.4 XML-Based Schemas 110 3.5 The Evolution from File-Based Exchange to BIM Servers 112 3.5.1 Project Transactions and Synchronization 113 3.5.2 Functionality of BIM Servers 118 3.5.3 BIM Server Review 121 3.6 Interfacing Technologies 124 3.6.1 Semi-Automated Approaches 125 3.6.2 Semantic Approaches 126 Chapter 3 Discussion Questions 128 CHAPTER 4 BIM for Owners and Facility Managers 130 4.0 Executive Summary 130 4.1 Introduction: Why Owners Should Care About BIM 131 4.2 Owner’s Role in a BIM Project 133 4.2.1 Design Assessment 133 4.2.2 Complexity of Building Infrastructure and Building Environment 139 4.2.3 Sustainability 140 4.2.4 Public Construction Agencies: BIM Adoption Guidelines 140 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License viii Contents 4.3 Cost and Time Management 142 4.3.1 Cost Management 142 4.3.2 Time to Market: Schedule Management 144 4.3.3 Facility and Information Asset Management 148 4.3.4 BIM Tool Guide for Owners 149 4.3.5 BIM Cost Estimating Tools 150 4.3.6 Facility and Asset Management Tools 150 4.3.7 Operation Simulation Tools 154 4.4 An Owner and Facility Manager’s Building Model 154 4.4.1 Information Content of BIM-FM Model 154 4.4.2 Alternative Approaches to Creating a BIM-FM Model 155 4.4.3 Classiﬁcation of Model Data and Standards 157 4.5 Leading the BIM Implementation on a Project 160 4.5.1 Develop Guidelines for Use of BIM on Projects 162 4.5.2 Build Internal Leadership and Knowledge 164 4.5.3 Service Provider Selection 165 4.5.4 Provide for Use of a “Big Room” for Design and Construction 167 4.6 Barriers to Implementing BIM: Risks and Common Myths 167 4.7 Issues for Owners to Consider when Adopting BIM 171 Chapter 4 Discussion Questions 173 CHAPTER 5 BIM for Architects and Engineers 175 5.0 Executive Summary 175 5.1 Introduction 177 5.2 Scope of Design Services 179 5.2.1 Collaborative Forms of Project Delivery 180 5.2.2 The Concept of Information Development 182 5.2.3 Civil and Infrastructure Design 184 5.3 BIM Use in Design Processes 186 5.3.1 Concept Design 187 5.3.2 Prefabrication 197 5.3.3 Analysis, Simulation, and Optimization 197 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents ix 5.3.4 Construction-Level Building Models 204 5.3.5 Design-Construction Integration 211 5.3.6 Design Review 212 5.4 Building Object Models and Libraries 215 5.4.1 Embedding Expertise into Building Components 216 5.4.2 Object Libraries 217 5.4.3 BOM Portals 220 5.4.4 Desktop/LAN Libraries 221 5.5 Considerations in Adoption for Design Practice 223 5.5.1 Justiﬁcation and Platform Selection 223 5.5.2 Phased Utilization 225 Chapter 5 Discussion Questions 226 CHAPTER 6 BIM for Contractors 228 6.0 Executive Summary 228 6.1 Introduction 230 6.2 Types of Construction Firms 231 6.3 Information Contractors Want from BIM 232 6.4 BIM-Enabled Process Change 234 6.4.1 Leaner Construction 234 6.4.2 Less Paper in Construction 236 6.4.3 Increased Distribution of Work 237 6.5 Developing a Construction Building Information Model 237 6.5.1 Production Detailing 239 6.5.2 Big Room Co-location On-site 240 6.6 Using a Contractor Building Information Model 241 6.7 3D: Visualization and Coordination 243 6.8 4D: Construction Analysis and Planning 245 6.8.1 4D Models to Support Construction Planning 246 6.8.2 Beneﬁts of 4D Models 249 6.8.3 BIM Tools with 4D Capability 250 6.8.4 BIM-Supported Planning and Scheduling Issues and Guidelines 254 6.9 5D: Quantity Takeoff and Cost Estimating 255 6.9.1 Extracting Quantities from BIM Models for Estimating 257 6.9.2 Guidelines and BIM Implementation Issues to Support Quantity Takeoff and Estimating 258 6.10 Production Planning and Control 260 6.11 Off-site Fabrication and Modular Construction 261 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License x Contents 6.12 BIM in the Field 263 6.12.1 Delivering Design Information to the Field 263 6.12.2 Coordinating Production 267 6.12.3 Surveying Site Conditions 268 6.13 Cost and Schedule Control and Other Management Functions 270 6.14 Commissioning and Turnover 272 Chapter 6 Discussion Questions 273 CHAPTER 7 BIM for Subcontractors and Fabricators 275 7.0 Executive Summary 275 7.1 Introduction 276 7.2 Types of Subcontractors and Fabricators 278 7.2.1 Subcontractor Trades 279 7.2.2 Made-to-Stock and Made-to-Order Component Suppliers 280 7.2.3 Engineered-to-Order Component Fabricators 281 7.2.4 Design Service Providers and Specialist Coordinators 282 7.2.5 Full-Service Design-Build Prefabricated and Modular Construction 283 7.3 The Beneﬁts of a BIM Process for Subcontractor Fabricators 283 7.3.1 Marketing and Tendering 285 7.3.2 Reduced Production Cycle Times 286 7.3.3 Reduced Design Coordination Errors 287 7.3.4 Lower Engineering and Detailing Costs 291 7.3.5 Increased Use of Automated Manufacturing Technologies 292 7.3.6 Increased Preassembly, Prefabrication, and Modular Construction 293 7.3.7 Quality Control, Supply Chain Management, and Lifecycle Maintenance 296 7.4 Generic BIM System Requirements for Fabricators 298 7.4.1 Parametric and Customizable Parts and Relationships 298 7.4.2 Reporting Components for Fabrication 302 7.4.3 Interface to Management Information Systems 303 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents xi 7.4.4 Interoperability 303 7.4.5 Information Visualization 304 7.4.6 Automation of Fabrication Tasks 304 7.5 Speciﬁc BIM Requirements for Fabrication 305 7.5.1 Traditional ETO Component Fabricators 306 7.5.2 Modular Construction 314 7.5.3 3D Printing and Robotic Construction 315 7.6 Adopting BIM in a Fabrication Operation 317 7.6.1 Setting Appropriate Goals 317 7.6.2 Adoption Activities 318 7.6.3 Planning the Pace of Change 320 7.6.4 Human Resource Considerations 321 Chapter 7 Discussion Questions 322 CHAPTER 8 Facilitators of BIM Adoption and Implementation 323 8.0 Executive Summary 323 8.1 Introduction 324 8.2 BIM Mandates 324 8.2.1 Signiﬁcance of Government BIM Mandates 325 8.2.2 The Status of Government BIM Mandates around the World 325 8.2.3 Motivations 327 8.2.4 BIM Requirements 328 8.2.5 Challenges and Considerations 329 8.3 BIM Roadmaps, Maturity Models, and Measures 330 8.3.1 BIM Roadmaps 330 8.3.2 BIM Maturity Models 335 8.3.3 BIM Measures 339 8.4 BIM Guides 340 8.4.1 BIM Guides by Region