Basic Korean: A Grammar and Workbook PDF

 BASIC KOREAN: A GRAMMAR AND WORKBOOK Basic Korean: A Grammar and Workbook comprises an accessible reference grammar and related exercises in a single volume. This workbook presents twenty-five individual grammar point...

 BASIC KOREAN: A GRAMMAR AND WORKBOOK Basic Korean: A Grammar and Workbook comprises an accessible reference grammar and related exercises in a single volume. This workbook presents twenty-five individual grammar points in lively and realistic contexts, covering the core material which students would expect to encounter in their first year of learning Korean. Grammar points are followed by examples and exercises which allow students to reinforce and consolidate their learning. Basic Korean is suitable for both class use as well as independent study. Key features include: abundant exercises with full answer key all Korean entries presented in Hangul with English translations subject index. Clearly presented and user-friendly, Basic Korean provides readers with the essential tools to express themselves in a wide variety of situations, making it an ideal grammar reference and practice resource for both beginners and students with some knowledge of the language. Andrew Sangpil Byon is Associate Professor at the State University of New York at Albany, where he teaches courses in Korean language and civilization. 9780415774871_A01.indd 01.indd i i 7/4/2008 1:43:04 PM  Other titles available in the Grammar Workbooks series are: Basic Cantonese Intermediate Cantonese Basic Chinese Intermediate Chinese Basic German Intermediate German Basic Italian Basic Irish Intermediate Irish Basic Polish Intermediate Polish Basic Russian Intermediate Russian Basic Spanish Intermediate Spanish Basic Welsh Intermediate Welsh 9780415774871_A01.indd 01.indd ii ii 7/4/2008 1:43:04 PM  BASIC KOREAN: A GRAMMAR AND WORKBOOK Andrew Sangpil Byon 9780415774871_A01.indd 01.indd iiiiii 7/4/2008 1:43:04 PM  First published 2009 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2009 Andrew Sangpil Byon All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Byon, Andrew Sangpil. Basic Korean : a grammar & workbook / Andrew Sangpil Byon. – 1st ed. p. cm. – (Grammar workbook series) 1. Korean language – Grammar – Problems, exercises, etc. 2. Korean language – Textbooks for foreign speakers – English. I. Title. PL913.B96 2008 495.7′82421–dc22 2008006927 ISBN 0-203-89227-5 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10 0-415-77487-X (pbk) ISBN10 0-203-89227-5 (ebk) ISBN13 978-0-415-77487-1 (pbk) ISBN13 978-0-203-89227-5 (ebk) 9780415774871_A01.indd 01.indd iv iv 7/4/2008 1:43:04 PM  CONTENTS Preface vii 1 Reading Hangul (the Korean alphabet) 1 2 Characteristics of the Korean language 9 3 Nouns 15 4 Predicates and endings 23 5 The deferential speech level and the polite speech level 29 6 The subject case particle 㧊VṖGi/ka 39 7 The special particle 㦖 Un/⓪ nUn 47 8 Pronouns 55 9 Numbers, ordinals, and plural marker ✺ tUl 65 10 Counters, question word ⳝ myOt, and some time expressions 73 11 The copula 㧊┺V㞚┞┺Gand the verb of existence and location 㧞┺V㠜┺ 81 12 Case particles 1 㦚 Ul/⯒ lUl and O㦒P⪲ (U)ro 89 13 Case particles 2 㦮 Ui, 㠦 e, 㢖 wa/ὒ kwa, O㧊P⧧ irang, and 䞮ἶ hago 99 14 Case particles 3 㠦㍲ esO, 㠦Ợ ege, 䞲䎢 hant’e, ℮ kke, 㠦Ợ㍲ egesO, and 䞲䎢㍲ hant’esO 109 15 Special particles 1 ☚ to and Ⱒ man 117 16 Special particles 2 㧊⋮ ina, ⿖䎆 put’O, and ₢㰖 kkaji 125 9780415774871_A01.indd 01.indd v v 7/4/2008 1:43:04 PM  vi Contents 17 Past tense and double past tense marker 133 18 Negation 141 19 Irregular verbs 151 20 Expressing desire -ἶG㕌┺ -ko sip’ta and progressive form -ἶG㧞┺ -ko itta 161 21 The endings -O㦒Pඥ Ệ㡞㣪 -(U)l kOyeyo and -O㦒Pඥ₢㣪f -(U)l kkayo? 169 22 Prenouns 177 23 Adverbs and adverbials 183 24 The endings -O㦒Pඥ⧮㣪 -(U)l laeyo and -O㦒PඥỢ㣪 -(U)lgeyo 191 25 The suffixes -Ỷ -ket and -O㦒P㔲 -(U)si 199 Key to exercises 207 Index 245 9780415774871_A01.indd 01.indd vi v i 7/4/2008 1:43:04 PM  PREFACE Korean-as-a-foreign-language (KFL) teaching and learning in the English- speaking world has hardly been popular among non-Koreans until quite recently. However, the number of KFL learners has started to grow rapidly since the latter half of the 1970s for various reasons, such as the increas- ing visibility of South Korea on the international stage because of its fast economic development and its democratization over the last four decades, the continuing support from the Korean government regarding the expan- sion of the Korean Studies program abroad, the growing importance of the North Korean issues in contemporary global-political affairs, and the recent growth of the Korean-American population in the USA. In the USA alone, the number of colleges that offer KFL courses was merely ten in 1975. However, that number has grown to over 130 in the early 2000s. A few universities, including the University of Hawaii at Manoa and the University of California at Los Angeles, have offered Korean language BA, MA, and PhD programs. The number of Korean commu- nity schools (for K-12 Korean and culture education) grew from seven in 1975 to 832 in 1996, and to over 900 in the early 2000s. In addition, over 20 public high schools have recently started to teach Korean. The Korean language boom is not confined within the US private sector or university settings but is found in the government sector as well. For example, US government institutes such as the Defense Language Institute, the Foreign Service Institute, and the Central Intelligence Agency provide intensive Korean language training. In recent decades the number of KFL textbooks for English-speaking KFL classroom use has steadily increased. However, the number of KFL study materials intended for a self-study purpose is still relatively scarce. Furthermore, to date there has been no published KFL grammar workbook that specifically aims at providing supplemental grammar explanations and exercises in a single volume. Basic Korean: A Grammar and Workbook and its sister volume, Intermediate Korean, are intended to meet that need. The book focuses on providing an accessible reference grammar explanation and related exercises 9780415774871_A01.indd 01.indd vii v ii 7/4/2008 1:43:04 PM  viii Preface in a single volume. It is designed for independent English-speaking adult KFL learners who intend to maintain and strengthen their knowledge of essential Korean grammar and for classroom-based learners who are look- ing for supplemental grammar explanations and practices. Consequently, this book differs from existing KFL materials whose primary purpose is to help KFL learners acquire four language skills, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as well as cultural knowledge. The layout of this book also differs from those of existing KFL mater- ials. For instance, a typical KFL textbook chapter may include model dialogues, followed by vocabulary lists, grammar explanations, cultural notes, and exercises. In contrast, following the pattern of other Grammar Workbooks of the Routledge series, every unit of Basic Korean focuses on presenting jargon-free and concise grammar explanations, followed by relevant grammar exercises. This book has 25 units, and it does not take a functional-situational approach in grouping