and Organization 340 8.4.2 BIM Guides by Topic 342 8.5 BIM Education and Training 345 8.5.1 Transition of Senior Staff 346 8.5.2 BIM Roles and Responsibilities 346 8.5.3 Industry Training and Certiﬁcate Programs 349 8.5.4 University Education Programs 355 8.5.5 Considerations for Training and Deployment 356 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xii Contents 8.6 Legal, Security, and Best Practice Issues 358 8.6.1 Legal and Intellectual Property Issues 358 8.6.2 Cyber Security for BIM 360 8.6.3 Best Practices and Other Social Issues 361 Acknowledgments 361 Chapter 8 Discussion Questions 362 CHAPTER 9 The Future: Building with BIM 364 9.0 Executive Summary 364 9.1 Introduction 366 9.2 BIM Before 2000: Predicting Trends 367 9.3 Development and Impact of BIM: 2000 to 2017 370 9.3.1 Impact on Owners: Better Options, Better Reliability 371 9.3.2 Impact on the Design Professions 373 9.3.3 Impact on Construction Companies 373 9.3.4 Impact on Building Material and Component Suppliers 374 9.3.5 Impact on Construction Education: Integrated Education 374 9.3.6 Impact on Statutory Authorities: Model Access and Review 375 9.3.7 Impact on Project Documentation: On-Demand Drawings 375 9.3.8 Impact on BIM Tools: More Integration, More Specialization, More Information 376 9.4 Current Trends 376 9.4.1 Process Trends 377 9.4.2 Technology Trends 381 9.4.3 Integrative Process and Technology Trends 382 9.4.4 Trends in BIM Research 383 9.4.5 Obstacles to Change 385 9.5 Vision 2025 386 9.5.1 Thoroughly Digital Design and Construction 387 9.5.2 A New Culture of Innovation in Construction 388 9.5.3 Off-site Construction 389 9.5.4 Construction Regulation: Automated Code-Checking 390 9.5.5 Artiﬁcial Intelligence in Construction 391 9.5.6 Globalization 393 9.5.7 Support for Sustainable Construction 393 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents xiii 9.6 Beyond 2025 394 Acknowledgment 397 Chapter 9 Discussion Questions 397 CHAPTER 10 BIM Case Studies 398 10.0 Introduction 398 Acknowledgments 401 10.1 National Children’s Hospital, Dublin 405 10.1.1 Introduction 405 10.1.2 Motivation for the Project 406 10.1.3 The Building 406 10.1.4 The NCH Project 407 10.1.5 The BIM Execution Plan (BEP) 408 10.1.6 Visualization, Simulation, and Design Optimization 412 10.1.7 Summary of BIM Beneﬁts 418 Acknowledgments 419 10.2 Hyundai Motorstudio Goyang, South Korea 419 10.2.1 Project Overview 419 10.2.2 Complex Spatial Arrangement: BIM-Based Design Coordination 422 10.2.3 Free-Form Patterned Exterior: Panelization 423 10.2.4 Mega Truss Structure: Laser Scanning 426 10.2.5 Perception Gap between Participants: VR and 4D Simulation 430 10.2.6 Needs for Schedule Reduction: Multi-trade Prefabrication 433 10.2.7 Lessons Learned and Conclusion 436 Acknowledgments 437 10.3 Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris 437 10.3.1 Introduction 437 10.3.2 Project Design Workﬂow and Software Technology 438 10.3.3 Design of the Structure and Sails 441 10.3.4 Model Analyses 442 10.3.5 Generative Detailing Using 3D Intelligent Components 443 10.3.6 Concrete Iceberg Panelization and Optimization for Fabrication 445 10.3.7 Fabrication of the Glass Sails 446 10.3.8 Integrated Use of the BIM Model 448 10.3.9 Lessons Learned 449 10.3.10 Conclusion 450 Acknowledgments 451 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xiv Contents 10.4 Dongdaemun Design Plaza, Seoul, South Korea 451 10.4.1 Introduction 451 10.4.2 Challenges during the Design Phase 452 10.4.3 Challenges during the Construction Phase 456 10.4.4 BIM to Fabrication 460 10.4.5 Lessons Learned 464 10.4.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook 467 Acknowledgments 468 10.5 Saint Joseph Hospital, Denver 468 10.5.1 Organizational Structure and the Collaboration Agreement 469 10.5.2 The BIM Execution Plan 471 10.5.3 Simulations and Analyses 474 10.5.4 BIM Support for Prefabrication 474 10.5.5 Ensuring Metrics Help Inform Future Efforts 477 10.5.6 Risk and Safety Beneﬁts of BIM and Prefabrication 478 10.5.7 BIM in the Field 479 10.5.8 BIM for Facility Management 479 10.5.9 Lessons Learned: Best Practices 480 Acknowledgments 481 Online Sources 481 10.6 Victoria Station, London Underground 482 10.6.1 History 482 10.6.2 The Project 483 10.6.3 Engineering Challenges 487 10.6.4 The Role of BIM 488 10.6.5 BIM Beneﬁts to the Project 497 10.6.6 Postscript 498 Acknowledgments 498 10.7 Nanyang Technological University Student Residence Halls, Singapore 499 10.7.1 Introduction 499 10.7.2 Project Overview 499 10.7.3 Project Organization/Management 503 10.7.4 PPVC Workﬂow 503 10.7.5 BIM Implementation 508 10.7.6 Parametric PPVC Library 509 10.7.7 Beneﬁts Realization 518 10.7.8 Conclusion and Lessons Learned 520 Acknowledgments 522 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Contents xv 10.8 Mapletree Business City II, Singapore 522 10.8.1 Introduction 522 10.8.2 Communication and Collaboration Issues 528 10.8.3 BIM Coordination Meetings 529 10.8.4 BIM Execution Planning 532 10.8.5 Data Exchange 532 10.8.6 Productivity Gains 533 10.8.7 Innovative Uses of BIM 535 10.8.8 Simulation and Analysis 541 10.8.9 BIM in the Field 544 10.8.10 Conclusion 552 Acknowledgments 554 10.9 Prince Mohammad Bin Abdulaziz International Airport, Medina, UAE 554 10.9.1 Project Information 554 10.9.2 Novel/Innovative Use of BIM 555 10.9.3 Communication and Collaboration 558 10.9.4 Stakeholder Involvement 559 10.9.5 Risk 561 10.9.6 BIM in the Field 566 10.9.7 Lessons Learned: Problems, Challenges, Solutions 567 10.9.8 Conclusion and Future Outlook 573 Acknowledgments 574 10.10 Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland 574 10.10.1 Introduction 574 10.10.2 Background 575 10.10.3 The Challenges 576 10.10.4 An FM-Capable BIM 577 10.10.5 Impact Analysis Using an FM-Capable BIM 580 10.10.6 Lessons Learned Thus Far 582 10.10.7 The Path Forward 583 Acknowledgments 583 10.11 Stanford Neuroscience Health Center, Palo Alto, California 584 10.11.1 Introduction 584 10.11.2 Project Details 586 10.11.3 The Pilot 587 10.11.4 Making the Case 588 10.11.5 The Journey 589 10.11.6 The Team 589 10.11.7 Executing the Pilot 591 10.11.8 Use Case Metrics 594 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 607 600 