and/or sequencing target grammatical points. Rather it sequences and covers grammatical points according to their grammatical categories (e.g., nouns, pronouns, particles, numbers, verbs, adjectives, and so on), so that learners can use the book for reference material as well as for practice material. The exercises at the end of each unit are designed primarily to reinforce the target grammatical points. All Korean entries are presented in Hangul (the Korean alphabet) with English translations to facilitate understanding. Accordingly, it requires that learners familiarize themselves with Hangul in Unit 1, before going on to the rest of the book. In addition, when translating Korean entries into English, efforts were made to reflect the Korean meaning as closely as possible. Consequently, some learners may feel certain English transla- tions do not reflect typical English usages. However, the direct translation approach was employed for pedagogical purposes. In writing this book, I have been fortunate to have the assistance and support of many people. I would like to thank my colleagues in the Department of East Asian Studies at the University at Albany, State University of New York, who were supportive of this project. I am grateful to anonymous reviewers for their constructive and valuable comments. I would like to express sincere gratitude to Sophie Oliver for initially encouraging this project and to the editorial and production teams at Routledge, Andrea Hartill, Ursula Mallows, Samantha Vale Noya, and Andrew Watts for their advice and support throughout the process. My thanks also go to Lisa Blackwell for her careful and thoughtful copy-editing. Finally, as always, my special thanks go to my wife, Isabel, who, with her optimism and encouragement, makes it possible for me to do what I really love to do. Of course, I bear all responsibility for any shortcomings and errors remaining. 9780415774871_A01.indd 01.indd viiiv iii 7/4/2008 1:43:05 PM  UNIT 1 Reading Hangul (the Korean alphabet) The Korean writing system “Hangul” is one of the most scientific and sys- tematic writing systems in the world. Hangul is made of an alphabet of 21 vowel and 19 consonant symbols. The system was invented in 1443 by the King Sejong the Great and his group of royal scholars during the Chosun dynasty of Korea (1392–1910). This unit introduces how to read Hangul. The unit introduces individual vowel and consonant symbols and discusses how each symbol is assembled into syllables to spell Korean words. Vowels Hangul has a total of 21 vowel symbols. Among them are 11 basic vowel and ten double-vowel symbols. The basic vowel symbols include: ර a (as in father) ඿ uh (as in uh-oh) ස o (as in home) ෈ oo (as in boo) ෍ u (as in pull) ා ee (as in feet) ඼ a (as in care) ව e (as in met) ෆ we (as in wet) ෋ wi (as in we are the world) ෎ ui (u as in pull, followed by ee as in feet, but said quickly as one sound). Ten double-vowel symbols are made of either adding one more stroke to some of the above basic vowel symbols or combining some basic vowel symbols together. For instance, the following six double-vowel symbols are results of adding one more stroke (adding the y sound) to the first six vowel symbols above (e.g., adding a stroke to ර “a,” you get ල “ya”). 9780415774871_C01.indd 01.indd 1 1 7/4/2008 1:36:06 PM  2 Unit 1: Reading Hangul ල ya (as in yard) ශ yo (as in yonder) ෇ yo (as in yoga) ෌ yu (as in you) ඾ ya (as in yankie) ෂG ye (as in yes) Another four double-vowel symbols are made up of combining some of the basic vowel symbols together (e.g., combining ස “o” and ර “a” produces හ “wa”): හG wa (as in wine) ෉ wo (as in wonder) ළ wae (as in wait) ් whe (as in when) Notice that the above four double-vowel symbols have the w sound. You may wonder whether other vowel symbols can be combined. However, there are vowel symbols that cannot be combined together. For instance, ස does not combine with ඿ or ව, whereas ෈ does not combine with ර or ඼. The reason is attributed to the Korean vowel harmony principle. In Korean, two vowel symbols ර and ස are called “bright vowels” since they sound sonorous to Korean native speakers. Since the vowel symbols such asG ළ, හ, ඼, and ඾were derived from ර and ස (e.g., either add- ing a stroke or combining them together), these vowel symbols are also considered “bright vowels.” On the other hand, ඿ and ෈ are considered “dark vowels” along with ෉, ්, and ෂ. Meanwhile ා and ෍ are called “neutral vowels.” The vowel harmony principle prohibits the combination of bright and dark vowel symbols. Consonants Hangul has 19 consonant symbols, as shown below: ථ p (as in park, but relaxed) ඹ p (as in pill, aspirated; or with puffs of air) ද p (as in speak, tense) ඣ t (as in tall, but relaxed) ම t (as in talk, aspirated) ඤ t (as in steam, tense) 9780415774871_C01.indd 01.indd 2 2 7/4/2008 1:36:06 PM  Unit 1: Reading Hangul 3 ඝ k (as in kiss, but relaxed) භ k (as in king, aspirated) ඞ k (as in skill, tense) ප ch (as in chill, but relaxed) බ ch (as in change, aspirated) ඵ tch (as in midget, tense) ත m (as in mother) ඳ ng (as in king) ච n (as in nose) ඥ l (l as in lung or r as in Spanish r) ය h (as in hope) න s (as in soul) ඲ s (as in sea) How to combine consonant with vowel symbols The basic unit of a Korean letter is a syllable. In other words, a complete Korean written letter must have at least one consonant and a vowel symbol. The combinations of the vowel and consonant symbols are fivefold. First, a syllable consists of only one vowel sound (e.g., like English “a”). Although the letter pronunciation is consisted of only vowel pronunciation like “a” (without any spoken consonant), you still need to start the syllable with a consonant symbol to make the letter complete. For this purpose, you use a Korean consonant ඳ. The use of the ඳ symbol is special in that it is used as zero-value consonant when it appears before a vowel. It func- tions as a place holder in a word-initial position, so that the letter “a” should be written in Korean as 㞚 (not ර). Let us take another example. Writing a letter for the sound “yo” should look like 㣪 not ෇. Again, although the letter begins with the vowel pronunciation “yo” (without any spoken consonant), you still have to start with a zero-value consonant ඳ to make it a complete letter, as in 㣪. Second, it can have a vowel but followed by a consonant (e.g., like English “on” or 㡾 in Korean). Third it can have a consonant, followed by a vowel (e.g., like English “go” or ἶ in Korean). Fourth, a syllable letter can have a consonant, followed by a vowel, and then a consonant (e.g., like English “dam” or ╊ in Korean) or two consonants (e.g., like English “host” or 䦯 in Korean). The position of the vowel symbols is either to the right of or below the initial consonant symbol, as in ⹎ and ⏎. If the syllable has a consonant after a vowel symbol, it is always below the vowel, as in ⹒ and ⏏. There are a few things to remember. First, a Korean syllable does not start with two consonants (e.g., unlike the English word “clip”). In addition, 9780415774871_C01.indd 01.indd 3 3 7/4/2008 1:36:06 PM  4 Unit 1: Reading Hangul the syllable with three symbols (consonant-vowel-consonant(s)) seems to be more crowded and compacted than the one of two symbols (consonant- vowel) formation. However, each syllable should look about the same size, no matter how many symbols it may contains. For instance, notice that the sizes of the following two letters are about the same: ⋮ and 䦯. Another thing to remember is that Hangul follows the spelling convention, and consequently, Korean spellings do not change just because it reads a little differently from its symbol combinations. In other words, one should not write just as each word sounds (this is the same for English, where you cannot write just as you hear or speak). Exercises Exercise 1.1 Among the following vowel symbols, circle the one that is pronounced differently from the others. ◆, ┺, ╖ Exercise 1.2 Among the following vowel symbols, circle the one that is pronounced differently from the others. Ὦ, ᾊ, ῞ Exercise 1.3 Among the following vowel symbols, circle the one that is not one of the “bright vowels.” ර, ළ, ෉, ස, ඼, ඾ Exercise 1.4 Among the following vowel symbols, circle the one that is not one of the “dark vowels.” ෈, ෉, ්, හ, ඿, ෂ 9780415774871_C01.indd 01.indd 4 4 7/4/2008 1:36:06 PM  Unit 1: Reading Hangul 5 Exercise 1.5 The following Korean words are the English borrowed words used in Korean. Match each Korean word with one of the following English words (camera, jazz, taxi, romance, hot dog, Starbucks, quiz, coat, bus, sandwich, hamburger, and coffee): 1 ⻚㓺 2 䄺䞒 3 䆪䔎 4 㨂㯞 5 䊊㯞 6 ⪲ⰾ㓺 7 䌳㔲 8 㓺䌖⻛㓺 9 䟁☚⁎ 10 ㌢✲㥚䂮 11 䟚⻚Ệ 12 䃊Ⲫ⧒ Exercise 1.6 The following are names of countries in Hangul. Make a guess and write the English name for each country. 1 ぢ⧒㰞 2 㓺䗮㧎 3 ⏎⯊㤾㧊 4 䞖⧖✲ 5 䞚Ⰲ䞖 6 㧊䌞Ⰲ㞚 7 䝚⧧㓺 8 㧟⁖⧲✲ 9 䃦⋮┺ 10 ⲫ㔲䆪 Exercise 1.7 The following are names of cities in Hangul. Make a guess and write the English name for each city. 9780415774871_C01.indd 01.indd 5 5 7/4/2008 1:36:06 PM  6 Unit 1: Reading Hangul 1 Ⓤ㣫 2 㔲✲┞ 3 ㌢䝚⧖㔲㓺䆪 4 ⩆▮ 5 䕢Ⰲ 6 ㍲㤎 7 Ⱎ✲Ⰲ✲ 8 ⧒㓺⻶Ṗ㓺 9 Ⓤ◎Ⰲ 10 Ⰲ㓺⽎ Exercise 1.8 Match each English name of the country with the corresponding Korean name from the following list: 䙂⯊䒂Ṟ, ㌂㤆❪ 㞚⧒゚㞚, Ⓤ㰞⧲✲, 㞚⯊䠾䕆⋮, 㧊㰧䔎, 㧎❪㞚, ⩂㔲㞚, 㡺㓺䔎⩞㧒Ⰲ㞚, 㧊㓺⧒㠮, 䠳ṖⰂ. 1 Russia 2 Egypt 3 Portugal 4 Hungary 5 Saudi Arabia 6 New Zealand 7 Argentina 8 India 9 Australia 10 Israel Exercise 1.9 Match each English name of the city with the corresponding Korean name from the following list: 㡺㔂⪲, 䡂㕇䋺, ⳾㓺䋂⹪, ⪲Ⱎ, 䏶䈚, ㌗䞮㧊, ⹿䆫, 䃊㧊⪲, ⲫ㔲䆪㔲 䕆, Ⰲ㡺◆G㧦⍺㧊⪲. 1 Shanghai 2 Cairo 3 Rio de Janeiro 4 Tokyo 9780415774871_C01.indd 01.indd 6 6 7/4/2008 1:36:06 PM  Unit 1: Reading Hangul 7 5 Moscow 6 Helsinki 7 Rome 8 Oslo 9 Bangkok 10 Mexico City Exercise 1.10 The following are the names of some world famous people. Make a guess and write their names in English. 1 㰖⹎G䃊䎆 2 㫆㰖G⿖㓂 3 㞶ぢ⧮䟚GⰗ䄾 4 㫆㰖G㢖㕇䎊 5 㥞㓺䎊G㻮䂶 6 䏶Ⱎ㓺G㞶❪㓾 7 アG䋊Ⰶ䎊 8 Ⰲ㡺⋮⯊☚G┺ゞ䂮 9 㠮゚㓺G䝚⩞㔂Ⰲ 10 㫊G⩞⏒ Exercise 1.11 The following English words are used as loanwords in Korean. Match the corresponding Korean words from the following list: 㓺䋺, 䈶䋺, ⋮㧊䝚, 䗲, ⳾┞䎆, 䎪⩞゚㩚, 䃊✲, 䕳㏷, ⹪⋮⋮, 䞒㧦, 㡺⩢㰖, ㍊䛎. 1 monitor 2 shampoo 3 pizza 4 ski 5 television 6 pen 7 card 8 cookie 9 pop song 10 knife 11 banana 12 orange 9780415774871_C01.indd 01.indd 7 7 7/4/2008 1:36:06 PM 9780415774871_C01.indd 01.indd 8 8 7/4/2008 1:36:07 PM  UNIT 2 Characteristics of the Korean language Word order English is a subject-verb-object (SVO) language (e.g., Andrew-studies- Korean). However, Korean is a subject-object-verb (SOV) language (e.g., 㞺✲⮮ṖG䞲ῃ㠊⯒GὋ⿖䟊㣪 “Andrew-Korean-studies”). In Korean, verbs and adjectives appear at the end of the sentence. All other elements such as nouns (e.g., subject and/or object), adverbs, and numbers, appear before verbs and/or adjectives. In addition, modifiers (e.g., adverbs, demonstrat- ives, and relative clauses) appear before the modified words. For instance, let us consider the following English sentence: “Peter studies history at the library in the afternoon.” We know that “Peter” is the subject since it comes before the verb “studies,” and “history” is the object as it appears after the verb. Notice that extra elements such as “at the library” and “in the afternoon” are placed after the object. In addition, English prepositions always appear before nouns, as in “at the library.” However, the word order of Korean would be 䞒䎆Ṗ ☚㍲ὖ㠦㍲G㡃㌂ ⯒ Ὃ⿖䟊㣪 “Peter library-at history studies.” Instead of English preposi- tions, Korean has particles that always come after the noun. For instance, we know 䞒䎆 is the subject, since it is marked by the subject particle ṖUG ☚㍲ὖ is the location since it is marked by the locative particle 㠦㍲. In addition, 㡃㌂ is the object, since it is marked by the object particle ⯒. Consider another example: 㞺✲⮮Ṗ 㰧㠦㍲ 㩦㕂㦚 ⲏ㠊㣪 “Andrew eats lunch at home” The subject particle Ṗ marks 㞺✲⮮ as the subject of the sentence. The location particle 㠦㍲ marks 㰧 as the location. In addition, the object particle 㦚 marks 㩦㕂 as the object of the sentence. Because of particles, Korean sentences do not always follow the SOV pattern. Korean nouns (as subjects or objects) can be freely arranged in a sentence. For instance, the following six sentences mean “Andrew eats lunch at home.” 9780415774871_C02.indd 02.indd 9 9 7/4/2008 1:35:22 PM  10 Unit 2: Characteristics of the Korean language 㞺✲⮮Ṗ 㰧㠦㍲ 㩦㕂㦚 ⲏ㠊㣪 “Andrew home-at lunch eats” 㞺✲⮮Ṗ 㩦㕂㦚 㰧㠦㍲ ⲏ㠊㣪 “Andrew lunch home-at eats” 㰧㠦㍲ 㞺✲⮮Ṗ 㩦㕂㦚 ⲏ㠊㣪 “Home-at Andrew lunch eats” 㰧㠦㍲ 㩦㕂㦚 㞺✲⮮Ṗ ⲏ㠊㣪 “Home-at lunch Andrew eats” 㩦㕂㦚 㞺✲⮮Ṗ 㰧㠦㍲ ⲏ㠊㣪 “Lunch Andrew home-at eats” 㩦㕂㦚 㰧㠦㍲ 㞺✲⮮Ṗ ⲏ㠊㣪 “Lunch home-at Andrew eats” The fact that Korean nouns can be freely arranged differs from English, since the English word order typically determines grammatical relation- ships. The word order affects the Korean language only when certain particles are missing in given sentences (often during the colloquial usages). Meanwhile, for delimiting the meaning of the nouns, the tone is often used in English. In Korean, however, the changing word orders (e.g., mov- ing the important elements near the verb and less essential elements to the front of the sentence) or using the special particles (e.g., topic particle 㦖/⓪) delimit the meanings of nouns. Context-oriented language In Korean the most important elements tend to cluster to the end of the sentence. The further the word is from the end of the sentence, the less important the element is and more likely it is to be dropped. In other words, what appears at the very end of the sentence (e.g., verbs) is most important. Consequently, Korean sentences that have no subject or object but just a verb or an adjective, such as in ⲏ㠊㣪 “eat,” are grammatically correct and natural in conversation. Here are more examples. 㞞⎫䞮㕃┞₢f “How are you?” are peaceful ⶦGὋ⿖䞮㎎㣪f “What do you study?” what study Ṧ㌂䞿┞┺ “Thank you” thanks do Notice that none of the above expressions contains the first or second person pronoun. What determines the omission is the context. The Korean language is a context-oriented language in that any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless they are indispensable. 