605 608 613 613 614 623 639 10.11.11 BIM Costs and Impact on Annual 10.11.13 Conclusion and Future Outlook 10.11.9 Results of Use Cases 10.11.10 Summary of Beneﬁts Acknowledgments 10.11.12 Lessons Learned Budget References Glossary Index Contents xvi Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Foreword to the Third Edition Designers and builders have struggled for centuries to describe three- dimensional buildings on two-dimensional paper, and their contractor partners have struggled to interpret the same drawings when constructing a building. Occasionally very complex parts of signiﬁcant buildings were described using a three-dimensional mockup, a smaller version of what was to be built. Brunelleschi created a detailed mockup for his magniﬁcent dome at the Cathedral of Florence, and Bartholdi prepared mockups at different scales for his Statue of Liberty. Architects then and today build study models to better understand their designs and presentation models to help clients understand how the ﬁnished building will look, but these models have little utility in helping the contractor to build. As an architect, I was trained to describe buildings with drawings on paper. But buildings have three dimensions while paper has two dimensions, result- ing in compromises. Drawings traditionally described size and shape, so other information about the building better described in words evolved as speciﬁ- cations, companions to drawings. The purpose of drawings and speciﬁcations was to provide adequate information for the contractor to build the building. Early computers allowed architects to design electronically using Computer-Aided Design (CAD). However, this system was limited to two dimensions and not much of an improvement over drawing by hand. Improved computers at last allowed architects to design buildings in three dimensions using an electronic building model, called 3D CAD. These early efforts to electronically model buildings in three dimensions were helpful, but they were only a beginning. Electronic building models began with architects, but soon engineers, con- tractors, and building owners began to dream of adding other useful informa- tion to the electronic Building Model, and the word Information was inserted in the center of Building Model to become Building Information Model (BIM). It is appropriate that Information occupies the central place in BIM, for the rapidly-evolving use of Information is the main driver of a revolution in the building industry. The Building Model origins of BIM are still important but can now be viewed as a small part of the ocean of Information becoming available for use. Information-rich BIM has enabled dramatic change in the processes for designing and building, with big changes just beginning in how buildings are operated for their useful lifetime. xvii Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xviii Foreword to the Third Edition This Third Edition of the BIM Handbook distills the ocean of BIM informa- tion into a well-organized, clearly written and illustrated book describing the technology and processes supporting BIM and the business and organizational imperatives for implementation. Architects, engineers, contractors, subcontractors, fabricators, and suppli- ers will gain an understanding of the advantages of effective BIM use. Building owners and operators will learn about business advantages generated by effec- tive BIM use. Academic institutions will ﬁnd the BIM Handbook an essential aid for teaching and research. The ﬁrst chapter provides an overview of the book, including building industry trends, the business imperative for BIM adoption, and challenges to implementation. Subsequent chapters survey BIM trends in detail for each building industry participant, and include a summary at the beginning and a list of questions at the end suitable for teaching. Chapter 9, “The Future: Building with BIM” is an ambitious but well-informed look at what we can expect in the near and midterm future. It highlights the nature of the BIM revolution, explaining “the shift from paper drawing to computer drawing was not a paradigm change: BIM is.” The authors predict that by 2025 we will see thoroughly digital design and construction processes; growth of a new culture of innovation in construction; diverse and extensive off-site prefabrication; strong progress in automated code- compliance checking; increased application of artiﬁcial intelligence; global- ization of fabrication in addition to design; and continued strong support for sustainable construction. The ﬁnal chapter includes eleven detailed case studies in the design and construction industry that demonstrate BIM effectiveness for feasibility stud- ies, conceptual design, detail design, estimating and coordination during con- struction, off-site prefabrication and production control, and BIM support for facility operation and maintenance. Authoring a book chronicling the evolution of BIM with depth of detail, yet with clarity and purpose, is a major accomplishment. Yet three of the authors of this third edition of the BIM Handbook—Rafael Sacks, Chuck Eastman, and Paul Teicholz—have collaborated to accomplish this great feat three times (the ﬁrst edition was published in 2008, followed by the second edition in 2011, both with Kathleen Liston). In this new edition, Professor Ghang Lee of Yonsei University in Seoul, South Korea, has joined the team. Each has been a keen observer and participant in the BIM revolution, and all have collaborated over many years. Chuck Eastman is a world leading authority on building modeling and has been active in the ﬁeld since the mid-1970s. He was trained as an architect at the Berkeley CED, where he focused on tool development for practitioners with early versions of Building Information Modeling. He initiated the PhD program at Carnegie Mellon University and founded ACADIA, the North American Academic Building Modeling Conference Group. He joined UCLA for eight years before coming to Georgia Tech, where he has been a professor and direc- tor of the Digital Building Laboratory. I have known Chuck for many years and Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Foreword to the Third Edition xix worked with him to advise the Charles Pankow Foundation, which supports research and innovation in the building industry. Paul Teicholz is professor emeritus of civil engineering at Stanford University. He saw the potential for computers to revolutionize the construc- tion industry as a graduate student at Stanford when programming was still done using punch cards. In 1963, he became the ﬁrst in the country to receive a PhD in construction engineering and has more than 40 years of experience applying information technology to the AEC industry. In 1988, Paul was invited back to Stanford to create the Center for Integrated Facility Engineer- ing (CIFE), a collaboration between the Civil and Environmental Engineering and Computer Science Departments. He served as the center’s director for the next decade, during which CIFE scholars developed computerized tools to signiﬁcantly improve the AEC industry. Rafael Sacks is a professor in the Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engi- neering at the Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, in Haifa, Israel, where he leads the Virtual Construction Lab. He earned a bachelor’s degree in 1983 from the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, a master’s degree in 1985 from MIT, and a PhD in 1998 from the Technion in Israel, all in civil engineer- ing. In 2000, after a career in structural engineering, software development, and consulting, he returned to academia, joining the Technion as a member of fac- ulty. Rafael’s research interests extend from BIM to Lean Construction, and he is also the lead author of “Building Lean, Building BIM: Changing Construction the Tidhar Way.” Ghang Lee is a professor and the director of the Building Informatics Group (BIG) in the Department of Architecture & Architectural Engineering at Yonsei University in Seoul, Korea. He earned his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in 1993 and 1995 from Korea University, Seoul, Korea, and a PhD in 2004 from the Georgia Institute of Technology. Before his PhD studies he worked at a construction company and founded a dot-com company. In addition to publishing numerous BIM-related papers, books, and international standards, Ghang has developed various software and automation tools such as xPPM, a tower crane navigation system, a smart exit sign system, the global BIM dashboard, and the construction listener. He serves as a technical advisor to several government and private organizations in Korea and other countries. It has been a pleasure to review the BIM Handbook prior to writing this Foreword. It will be of great value to everyone in the building industry who needs to understand the BIM revolution and its far-reaching effects on practi- tioners, owners, and society at large. Patrick MacLeamy, FAIA CEO and Chairman, HOK (retired) Founder and Chairman, buildingSMART International Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Preface This book is about the process of design, construction, and facility management called building information modeling (BIM). It provides an in-depth under- standing of BIM technologies, the business and organizational issues associated with its implementation, and the profound impacts that effective use of BIM can provide to all parties involved in a facility over its lifetime. The book explains how designing, constructing, and operating buildings with BIM differs from pursuing the same activities in the traditional way using drawings, whether paper or electronic. BIM is changing the way buildings look, the way they function, and the ways in which they are built. Throughout the book, we have intentionally and consistently used the term “BIM” to describe an activity (meaning building information modeling), rather than an object (building information model). This reﬂects our belief that BIM is not a thing or a type of software but a socio-technical system that ultimately involves broad process changes in design, construction, and facility management. At a minimum, BIM systems function at the level of the organization (manifested as a construction project, company, or owner organization) shown in Figure 00–01. Perhaps most important is that BIM creates signiﬁcant opportunity for soci- ety at large to achieve more sustainable building construction processes and higher performance facilities with fewer resources and lower risk than can be achieved using traditional practices. Why a BIM Handbook? Our motivation in writing this book was to provide a thorough and consolidated reference to help students and practitioners in the construction industry learn about this exciting approach, in a format independent of the commercial inter- ests that guide vendors’ literature on the subject. There are many truths and myths in the generally accepted perceptions of the state of the art of BIM. We hope that The BIM Handbook will help reinforce the truths, dispel the myths, and guide our readers to successful implementations. Some well-meaning deci- sion makers and practitioners in the construction industry at-large have had disappointing experiences after attempting to adopt BIM, because their efforts and expectations were based on misconceptions and inadequate planning. If this book can help readers avoid these frustrations and costs, we will have succeeded. Collectively, the authors have a wealth of experience with BIM, both with the technologies it uses and the processes it supports. We believe that BIM xxi Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xxii Preface.... Better Higher Contexts Performance Society Social Levels Community Emerge Organization Socio-technical Community System Group Requirements Levels Emerge Human-computer interaction Personal Requirements Socio-Technical Software Information Requirements Requirements Hardware Physical Requirements Requirements ﬂow down FIGURE 00–01 Socio-technical levels. © Brian Whitworth, Alex P. Whitworth, and First Monday. This image appeared as Figure 1 in “The Social Environment Model: Small Heroes and the Evolution of Human Society” by Brian Whitworth and Alex P. Whitworth, published in First Monday (Volume 15, Number 11, November 2010), at http://ﬁrstmonday.org/article/view/3173/2647; http://dx.doi.org/10.5210/fm.v15i11.3173. represents