9780415774871_C02.indd 02.indd 1010 7/4/2008 1:35:22 PM  Unit 2: Characteristics of the Korean language 11 General-to-specific language Korean is a “general-to-specific” or “big-to-small” language. In other words, Koreans write or say general, or bigger, units before the specific, or smaller, units. For instance, Koreans say or write the last name before the given name (e.g., ₖ㩫⹒ “Kim Jungmin”). When writing an address, they write the name of the country, followed by the province, city, street, house number, and the name of the receiver. ╖䞲⹒ῃSGἓ₆☚SG㍲㤎㔲SG⁞㻲ῂSG☛㌆☯GXXZSGₖ㩫⹒ (Republic of Korea, Kyonggi Province, Seoul, Kumchon-District, Toksan 113, Kim Jungmin) When writing a date, the year comes first, followed by month and the day. YWW^ ⎚G_G㤪G\G㧒 (2007-year 8-month 5-day) Honorific language Korean is an honorific language in that it has grammatical elements that are used to indicate social meanings involved in contexts such as speakers’ attitudes (e.g., respect, humility, formality) toward who they are talking to or talking about. For instance, Koreans use hierarchical address-reference terms of titles as well as various speech levels to indicate politeness, intimacy, and the formality level of discourse during interaction. In addition, they use humble person pronoun forms such as 㩖 “first person singular” and 㩖䧂 “first person plural” to indicate humility. Moreover, Koreans use honorific suffix -(㦒)㔲 and euphemistic words to indicate respect toward a sub- ject of higher social status. The following examples illustrate how Korean honorifics work: (a) 㠊㩲G㤆ⰂG⳾㧚㠦G㢖G㭒㠊㍲GἶⰞ㤢 “(I) appreciated that you came to our meeting yesterday.” (b) 㠊㩲G㩖䧂G⳾㧚㠦G㢖G㭒㔲㠊㍲GἶⰯ㔋┞┺U “(I) appreciated that you came to our meeting yesterday.” As seen above, the referential meanings of the two sentences are the same. However, their social meanings are different. For example, in (a), the use of the plain first person pronoun, 㤆Ⰲ, the absence of the honorific suffix -㔲, and the use of an intimate speech level -㠊 indicate that the speaker 9780415774871_C02.indd 02.indd 1111 7/4/2008 1:35:22 PM  12 Unit 2: Characteristics of the Korean language is likely addressing a person either of equal (=power) or lower status (-power), and whom he/she knows well (-distance). Because it lacks proper honorific elements, the example in (a) would be rude in a formal situation if it was used by a lower-status person (e.g., a college student) addressing a higher-status person (e.g., a professor). To make (a) socially appropriate in a +power situation (e.g., talking to someone of higher status), one should change 㤆Ⰲ, first person plural genitive pronoun, to 㩖䧂, humble first person plural genitive pronoun, as shown in (b). In addition, one should add the honorific suffix -㔲 to the gerundive verb 㭒㠊㍲ “giving (me)” making 㭒㎪㍲ thereby transforming it into an honorific verb, and use the deferential speech level sentence-ending 㔋┞┺ to change ἶⰞ㤢 “thanked (you)” to ἶⰯ㔋┞┺, in the deferen- tial speech level. The above examples illustrate how the use of honorifics in Korean functions as a social indicator. In addition, they demonstrate that how an utterance is said is more important than what is said. Exercises Exercise 2.1 Circle whether the following statements are True or False. Example: in English, prepositions always appear before nouns, as in at home. (T / F) 1 In Korean, verbs and adjectives appear at the end of the sentence. (T / F) 2 In Korean, nouns, adverbs, and numbers, appear after verbs and/or adjectives. (T / F) 3 In Korean, what appears at the very beginning of the sentence is most important. (T / F) 4 In Korean, word order typically determines grammatical relationships. (T / F) 5 Instead of English prepositions, Korean has particles that always come before nouns. (T / F) 6 Korean sentences do not always follow the SOV pattern. (T / F) 7 Word order affects the Korean language only when certain particles are missing in sentences. (T / F) 8 Korean sentences that have no subject or object but just a verb are grammatically correct and natural in conversation. (T / F) 9 In Korean, different forms of expressions are used depending on who you are talking to or talking about. (T / F) 9780415774871_C02.indd 02.indd 1212 7/4/2008 1:35:22 PM  Unit 2: Characteristics of the Korean language 13 Exercise 2.2 Write each component of the sentence in the SOV word order. Example: 䞲ῃ㠊⯒ (the Korean language) Ὃ⿖䟊㣪 (studies) 㑮㧪㧊 (Susan) = 㑮㧪㧊 䞲ῃ㠊⯒ Ὃ⿖䟊㣪 1 㫆ₛG䟊㣪 ( jogs), Ⱎ㧊䋊㧊 (Michael), 㤊☯㧻㠦㍲ (at track). 2 㫆㞺㧊 (Joan), ⲏ㠊㣪 (eats), 㩦㕂㦚 (the lunch). 3 ⏣ῂ⯒ (basketball), 䕆⳾䕆Ṗ (Timothy), 䟊㣪 (plays). 4 䎪⩞゚㩚㦚 (television), ⽦㣪 (watches), ぢ⬾㓺Ṗ (Bruce). 5 Ⱎ䋂Ṗ (Mark), Ⱒ✺㠊㣪 (makes), 㓺䕢Ợ䕆⯒ (spaghetti). 6 㧦㣪 (sleeps), 㰧㠦㍲ (at home), ┺㧊㞺㧊 (Diane). 7 㧊㟒₆䟊㣪 (talks), 䞚Ⱃ䞲䎢 (to Philip), 䃦⪺㧊 (Carol). 8 䄺䞒⯒ (coffee), 䎢❪Ṗ (Teddy), Ⱎ㎪㣪 (drinks). 9 䞯ᾦ㠦 (to school), Ṗ㣪 (goes), 㺆㓺Ṗ (Charles). 10 䏶┞Ṗ (Tony), 㼦㣪 (plays), 䞒㞚⏎⯒ (piano). Exercise 2.3 Arrange the following elements according to the Korean convention. Example: July 18, 2007 = 2007, July 18. 1 December 24, 2005 2 Sumi Kim 3 712-19 Hankuk Street, Jung District, Seoul, Kyonggi Province, Republic of Korea. 4 Daesung Lee 5 18 May, 1977 6 Kyonggi Province, Republic of Korea, Kangnam District, 81-3 Taehan Street, Seoul 9780415774871_C02.indd 02.indd 1313 7/4/2008 1:35:22 PM 9780415774871_C02.indd 02.indd 1414 7/4/2008 1:35:23 PM  UNIT 3 Nouns Words and word classes Words are basic units that constitute a sentence. Each word in a sentence has different functions. Based on its grammatical function, each word is categorized into different classes, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and so on. Korean has the following word classes. 1 Nouns 2 Pronouns 3 Particles (that attach to a noun and indicate grammatical relationships or add special meanings) 4 Numbers and counters 5 Verbs (that indicate action or progress) 6 Adjectives (that indicate state or quality) 7 Copula (that indicate an equational expression: 㧊┺ “be” and 㞚┞┺ “be not”) 8 Adverbs 9 Prenouns (that appear before a noun, like English demonstratives such as this, that, these, and those) These Korean words in general fall into two categories: inflected words and uninflected words. Inflection refers to the process of adding some kinds of affixes to the original word in order to indicate grammatical features such as tense, number, aspect, and person. The addition of the affixes changes the shape of the original word in the process; however, it does not change its form class. For instance, in English, the word “go” becomes “goes” with the affix “-es” when it is used for a third person singular. Another example is when the verb “study” changes its form to “studied” with the affix “-ed.” The process of adding such affixes refers to inflection. Notice that these inflected verbs end up having additional grammatical features (e.g., the third person verb usage and past tense) but their class does not change (e.g., they are still verbs). 