a paradigm change that will have far-reaching impacts and beneﬁts, not only for those in the construction industry but for society at large, as better buildings are built that consume fewer materials and require less labor and capital resources and that operate more efﬁciently. We make no claim that the book is objective in terms of our judgment of the necessity for BIM. At the same time, of course, we have made every effort to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the facts and ﬁgures presented. Who is the BIM Handbook for, and what is in it? The BIM Handbook is addressed to building developers, owners, project man- agers, operators, facility managers, and inspectors; to architects, engineers of all disciplines, construction contractors, and fabricators; and to students of architecture, civil engineering, and building construction. It reviews building information modeling and its related technologies, its potential beneﬁts, its costs, and needed infrastructure. It also discusses the present and future inﬂu- ences of BIM on regulatory agencies; legal practice associated with the building industry; and manufacturers of building products. It is directed at readers in these areas. A rich set of BIM case studies is presented in Chapter 10, and more, from the earlier editions of the book, are available on the BIM Handbook This book is accompanied by a book companion site: www.wiley.com/go/bimhandbook3e. Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Preface xxiii companion website. The case studies describe various BIM processes, plat- forms, tools, and technologies. Current and future industry and societal impacts are also explored. The book has four sections: Chapters 1, 2, and 3 provide an introduction to BIM and the technolo- gies that support it. These chapters describe the current state of the construction industry, the potential beneﬁts of BIM, the technologies underlying BIM including parametric modeling of buildings, and inter- operability. Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7 provide discipline-speciﬁc perspectives of BIM. They are aimed at owners and facility managers (Chapter 4), designers of all kinds (Chapter 5), general contractors (Chapter 6), and subcon- tractors and fabricators (Chapter 7). Chapter 8 discusses facilitators of BIM: BIM standards, guides and contracts, BIM education, and organizational change. Chapter 9 deals with potential impacts and future trends associated with the advent of BIM-enabled design, construction, and operation of buildings. Current trends are described and extrapolated through the year 2025, as are forecasts of potential long-term developments and the research needed to support them beyond 2025. Chapter 10 provides eleven detailed cases studies of BIM in the design and construction industry that demonstrate its use for feasibility studies, conceptual design, detail design, estimating, detailing, coor- dination, construction planning, logistics, operations, and many other common construction activities. The new case studies in Chapter 10 include buildings with signature architectural and structural designs (such as the Louis Vuitton building and the Hyundai Motorstudio), complex hospital projects (Saint Joseph Hospital in Denver, Dublin’s New Children’s Hospital, and the Stanford Neuroscience Center) as well as a wide range of fairly common buildings (a shopping mall, an ofﬁce building, a student residence, an airport terminal, and a laboratory building). There is also a study of a complex infrastructure project: the Victoria Station upgrade for the London Underground. What’s new in this edition? BIM is developing rapidly, and it is difﬁcult to keep up with the advances in both technology and practice. There have been many changes since we completed the second edition, fully seven years ago. To name a few: Extensive adoption by government and other public owners, with a plethora of BIM mandates, guides, standards, execution plans, and more. The beneﬁts of integrated practice are receiving wide review and being tested intensively in practice. BIM tools are increasingly used to support sustainable design, construc- tion, and operation. Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License xxiv Preface BIM integration with lean design and construction methods, with many new software tools to support the new workﬂows and management practices. Models have become accessible in the ﬁeld, with strong impact on the ways in which work is done. Off-site prefabrication and modular construction are beneﬁtting from the quality of information BIM provides, and growing rapidly. BIM is being used for operations and maintenance, and owners can now clearly state their information requirements when buildings are delivered. Laser-scanning, photogrammetry, and drones are all common terms now in construction projects. AI, machine-learning, and semantic enrichment are at the forefront of the BIM research agenda. This edition not only addresses these themes and updates the material related to the BIM applications; it also introduces sections on new technologies, and it includes eleven new case studies. How to use the BIM Handbook Many readers will ﬁnd the Handbook a useful resource whenever they are con- fronted with new terms and ideas related to BIM in the course of their work or study. A thorough ﬁrst reading, while not essential, is of course the best way to gain a deeper understanding of the signiﬁcant changes that BIM is bringing to the AEC/FM industry. The ﬁrst section (Chapters 1–3) is recommended for all readers. It gives a background to the commercial context and the technologies for BIM. Chapter 1 lists many of the potential beneﬁts that can be expected. It ﬁrst describes the dif- ﬁculties inherent in traditional practice within the U.S. construction industry and its associated poor productivity and higher costs. It then describes vari- ous approaches to procuring construction, such as traditional design-bid-build, design-build, and others, describing the pros and cons for each in terms of realizing beneﬁts from the use of BIM. It describes newer integrated project delivery (IPD) approaches that are particularly useful when supported by BIM. Chapter 2 details the technological foundations of BIM, in particular paramet- ric and object-oriented modeling. The history of these technologies and their current state of the art are described. The chapter then reviews the leading commercial application platforms for generating building information mod- els. Chapter 3 deals with the intricacies of collaboration and interoperability, including how building information can be communicated and shared from profession to profession and from application to application. The relevant stan- dards, such as IFC (Industry Foundation Classes) and IDM (Information Deliv- ery Manual), BIM server technologies (a.k.a. common data environments), and other data interfacing technologies are covered in detail. Chapters 2 and 3 can also be used as a reference for the technical aspects of parametric modeling and interoperability. Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Preface xxv Readers who desire speciﬁc information on how they can adopt and implement BIM in their companies can ﬁnd the details they need in the relevant chapter for their professional group within Chapters 4–7. You may wish to read the chapter closest to your area of interest and then only the executive summaries of each of the other chapters. There is some overlap within these chapters, where issues are relevant to multiple professions (for example, subcontractors will ﬁnd relevant information in Chapters 6 and 7). These chapters make frequent reference to the set of detailed case studies provided in Chapter 10. Chapter 8 is an entirely new chapter. It discusses facilitators of BIM includ- ing BIM mandates, roadmaps, guides, education, certiﬁcates, and legal issues. Those who wish to learn about the long-term technological, economic, organizational, societal, and professional implications of BIM and how they may impact your educational or professional life will ﬁnd an extensive discus- sion of these issues in Chapter 9. The case studies in Chapter 10 each tell a story about different profes- sionals’ experiences using BIM on their projects. No one case study represents a “complete” implementation or covers the entire building lifecycle. In most cases, the building was not complete when the study was written. But taken together, they paint a picture of the variety of uses and the beneﬁts and prob- lems that these pioneering ﬁrms have already experienced. They illustrate what could be achieved with existing BIM technology at the start of the twenty-ﬁrst century. There are many lessons learned that can provide assistance to our read- ers and guide practices in future efforts. Finally, students and professors are encouraged to make use of the study questions and exercises provided at the conclusion of each chapter. Acknowledgments Naturally, we are indebted ﬁrst and foremost to our families, who have all borne the brunt of the extensive time we have invested in this book over the years. Our thanks and appreciation for the highly professional work of Margaret Cummins, our executive editor, Purvi Patel, our project editor, and their colleagues at John Wiley and Sons. Our research for the book was greatly facilitated by numerous builders, designers, and owners, representatives of software companies and government agencies; we thank them all sincerely. We especially thank the contributors and correspondents who worked with us to prepare the all new case stud- ies, and their efforts are acknowledged personally at the end of each relevant case study. The case studies were also made possible through the very generous contributions of the people who participated in the projects themselves, who corresponded with us extensively and shared their understanding and insights. Finally, we are grateful to Patrick MacLeamy for his excellent foreword to this, the third edition. Likewise, we remain indebted to Jerry Laiserin and to Lachmi Khemlani for their enlightening forewords to the ﬁrst and second editions respectively. Jerry helped initiate the original idea for The BIM Hand- book, and Lachmi continues to make signiﬁcant contributions to BIM through her publication of AECbytes. Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Building Information Modeling (BIM) has become established as an invaluable process enabler for modern architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC). With BIM technology, one or more accurate virtual models of a building are constructed digitally. They support all the phases of design, allowing better analysis and control than manual processes. When completed, these computer models contain precise geometry and data needed to support the construction, fabrication, and procurement activities through which the building is realized, operated, and maintained. BIM also accommodates many of the functions needed to model the lifecycle of a building, providing the basis for new design and construction capabilities and changes in the roles and relationships among a project team. When adopted well, BIM facilitates a more integrated design and construction process that results in better-quality buildings at lower cost and reduced project duration. BIM can also support improved facility management (FM) and future modiﬁcations to the building. The goal of this book is to provide the necessary knowledge to allow a reader to understand both the technology and the business processes that underlie productive use of BIM. BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information Modeling for Owners, Designers, Engineers, Contractors, and Facility Managers, Third Edition. Rafael Sacks, Charles Eastman, Ghang Lee and Paul Teicholz. 1 © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 2 Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter begins with a description of existing construction practices, and it documents the inefﬁciencies inherent in these methods. It then explains the technology behind BIM and recommends ways to best take advantage of the new business processes it enables for the entire lifecycle of a building. It concludes with an appraisal of various problems one might encounter when converting to BIM technology. 1.1 INTRODUCTION To better understand the signiﬁcant changes that BIM introduces, this chapter begins with a description of paper-based design and construction methods and the predominant business models traditionally used by the construction indus- try. It then describes various problems associated with these practices, outlines what BIM is, and explains how it differs from 2D and 3D computer-aided design (CAD). We brieﬂy describe the kinds of problems that BIM can solve and the new business models that it enables. The chapter concludes with a presentation of the most signiﬁcant problems that may arise when using the technology, which, despite some 20 years of commercial application, is still evolving. 1.2 THE CURRENT AEC BUSINESS MODEL Traditionally, the facility delivery process has been fragmented and dependent on communication using 2D drawings. Errors and omissions in paper doc- uments often cause unanticipated ﬁeld costs, delays, and eventual lawsuits between the various parties in a project team. These problems cause friction, ﬁnancial expense, and delays. Efforts to address such problems have included alternative organizational structures such as the design-build method; the use of real-time technology, such as project websites for sharing plans and docu- ments; and the implementation of 3D CAD tools. Though these methods have improved the timely exchange of information, they have done little to reduce the severity and frequency of conﬂicts caused by the use of paper documents or their electronic equivalents. One of the most common problems associated with 2D-based communi- cation during the design phase is the considerable time and expense required to generate critical assessment information about a proposed design, includ- ing cost estimates, energy-use analysis, structural details, and so forth. These analyses are normally done last, when it is already too late to make important changes to the design. Because these iterative improvements do not happen during the design phase, value engineering must then be undertaken to address inconsistencies, which often results in compromises to the original design. Regardless of the contractual approach, certain statistics are common to nearly all large-scale projects ($10 M or more), including the number of people Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 1.2 The Current AEC Business Model 3 involved and the amount of information generated. The following data was compiled by Maged Abdelsayed of Tardif, Murray & Associates, a construction company located in Quebec, Canada (Hendrickson, 2003): Number of participants (companies): 420 (including all suppliers and sub-sub-contractors) Number of participants (individuals): 850 Number of different types of documents generated: 50 Number of pages of documents: 56,000 Number of bankers’ boxes to hold project documents: 25 Number of 4-drawer ﬁling cabinets: 6 Number of 20-inch diameter, 20-year old, 50-feet-high, trees used to generate this volume of paper: 6 Equivalent number of megabytes of electronic data to hold this volume of paper (scanned): 3,000 MB It is not easy to manage an effort involving such a large number of people and documents, regardless of the contractual approach taken. Figure 1–1 illus- trates the typical members of a project team and their various organizational boundaries. Owner Design/Engineer Organization Organization Outside Organizations Facility (not typically part of AEC team, but Owner Facility Architect/ Structural Managers sometimes participants in meetings) Users Designer Engineer Construction Manager Community Insurer Financial Scheduler Estimator Contractor Government Building Subcontractor Fabricator Manufacturer Agencies Organization Supplier Subcontractor Organizations FIGURE 1–1 Conceptual diagram representing an AEC project team and the typical organizational boundaries. Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 4 Chapter 1 Introduction There are three dominant contract methods in the United States: Design- Bid-Build (DBB), Design-Build (DB), and Construction Management at Risk (CM@R). There are also many variations of these (Sanvido and Konchar, 1999; Warne and Beard, 2005). A fourth method, quite different from the ﬁrst three, called “Integrated Project Delivery (IPD)” is becoming increasingly popular with sophisticated building owners. These four approaches are now described in greater detail. 1.2.1 Design-Bid-Build A signiﬁcant percentage of buildings are built using the DBB approach. The two major beneﬁts of this approach are more competitive bidding to achieve the lowest possible price for an owner and less political pressure to select a given contractor. (The latter is particularly important for public projects.) Figure 1–2 schematically illustrates the typical DBB procurement process as compared to the typical CM@R and DB processes (see Section 1.2.2) In the DBB model, the client (owner) hires an architect, who then develops a list of building requirements (a program) and establishes the project’s design objectives. The architect proceeds through a series of phases: schematic design, design development, and contract documents. The ﬁnal documents must ful- ﬁll the program and satisfy local building and zoning codes. The architect either hires employees or contracts consultants to assist in designing struc- tural, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning), piping, and plumbing components. These designs are recorded on drawings (plans, elevations, 3D visualizations), which must then be coordinated to reﬂect all of the changes as they are identiﬁed. The ﬁnal set of drawings and speciﬁcations must contain sufﬁcient detail to facilitate construction bids. Because of potential liability, an architect may choose to include fewer details in the drawings or insert FIGURE 1–2 Schematic diagram of Design-Bid- Owner Owner Owner Build, CM at Risk, and Design-Build processes. CM at Design Designer GC Designer Risk Builder Design Trade Design Trade Design Trade Subs Subs Subs Subs Subs Subs Design-Bid-Build (DBB) CM at Risk Design-Build (DB) Contracts Communication Contractual Coordination Requirements Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 1.2 The Current AEC Business Model 5 language indicating that the