9780415774871_C03.indd 03.indd 1515 7/4/2008 1:35:52 PM  16 Unit 3: Nouns In Korean, the category of words that undergoes inflection includes verbs and adjectives. On the other hand, the category of words that does not undergo inflection includes nouns, pronouns, numbers, adverbs, and prenouns. All of these different classes of words will be discussed in detail throughout this book. However, this unit focuses on nouns. Nouns in general refer to the part of speech that indicates a name of thing, quality, place, person, or action. Nouns often serve as the subject and/or object of verbs and/or adjectives. Formation of nouns There are three components that constitute Korean nouns: native Korean words (about 35 percent); Sino-Korean words (about 60 percent), and loan words (about 5 percent). Generally speaking, Korean nouns can be comprised of either a single morpheme (or a meaningful unit), such as ⋮ⶊ “tree,” ㌆ “mountain,” ㌞ “bird,” ⶒ “water,” or multiple morphemes (e.g., a combination of several single morphemes) such as 䢪㌆ “volcano” (䢪 “fire” + ㌆ “mountain”) and ㏢ἶ₆ “beef” (㏢ “cow” + ἶ₆ “meat”). Nouns consisting of more than two morphemes are normally formed through either a derivational or a compounding process. The derivational formation takes an affix (e.g., either a prefix or a suffix), which normally appears in a noun and/or a predicate (e.g., a verb and/or an adjective). Prefixes refer to the affixes that appear before the word, whereas suffixes refer to the affixes that appear after the word. Derivational prefixes: Native Korean prefix (e.g., Ⱕ “first”) Ⱕ㞚✺ “the first son” =GⰥ “first” + 㞚✺ “son” Ⱕ➎ “the first daughter” = Ⱕ “first” + ➎ “daughter” Sino-Korean prefix (e.g., 㔶 “new”) 㔶䞯₆ “a new semester” = 㔶 “new” + 䞯₆ “semester” 㔶㧎 “a new comer” = 㔶 “new” + 㧎 “person” Derivational suffixes: Native Korean suffix (e.g., − “doer”) 㧻㌂− “business man” = 㧻㌂ “business” + − “doer” 㧒− “worker” = 㧒 “work” + − “doer” Sino-Korean suffix (e.g., 䞯 “study”) 䞲ῃ䞯 “Korean studies” = 䞲ῃ “Korea” + 䞯 “study” 㑮䞯 “mathematics” = 㑮 “number” + 䞯 “study” Nouns, derived from verbs (e.g., 㧊V₆ “act”) ⻢㧊 “income” = ⻢ “earn” + 㧊 “act” ⲏ₆ “eating” = ⲏ “eat” + ₆ “act” 9780415774871_C03.indd 03.indd 1616 7/4/2008 1:35:52 PM  Unit 3: Nouns 17 Nouns, derived from adjectives (e.g., 㧊V₆ “quality”) 䋂₆ “size” = 䋂 “big” + ₆ “quality” ₎㧊 “length” = ₎ “long” + 㧊 “quality” As seen above, derivation is a useful way to understand how a word can be developed into another word with an affix, which carries an additional meaning. On the other hand, compound nouns consist of two or more independ- ent morphemes. They are divided into native and Sino-Korean compound nouns: Native compound words: noun + noun ⑞ⶒG“tears” = ⑞ “eye” + ⶒ “water” ⶒṲ “seal” = ⶒ “water” + Ṳ “dog” adverb + noun ὇㔂ⲎⰂ “curly hairs” = ὇㔂 “curved” + ⲎⰂ “hair” ㌆✺⹪⧢ “gentle breeze” = ㌆✺ “gentle” + ⹪⧢ wind” noun + predicate + nominalizer ⳿Ỏ㧊 “necklace” = ⳿ “neck” + Ỏ “hang” + 㧊 “act” ⽎⽊₆ “model” = ⽎ “example” + ⽊ “look” + ₆ “act” predicate + noun ⓼㧶 “ oversleeping” = ⓼ “late” + 㧶 “sleeping” ἶ✲⯚ “icicle” = Ἵ “straight” + 㠒㦢 “ice” clause + noun 㺂ⶒ “cold water” = 㺂 “cold” + ⶒ “water” ⴑ⋲㧊 “stupid person” = ⴑ⋲ “ugly” + 㧊 “person” Sino-Korean compound words Sino-Korean word + Sino-Korean word ⿖⳾ “parents” = ⿖ “father” + ⳾ “mother” 㻲㰖 “universe” = 㻲 “heaven” + 㰖 “earth” Meanwhile, Korean has a group of special nouns that always appear before other nouns to modify or describe the following nouns, such as ⶊ㓾 㦢㔳 “what kind of food,” 㧊 㺛 “this book,” ⁎ ㌂⧢ “that man,” and 㠊ⓦG 㔳╏ “which restaurant.” These nouns are called “prenouns” (like English words, such as “that,” “this,” and “which”). Some nouns are used only after the aforementioned prenouns. These special nouns (also sometimes called “bound nouns”) cannot be used by themselves but used always with the prenouns. Examples of these nouns are 㧊 Ὁ “this place,” ⁎G⿚ “that person,” 㩖Gộ “that thing,” and so on. Prenouns as well as bound nouns are discussed in detail in Unit 22. 9780415774871_C03.indd 03.indd 1717 7/4/2008 1:35:52 PM  18 Unit 3: Nouns Some characteristics of Korean nouns Marking plurality English is very specific with respect to number in that when there is more than one item, the item must be marked by the plural “s.” However, Korean nouns are not specific about the number in that it does not have the grammatical category of number. For instance, a Korean noun 㡆䞚 “pencil” can be translated into at least the following: pencil, a pencil, the pencil, some pencils, the pencils, and pencils. Korean has the suffix ✺ (that can be attached after a countable noun) for indicating the plurality of the noun. However, its usage is not mandatory for marking plurality, thus its purpose is rather for highlighting the plurality of the noun. Position of nouns Korean nouns appear in a sentence in one of the following ways: (1) by itself, (2) before particles, (3) before another noun, and (4) before copula. For instance, consider the following sentence: ㍶㌳┮SG 㑮㧪㧊G ⹎ῃG ╖䞯㌳㧊㠦㣪 “Teacher, Susan is an American college student” Notice that ㍶㌳┮ “teacher” appears by itself; 㑮㧪 “Susan” appears with the subjective particle 㧊; ⹎ῃ “America” appears before another noun ╖䞯㌳ “college student”; ╖䞯㌳ appears before 㧊㠦㣪 “copula.” The Korean copula (or be-verbs such as “am,” “is,” and “are”) is 㧊┺ (or 㧊㠦㣪 with the polite speech level). Korean nouns can serve as the sentence predicate with the copula. For instance, consider the following sentence: 䐆㧊G 䞯㌳㧊㠦㣪 “Tom is a student.” What is noteworthy is that the copula attaches to the noun so tightly as if it were a particle. For example, notice that there is no space between 䞯㌳ and 㧊㠦㣪, as in 䞯㌳㧊㠦㣪. Noun usage with verbs People tend to use nouns with certain verbs. For instance, in English, the word “crime” is collocated with the verb “commit,” and “operation” is collocated with the verb “perform.” The use of a noun with a verb that is not conventionally collocated (although the use of the verb may be gram- matically correct) results in an awkward expression (e.g., “Hitler committed a crime” vs. “Hitler performed a crime”). In the same principle, Korean nouns tend to collocate with certain verbs. 9780415774871_C03.indd 03.indd 1818 7/4/2008 1:35:53 PM  Unit 3: Nouns 19 Consider the following examples: ⩞⻶䃊ṖG⏣ῂ⯒G⏖㞚㣪 “Rebecca plays basketball” (X) ⩞⻶䃊ṖG⏣ῂ⯒G䟊㣪 “Rebecca plays (lit. does) basketball” (O) The verb ⏖㞚㣪 literally means “play,” and 䟊㣪 means “do.” However, in Korean, the noun ⏣ῂ “basketball” does not collocate with ⏖㞚㣪, but with 䟊㣪. For playing musical instruments such as piano and guitar, a different verb 㼦㣪 “play” or “hit” is used instead of 䟊㣪 orG⏖㞚㣪. ⩞⻶䃊ṖG䞒㞚⏎⯒G⏖㞚㣪 “Rebecca plays piano” (X) ⩞⻶䃊ṖG䞒㞚⏎⯒G䟊㣪 “Rebecca plays (lit. does) piano” (X) ⩞⻶䃊ṖG䞒㞚⏎⯒G㼦㣪 “Rebecca plays (lit. hits/plays) piano” (O) Exercises Key vocabulary for Unit 3 exercises Ṗ the edge Ṳ dog Ἒ⧖ egg ἶ₆ meats ἶⶊ rubber ἶⶊ㔶 rubber shoes ⋮ⶒ greens ☢ stone/pebble ⶎ door ⶒ water ⶒṲGseal ⹪⓮ needle ⹪┺ sea ⹪╍Ṗ the seaside ⹿ room ニ bread ニ㰧 bakery ⼓ wall ⼓☢ brick ⿖㺚 fan ㌂㠛 business ㌆⋮ⶒ wild edible greens ㌞ bird 9780415774871_C03.indd 03.indd 1919 7/4/2008 1:35:53 PM  20 Unit 3: Nouns 㔶 shoes 㞴 front 㞴ⶎ font door 㦢㞛 music 㻶 season 㻶㌞ migratory bird 㺛 book 㺛⹿ book store 䆪 nose 䆪䞒 blood from the nose 䞒 blood Exercise 3.1 Translate the following Korean words into English: Example: ㌂⧢ people 1 ㌞ _________________ 2 ㌂㠛 _________________ 3 ⿖㺚 _________________ 4 ⼓G _________________ 5 ἶ₆ _________________ 6 Ἒ⧖ _________________ 7 ⹪⓮ _________________ 8 ἶⶊ _________________ 9 ⋮ⶒ _________________ 10 㦢㞛 _________________ Exercise 3.2 The following are compound words. Write their English meanings. Example: ╃ἶ₆ Chicken (meat) = ╃ Chicken___ + ἶ₆ meat_____ 1 ἶⶊ㔶 ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 2 ㌆⋮ⶒ ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 3 ⼓☢ ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 4 㞴ⶎ ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 5 䆪䞒 ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 6 ⹪╍Ṗ ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 9780415774871_C03.indd 03.indd 2020 7/4/2008 1:35:53 PM  Unit 3: Nouns 21 7 ニ㰧 ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 8 㺛⹿ ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 9 ⶒṲ ______________ = _____________ + ______________ 10 㻶㌞ ______________ = _____________ + ______________ Exercise 3.3 The Korean nouns in each set have the same prefix. Identify the prefix and give its meaning. Example: ⋶ἶ₆ (raw meat), ⋶㌳㍶ (raw fish), ⋶Ἒ⧖ (uncooked egg) = Prefix: ⋶ Meaning: raw 1 㔶䞯₆ (new semester), 㔶㎎╖ (new generation), 㔶䡫 (new model) Prefix:______________ Meaning: _____________ 2 ἶ (high class), ἶṖ (high price), ἶ☚ (high degree), ἶ㌆ (high mountain) Prefix:______________ Meaning: _____________ 3 ⿞Ṗ⓻ (impossible), ⿞Ṗ䞒 (unavoidability), ⿞Ṧ㯳 (insensibility), ⿞Ὃ䘟 (unfairness), ⿞′䂯 (unsteadiness) Prefix:______________ Meaning: _____________ Exercise 3.4 The Korean nouns in each set have the same suffix. Identify the suffix and give its meaning. Example: ㏢㍺ṖG(novelist), 㦢㞛ṖG(musician), ㌂㠛Ṗ (businessman) Suffix: Ṗ Meaning: person 1 䞲ῃ㔳 (Korean style), ⹎ῃ㔳 (American style), 㭧ῃ㔳 (Chinese style) Suffix:______________ Meaning: _____________ 2 ⹪ⓦ㰞 (sewing), Ṗ㥚㰞 (scissoring), ⿖㺚㰞 (fanning) Suffix:______________ Meaning: _____________ 3 ᾦ㰗 (teaching profession), ₆㑶㰗 (skill-related profession), ㎇㰗 (the ministry) Suffix:______________ Meaning: _____________ 9780415774871_C03.indd 03.indd 2121 7/4/2008 1:35:53 PM 9780415774871_C03.indd 03.indd 2222 7/4/2008 1:35:53 PM  UNIT 4 Predicates and endings Predicates Predicate, one of the main components of a sentence, normally refers to the part that explains or says something about the subject. Often it refers to a verb or an adjective phrase that modifies the subject. For example, “closed the door” is the predicate of a sentence “Peter closed the door.” In a similar manner, those which constitute predicate expressions in Korean are verbs and adjectives. Stems Korean verbs and adjectives are made of stems and endings. The stems of verbs and adjectives do not stand alone, and they are always conjugated by various or inflectional endings. These endings carry various grammatical information and roles (e.g., tense, aspect, speech levels, and so forth). When you look for the meaning of certain verbs and/or adjectives in your dictionary or textbook word lists, you are most likely to encounter verbs and adjectives with ┺ as their endings (e.g., 㧦┺ “sleep,” ⏖┺ “play,” and 㠊⪋┺ “difficult”). Remember that stems do not stand by themselves. For a dictionary-entry purpose, Korean verbs and adjectives take a special dictionary form ending -┺. Consequently, finding the stem of a verb and/or an adjective is simple in that anything being left out after you take ┺ out from the verbs and adjectives is the stem. Here are some examples: Dictionary form Meaning Stem Ṗ┺ go Ṗ ⲏ┺ eat ⲏ ⺆㤆┺ learn ⺆㤆 㣪Ⰲ䞮┺ cook 㣪Ⰲ䞮 ⋮㊮┺ bad ⋮㊮ 㧧┺ small 㧧 㫡┺ good 㫡 㞚⯚╋┺ beautiful 㞚⯚╋ 9780415774871_C04.indd 04.indd 2323 7/4/2008 1:35:37 PM  24 Unit 4: Predicates and endings Verbs and adjectives In English, one can distinguish a verb from an adjective by looking at their structure. For example, when using an adjective as a predicate, one has to use one of “am,” “is,” and “are” (e.g., “the book is cheap”). In Korean, however verbs and adjectives resemble one another in how they inflect and how they function in the sentence. In addition, there is no obvi- ous structural difference between verbs and adjectives. In fact adjectives behave like verbs so much that Korean grammarians categorize adjectives as “descriptive verbs.” For example, in a dictionary, you may find the following Korean verb and adjective: Ṗ┺ “go” and 㧧┺ “small.” They have different stems (Ṗ and 㧧) but the same ending (┺ the dictionary form ending). Their meanings distinguish a verb from an adjective. Verbs normally signify actions and processes. On the other hand, adjectives typically indicate states or qual- ities (e.g., size, weight, quality, quantity, shape, appearance, perception, and emotion). Vowel- and consonant-based stems Stems of Korean verbs and adjectives are grouped into two types: consonant based and vowel based. An example of the vowel-based stem is Ṗ of Ṗ┺, whereas that of the consonant-based stem is ⲏ of ⲏ┺. Vowel-based verbs Ṗ⯊┺ “divide” Ṗ㰖┺ “have” Ṗ⯊䂮┺ “teach” Ⱒ㰖┺ “touch” ⽊┺ “see” ⺆㤆┺ “learn” 䌖┺ “ride” Consonant-based verbs ╁┺ “close” 㔶┺ “wear (shoes)” ⹱┺ “receive” ㌊┺ “live” 㞟┺ “sit” 㧓┺ “read” 䕪┺ “sell” 9780415774871_C04.indd 04.indd 2424 7/4/2008 1:35:37 PM  Unit 4: Predicates and endings 25 Vowel-based adjectives 㔲┺ “sour” 㕎┺ “cheap” 㝆┺ “bitter” 㰲┺ “salty” 䋂┺ “big” 䦦Ⰲ┺ “cloudy” 䧂┺ “white” Consonant-based adjectives Ṗ⼣┺ “light (weight)” Ṗ₳┺ “near” ὲ㺄┺ “fine” ⍩┺ “wide” Ⱔ┺ “many” 㧧┺ “small” 㫡┺ “good” Endings Since the stems of verbs and adjectives cannot be used alone, they are always used with endings. Korean has many different endings that convey much of the grammatical functions such as tense, aspects, sentence types, conjunctions, speech levels, and so on. The endings can be categorized into two types: pre-final endings and final endings, depending on where they are placed in the verb or adjective. Pre-final endings Pre-final endings are inflectional elements that come between the stem and the final ending. They include the honorific suffix -(㦒)㔲, past tense marker 㠞/㞮, and so on. Consider the following example: 㠊㩲G㡗䢪G⽊㔲㠞㠊㣪f “Did (you) see the movie yesterday?” Notice that the pre-final endings (e.g., 㔲 and 㠞) appear between ⽊, the stem “see,” and 㠊㣪, “a sentence final ending.” Non-sentence-final endings There are two types of final endings: one that ends a verb or an adjec- tive but not the sentence (non-sentence-final endings), and one that ends 9780415774871_C04.indd 04.indd 2525 7/4/2008 1:35:37 PM  26 Unit 4: Predicates and endings both the verb and the sentence (sentence-final endings). Non-sentence- final endings include various clausal conjunctives such as -ἶ “and then,” -㠊/㞚㍲ “because,” -㦒Ⳋ㍲ “while,” -㰖Ⱒ “although,” -☚⪳ “in order to,” and so on. Consider the following sentence. 䄺䞒⯒G Ⱎ㔲ἶG 㞚㧊㓺䋂Ⱂ㦚G ⲏ㠊㣪 “(I) drink coffee, and then eat ice cream” Notice that the conjunctive -ἶ “and then” does not end the sentence but does end the verb stem Ⱎ㔲 “drink.” On the other hand, the ending 㠊㣪 ends the verb “eat” as well as the sentence. Sentence-final endings The typical examples of sentence-final endings are various speech-level endings. Korean has six speech levels as shown below. These speech-level endings indicate the speaker’s interpersonal relationship with the address- ees or attitude toward them (e.g., social meanings such as intimacy and formality of the situation). The deferential speech level is the highest among the six, followed by the polite speech level and so on. In addition, each speech level has four endings that indicate the type of sentence: declarative (statement), interrogative (question), imperative (command/request), and propositive (suggestion): Speech level Declarative Interrogative Imperative Propositive 1 Deferential -㔋┞┺V -㔋┞₢V -O㦒P㕃㔲㡺 -O㦒P㕃㔲┺ G G ථ┞┺G ථ┞₢ 2 Polite -㠊㣪V-㞚㣪 -㠊㣪V-㞚㣪 -㠊㣪V-㞚㣪 T㠊㣪V-㞚㣪 3 Blunt -O㦒P㡺 -O㦒P 㡺 4 Familiar -⍺ -⋮V-⓪Ṗ -Ợ -㎎ 5 Intimate -㠊V-㞚 -㠊V-㞚 -㠊V-㞚 -㠊V-㞚 6 Plain -OⓦPච┺ -O㦒P┞/-⌦ -㠊⧒V-㞚⧒ -㧦 Among the six speech levels, the use of (3) blunt and (4) familiar speech levels have been declining especially among young generations. KFL learners however must be familiar with the deferential, polite, intimate, and plain levels, which are still widely used for all Koreans regardless of age differences. Consequently, the debate around blunt and familiar speech levels will not be discussed in this book. Let us apply four of the endings above to the verb stem ⲏ “eat.” When saying “(someone) eats,” one needs to use one of the four interrogative endings (-㔋┞₢, -㠊㣪, -㠊, and -⌦). 