drawings cannot be relied on for dimensional accu- racy. These practices often lead to disputes with the contractor, as errors and omissions are detected and responsibility and extra costs reallocated. Stage two involves obtaining bids from general contractors. The owner and architect may play a role in determining which contractors can bid. Each con- tractor must be sent a set of drawings and speciﬁcations that are then used to compile an independent quantity survey. Contractors use these quantities, together with the bids from subcontractors, to determine their cost estimate. Subcontractors selected by the contractors must follow the same process for the parts of the project that they are involved with. Because of the effort required, contractors (general and subcontractors) typically spend approximately 1 per- cent of their estimated costs in compiling bids.1 If a contractor wins approxi- mately one out of every 6 to 10 jobs that they bid on, the cost per successful bid averages from 6 to 10 percent of the entire project cost. This expense then gets added to the general and subcontractors’ overhead costs. The winning contractor is usually the one with the lowest responsible bid, including work to be done by the general contractor and selected subcon- tractors. Before work can begin, it is often necessary for the contractor to redraw some of the drawings to reﬂect the construction process and the phasing of work. These are called general arrangement drawings. The subcontractors and fabricators must also produce their own shop drawings to reﬂect accurate details of certain items, such as precast concrete units, steel connections, wall details, piping runs, and the like. The need for accurate and complete drawings extends to the shop draw- ings, as these are the most detailed representations and are used for actual fabrication. If these drawings are inaccurate or incomplete, or if they are based on drawings that are out-of-date or contain errors, inconsistencies, or omis- sions, then expensive, time-consuming conﬂicts will arise in the ﬁeld. The costs associated with these conﬂicts can be signiﬁcant. Inconsistency, inaccuracy, and uncertainty in design make it difﬁcult to fabricate materials off-site. As a result, most fabrication and construction must take place on-site and only after exact conditions are established. On-site con- struction work is costlier, more time-consuming, and prone to produce errors that would not occur if the work were performed in a factory environment where productivity is higher, work is safer, and quality control is better. Often during the construction phase, numerous changes are made to the design as a result of previously unknown errors and omissions, unanticipated site conditions, changes in material availabilities, questions about the design, new client requirements, and new technologies. These need to be resolved by the project team. For each change, a procedure is required to determine the cause, assign responsibility, evaluate time and cost implications, and address how the issue will be resolved. This procedure, whether initiated in writing or 1This is based on two of the authors’ personal experience in working with the construction industry. This cost includes the expense of obtaining bid documents, performing quantity takeoff, coordi- nating with suppliers and subcontractors, and the cost estimating processes. Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by National University Of Singapore Nus Libraries, Wiley Online Library on [19/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 6 Chapter 1 Introduction with the use of a web-based tool, involves a Request for Information (RFI), which must then be answered by the architect or other relevant party. Next, a Change Order (CO) is issued, and all impacted parties are notiﬁed about the change, which is communicated together with needed changes in the draw- ings. These changes and resolutions frequently lead to legal disputes, added costs, and delays. Website products for managing these transactions do help the project team stay on top of each change, but because they do not address the source of the problem, they are of marginal beneﬁt. Problems also arise whenever a contractor bids below the estimated cost in order to win the job. Faced with the “winner’s curse,” contractors often abuse the change process to recoup losses incurred from the original bid. This, of course, leads to more disputes between the owner and the project team. In addition, the DBB process requires that the procurement of all materials be held until the owner approves the bid, which means that long lead time items may extend the project schedule. For this and other reasons (described next), the DBB approach often takes longer than the DB approach. The ﬁnal phase is commissioning the building, which takes place after construction is ﬁnished. This involves testing the building systems (heating, cooling, electrical, plumbing, ﬁre sprinklers, and so forth) to make sure they work properly. Depending on contract requirements, ﬁnal drawings are then produced to reﬂect all as-built changes, and these are delivered to the owner along with all manuals and warranties for installed equipment. At this point, the DBB process is completed. Because all of the information provided to the owner is conveyed in 2D (on paper or equivalent electronic ﬁles), the owner must expend considerable effort to relay all relevant information to the facility management team charged with maintaining and operating the building. The process is time-consuming, prone to error, costly, and remains a signiﬁcant barrier to effective building operation and maintenance. As a result of these problems, the DBB approach is probably not the most expeditious or cost-efﬁcient approach to design and construction. Other approaches have been developed to address these problems. 1.2.2 Design-Build The design-build (DB) process was developed to consolidate responsibility for design and construction into a single contracting entity and to simplify the administration of tasks for the owner (Beard et al., 2005). In this model, the owner contracts directly with the

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