9780415774871_C04.indd 04.indd 2626 7/4/2008 1:35:37 PM  Unit 4: Predicates and endings 27 Level Conjugation Possible social settings Deferential ⲏ㔋┞₢f “(Someone) eats?” (e.g., in a formal situation) Polite ⲏ㠊㣪f – (e.g., to an adult colleague) Intimate ⲏ㠊f – (e.g., to an adolescent friend) Plain ⲏ⌦f – (e.g., to a child) Notice that the verb stem in each speech level as well as the referential meaning are the same. In addition, different endings render different social meanings, such as speaker’s attitude toward the hearer and the formality of the situation. Consequently, choosing the right speech level is critical, and it all depends on who you talk to. Exercises Exercise 4.1 The following is a list of some Korean verbs and adjectives. Underline whether it is a verb or an adjective and then write the stem of each verb and adjective. Example: 㧓┺ Verb/Adjective Stem: 㧓 1 Ṗ⼣┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 2 Ṗ㰖┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 3 䕪┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 4 ╁┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 5 Ⱔ┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 6 Ⱒ㰖┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 7 䌖┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 8 㞟┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 9 㔲┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ 10 ⍩┺ Verb/Adjective Stem:_____________ Exercise 4.2 Among six speech levels, what are two speech levels whose uses are declin- ing among young generations? Exercise 4.3 Among six speech levels, what is the level used for formal and public speech? 9780415774871_C04.indd 04.indd 2727 7/4/2008 1:35:38 PM  28 Unit 4: Predicates and endings Exercise 4.4 Apply one of the four declarative endings (-㔋┞┺, -㠊㣪, -㠊, and -⓪┺) to the stem of ⶌ┺ “tie.” 1 Deferential _____________________ 2 Polite _____________________ 3 Intimate _____________________ 4 Plain _____________________ Exercise 4.5 Apply one of the four interrogative endings (-㔋┞₢, -㠊㣪, -㠊, and -┞) to the stem of ⍹┺ “place (something) in.” 1 Deferential _____________________ 2 Polite _____________________ 3 Intimate _____________________ 4 Plain _____________________ Exercise 4.6 Apply one of the four propositive endings (-ථ㔲┺, -㠊㣪, -㠊, and -㧦) to the stem of ⺆㤆┺ “learn.” 1 Deferential _____________________ 2 Polite _____________________ 3 Intimate _____________________ 4 Plain _____________________ Exercise 4.7 Apply one of the four imperative endings (-㦒㕃㔲㡺, -㠊㣪, -㠊, and -㠊⧒) to the stem of 㧓┺ “read.” 1 Deferential _____________________ 2 Polite _____________________ 3 Intimate _____________________ 4 Plain _____________________ 9780415774871_C04.indd 04.indd 2828 7/4/2008 1:35:38 PM  UNIT 5 The deferential speech level and the polite speech level In English, there are times when you have to take alternative words or phrases, depending on various social factors involved in conversation, such as the formality of the situation, politeness, and familiarity with the addressee. For instance, in a certain situation, you can greet someone by saying “Hey, what’s up!” but in another situation by saying “Good morn- ing, Sir!” Korean has different speech level endings for serving these purposes. As already emphasized in the previous unit, the use of speech level endings is mandatory all the time, since verb or adjective stems cannot stand alone. However, for Korean language learners, choosing an appropriate speech level ending for every verb and/or adjective is challenging because its selec- tion is determined by various contextual factors involved in interaction, such as who you are talking to, whether you know the addressee or not, how formal the situation is, and so on. The focus of this unit is on two speech levels: “the deferential speech level” and “the polite speech level.” The deferential speech level The deferential speech level is used for public and/or formal commun- ication settings, such as broadcasting, public speech, business-related meetings, conference presentations, and so forth. The deferential speech level has four different endings for each sentence type: -㔋┞┺V-ථ┞┺ (declarative), -㔋┞₢V-ථ┞₢G (interrogative), -O㦒P㕃㔲㡺G Oimperative), and -O㦒P㕃㔲┺G(propositive). Declarative For the declarative (statement), -㔋┞┺ is used when the stem ends in a consonant, as in ⲏ + 㔋┞┺ = ⲏ㔋┞┺ “(someone) eats.” However, when the stem ends in a vowel, -ථ┞┺ is used, as in Ṗ + ථ┞┺ = ṧ┞┺ “(someone) goes.” 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 2929 7/4/2008 1:34:45 PM  30 Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels Because the deferential speech level indicates a sense of formality, many formulaic/fixed expressions are made of this speech level ending: 㻮㦢G⾯Ỷ㔋┞┺ “Nice to meet you” (literally, “(I) meet you for the first time”) Ⱒ⋮㍲G⹮ṧ㔋┞┺ “Nice to meet you” (literally, “(I) am glad because I meet you”) 㧮GⲏỶ㔋┞┺ “Thanks for the meal” (literally, “(I) will eat well”) Ṧ㌂䞿┞┺ “Thank you” (literally, “(I) do gratitude”) 㔺⪖䞿┞┺ “Excuse me” (literally, “(I) do discourtesy”) 㿫䞮䞿┞┺ “Congratulations” (literally, “(I) congratulate”) Interrogative For the interrogative (question), the ending is -㔋┞₢ for the stem ending in a consonant, as in ⲏ㔋┞₢? “(do you) eat?” However, it is -ථ┞₢ for the stem ending in a vowel, as in ṧ┞₢? “(do you) go?” Here are more examples. ΐ┺ “roast” 㠎㩲Gἶ₆⯒Gΐ㔋┞₢f “When (do you) roast the meat?” ⹕┺ “believe” ⁎G䂲ῂ⯒G⹕㔋┞₢f “(Do you) believe that friend?” Ṗ⯊䂮┺ “teach” 㠊❪㍲G䞲ῃ㠊⯒GṖ⯊䂿┞₢f “Where (do you) teach Korean?” ⺆㤆┺ “learn” 㠎㩲G䌲ῢ☚⯒G⺆㤗┞₢f “When (do you) learn Taekwondo?” Imperative For the imperative (command), the ending is -㦒㕃㔲㡺 for the stem ending in a consonant, as in ⲏ㦒㕃㔲㡺 “eat.” However, the ending is -㕃㔲㡺 for the stem ending in a vowel, as in Ṗ㕃㔲㡺 “go.” Here are more examples. ╁┺ “close” 㺓ⶎ㦚G╁㦒㕃㔲㡺 “Close the window” 㧓┺ “read” 䞲ῃ㠊G㺛㦚G㧓㦒㕃㔲㡺 “Read the Korean book” Ⱒ⋮┺ “meet” ㍶㌳┮㦚GⰢ⋮㕃㔲㡺! “Meet the teacher!” ⽊┺ “see” 䆪⹎❪G㡗䢪⯒G⽊㕃㔲㡺! “See the comedy movie!” Propositive For the propositive (suggestion), the ending is -㦒㕃㔲┺ for the stem ending in a consonant, as in ⲏ㦒㕃㔲┺ “(let us) eat.” However, it is 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3030 7/4/2008 1:34:46 PM  Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels 31 -㕃㔲┺ for the stem ending in a vowel, as in ṧ㔲┺ “(let us) go.” Here are more examples. ⊠┺ “quit” ╊⺆⯒G⊠㦣㔲┺ “(Let us) quit smoking” 㞟┺ “sit” 㞴㭚㠦G 㞟㦣㔲┺ “(Let us) sit in the front row” ⽊⌊┺ “send out” 䘎㰖⯒G⽊⌛㔲┺ “(Let us) send out the letter” ⻚Ⰲ┺ “throw away” 㝆⩞₆⯒G ⻚Ⱃ㔲┺ “(Let us) throw away the garbage” The polite speech level The polite speech level is the informal counterpart of the deferential speech level. As the most commonly used speech level regardless of age or gender, the polite speech level is broadly used in any situation where polite language is called for. It is used when addressing someone of senior status in a casual, non-formal, and everyday types of conversations; it is used with friends if their friendship began in adulthood; it is the most common speech level used toward strangers. The polite speech level endings have two forms: -㠊㣪 and -㞚㣪. When the verb and/or adjective stem ends in either 㞚 or 㡺, -㞚㣪 is used. On the other hand, -㠊㣪 is used with the stem that ends in any other vowels. For example, the following is a list of some verbs and adjectives (with dictionary endings) in the left column with the polite speech level ending -㠊V㞚㣪 in the right column: Dictionary form The polite speech level endings Ṗ┺ “go” Ṗ㣪 (Ṗ + 㞚㣪 but contracted to Ṗ㣪) ⽊┺ “see” ⽦㣪 (⽊ + 㞚㣪 but contracted) 㡺┺ “come” 㢖㣪 (㡺 + 㞚㣪 but contracted) ⹱┺ “receive” ⹱㞚㣪 (⹱ + 㞚㣪) ㌊┺ “live” ㌊㞚㣪 (㌊ + 㞚㣪) ₆┺Ⰲ┺ “wait” ₆┺⩺㣪 (₆┺Ⰲ + 㠊㣪 but contracted to ₆┺⩺㣪) ⺆㤆┺ “learn” ⺆㤢㣪 (⺆㤆 + 㠊㣪 but contracted) ⍹┺ “put (something) in” ⍹㠊㣪 (⍹ + 㠊㣪) ⶌ┺ “tie” ⶌ㠊㣪 (ⶌ + 㠊㣪) ⲏ┺ “eat” ⲏ㠊㣪 (ⲏ + 㠊㣪) You probably wonder why some verbs or adjectives such as Ṗ┺ is not Ṗ㞚㣪, but Ṗ㣪. This is attributed to the vowel contraction in Korean: when similar or the same two vowels appear together (e.g., Ṗ㞚 = Ṗ), the vowels tend to be contracted. 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3131 7/4/2008 1:34:46 PM  32 Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels The copula 㧊┺ “be” and 㞚┞┺ “be not” as well as the verb 䞮┺ “do” do not follow the above rules. The conjugation of 㧊┺, 㞚┞┺, and 䞮┺ is irregular in that the polite speech level of 㧊┺ is 㧊㠦㣪, 㞚┞┺ is 㞚┞㠦㣪, and 䞮┺ is 䟊㣪. 㧊┺ 㧊㠊㣪 (X) 㧊㠦㣪 (O) 㞚┞┺ 㞚┞㠊㣪 (X) 㞚┞㠦㣪 (O) 䞮┺ 䞮㞚㣪 (X) 䟊㣪 (O) The endings -㠊V㞚㣪 are used for all sentence types: declarative, imperat- ive, interrogative, and propositive. For instance, consider the following: 㩦㕂㦚Gⲏ㠊㣪 “(I) eat lunch” 㩦㕂㦚Gⲏ㠊㣪f “(Do you) eat lunch?” 㩦㕂㦚Gⲏ㠊㣪H “Eat lunch!” 㩦㕂㦚Gⲏ㠊㣪. “(Let us) eat lunch” Koreans use contextual elements as well as intonation (e.g., rising intonation for a question) to figure out what sentence type the ending is used for. Mixed use of the deferential and polite speech levels Koreans frequently use the deferential speech level as well as the polite speech level together even in formal conversational settings. One pos- sible scenario is when you meet a person for the first time. The speakers may introduce themselves using the deferential speech level (using the aforementioned fixed expressions). However, once identified, they may switch to the polite speech level. The use of the polite speech level ending generates an effect of making a dialogue sound less formal, even in formal conversational contexts. Exercises Key vocabulary for Unit 5 exercises ṖỢ store Ṗ⯊䂮┺ to teach Ị⍞┺ to cross over Ὃ ball ῂ⚦ shoes 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3232 7/4/2008 1:34:46 PM  Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels 33 ⁎Ⰲ┺ to draw ⁎Ⱂ painting ₆┺Ⰲ┺ to wait ₆⿚ feeling ₆㹾 train ₆䣢 chance ₎ road ₾⊭䞮┺ to be clean ⋶㝾 weather ⌊⩺Ṗ┺ to go down ⓦⰂ┺ to be slow ╁┺ to close ╂┺ to be sweet ╊⺆ cigarette ╖䞯㌳ college student ▮㰖┺ to throw ⚦✲Ⰲ┺ to knock ➆⯊┺ to follow ⥾ỗ┺ to be hot (water) Ⱎ㔲┺ to drink Ⱎ䂮┺ to finish ⰺ㧒 everyday ⲏ┺ to eat Ⲗ┺ to be far ⶎ door ⶒ water ⶒἶ₆ fish ⹕┺ to believe ⹧ bottom ⹪㊮┺ to be busy ⹱┺ to receive ⹿ room ⺆ stomach ⺆㤆┺ to learn ⻚Ⰲ┺ to throw away ⻚㓺 bus ⽊⌊┺ to send ⽊┺ to see; to watch アⰂ┺ to borrow ㍶㌳┮ teacher ㏦ hand 㑯㩲 homework 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3333 7/4/2008 1:34:46 PM  34 Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels 㓓┺ to be easy 㝆⩞₆ garbage 㔲䠮 test 㔲⊚⩓┺ to be noisy 㔶┺ to wear (shoes) 㕇㕇䞮┺ to be fresh 㞑┺ to wash 㞚┞┺ not be 㞚䂾 morning 㞚䝚┺ to be hurt 㞟┺ to sit 㟒㺚 vegetable 㠊❪ where 㠎㩲 when 㡂₆ here 㡊┺ to open 㡗㠊 English 㡗䢪 movie 㧒 work 㧒㠊⋮┺ to get up 㧒㹣 early 㧓┺ to read 㧛┺ to wear (clothes) 㧦┺ to sleep 㧷┺ to catch 㨂⹎㧞┺ to be interesting 㩦㕂 lunch 㫡┺ to be good 㭒┺ to give 㰖ṧ wallet 㰧 house 㺔┺ to find 㺛 book 㿻┺ to be cold 䂲ῂ friend 䄺䞒 coffee 䆪Ⲫ❪ comedy 䆪䔎 coat 䋂Ợ aloud 䌖┺ to ride 䌳㔲 taxi 䕪┺ to sell 䘎㰖 a letter 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3434 7/4/2008 1:34:46 PM  Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels 35 䞒㤆┺ to smoke 䞮⓮ sky 䞮┺ to do 䞯ᾦ school 䞲ῃG㌂⧢ Koreans 䞲ῃ㠊 the Korean language 䠺㠊㰖┺ to be separated/break up 䦦Ⰲ┺ to be cloudy Exercise 5.1 Conjugate each verb or adjective with the deferential speech level ending (declarative) and translate each sentence. Example: 䞯ᾦ㠦 OṖ┺P = 䞯ᾦ㠦Gṧ┞┺ “(I) go to school” 1 㩦㕂㦚 Oⲏ┺P 2 䞲ῃ㠊⯒ OṖ⯊䂮┺P 3 䂲ῂ⯒ O₆┺Ⰲ┺P 4 䄺䞒⯒ OⰞ㔲┺P 5 䘎㰖⯒ O⹱┺P 6 㡗㠊⯒ O⺆㤆┺P 7 ⹿㧊 O₾⊭䞮┺P 8 ₆㹾Ṗ OⓦⰂ┺P 9 ⶒ㧊 O⥾ỗ┺P 10 ⰺ㧒 O⹪㊮┺P Exercise 5.2 Conjugate each verb or adjective with the deferential speech level ending (interrogative) and translate each sentence. Example: 䞯ᾦ㠦 OṖ┺P = 䞯ᾦ㠦Gṧ┞₢f “Do (you) go to school?” 1 㠎㩲GṖỢGⶎ㦚GO╁┺P 2 㠊❪㍲G㏦㦚GO㞑┺P 3 㠎㩲GO㞟┺P 4 㠊❪㍲GO㧦┺P 5 ╊⺆⯒GO䞒㤆┺P 6 㰖ṧ㦚GO㺔┺P 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3535 7/4/2008 1:34:47 PM  36 Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels 7 ⋶㝾ṖGO㿻┺P 8 㔲䠮㧊GO㓓┺P 9 ₆⿚㧊GO㫡┺P 10 㰧㧊GO㔲⊚⩓┺P Exercise 5.3 Conjugate each verb or adjective with the deferential speech level ending (imperative) and translate each sentence. Example: 䞯ᾦ㠦GOṖ┺P = 䞯ᾦ㠦GṖ㕃㔲㡺 “Please go to school” 1 ₎㦚GOỊ⍞┺P 2 ⹧㦒⪲GO⌊⩺Ṗ┺P 3 Ὃ㦚GO▮㰖┺P 4 ⶎ㦚GO⚦✲Ⰲ┺P 5 ㍶㌳┮㦚GO➆⯊┺P 6 䂲ῂ⯒GO⹕┺P 7 ῂ⚦⯒GO㔶┺P 8 䆪䔎⯒GO㧛┺P 9 ㏦㦚GO㧷┺P 10 䋂ỢGO㣎䂮┺P Exercise 5.4 Conjugate each verb or adjective with the deferential speech level ending (propositiveP and translate each sentence. Example: 䞯ᾦ㠦GOṖ┺P = 䞯ᾦ㠦Gṧ㔲┺ “(Let us) go to school” 1 䘎㰖⯒GO⽊⌊┺P 2 ⁎Ⱂ㦚GO⁎Ⰲ┺P 3 ⶒἶ₆⯒GO㧷┺P 4 㺛㦚GO㧓┺P 5 㧒㦚GOⰞ䂮┺P 6 ⻚㓺⯒GO䌖┺P 7 㡂₆㍲GO䠺㠊㰖┺P 8 䆪⹎❪G㡗䢪⯒GO⽊┺P 9 ₆䣢⯒GO㭒┺P 10 㝆⩞₆⯒GO⻚Ⰲ┺P 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3636 7/4/2008 1:34:47 PM  Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels 37 Exercise 5.5 Underline which of the two English translations below is the correct ver- sion of the Korean in each case: Example: ⻚㓺⯒G䌧㔲┺ “(Let us) take a bus”/“Take a bus” 1 Page 5 ⯒G㧓㦒㕃㔲㡺. “(Let us) read page 5”/“Read page 5.” 2 ㏦㦚G㞑㦣㔲┺. “Wash hands”/“(Let us) wash hands.” 3 㺓ⶎ㦚G╁㦒㕃㔲㡺. “(Let us) close the window”/“Close the window.” 4 㺛㦚GアⰓ㔲┺. “(Let us) borrow the book”/“Borrow the book.” 5 ☚㍲ὖ㠦㍲G⋮Ṗ㕃㔲㡺. “Go out from the library”/“(Let us) go out from the library.” 6 ⶒ㦚GⰞ㕃㔲㡺. “Drink water”/“(Let us) drink water.” 7 㦢㔳㦚G㭣㔲┺. “(Let us) give (them) food”/“Give (them) food.” 8 㥶┞䙒㦚G㧛㦒㕃㔲┺. “Wear the uniform”/“(Let us) wear the uniform.” 9 䞲ῃ㠊⯒G⺆㤆㕃㔲㡺. “Learn the Korean language”/“(Let us) learn the Korean language.” 10 ㍲㤎⪲G⟶⋿㔲┺. “(Let us) leave for Seoul”/“Leave for Seoul.” Exercise 5.6 Conjugate each verb or adjective in parenthesis with the polite speech level ending and translate the sentence, as shown in the example: Example: {} ⯒ O⽊┺P = {} ⯒G⽦㣪 “(I) watch TV” 1 ₎㦚GOỊ⍞┺P 2 ⶎ㦚GO㡊┺P 3 㺛㦚GO䕪┺P 4 㝆⩞₆⯒GO⻚Ⰲ┺P 5 ⶎ㦚GO╁┺P 6 㧒㦚GOⰞ䂮┺P 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3737 7/4/2008 1:34:47 PM  38 Unit 5: Deferential and polite speech levels 7 㺛㦚GOアⰂ┺P 8 ㏦㦚GO㞑┺PU 9 㞚䂾㠦G㧒㹣GO㧒㠊⋮┺P 10 䌳㔲⯒GO䌖┺P 11 㰧㧊GO㫡┺P 12 㡗䢪ṖGO㨂⹎㧞┺P 13 䞲ῃG㌂⧢GO㧊┺P 14 㑯㩲⯒GO䞮┺P 15 ╖䞯㌳㧊GO㞚┞┺P 16 䞯ᾦṖGOⲖ┺P 17 䄺䞒ṖGO╂┺P 18 ⺆ṖGO㞚䝚┺P 19 䞮⓮㧊GO䦦Ⰲ┺P 20 㟒㺚ṖGO㕇㕇䞮┺P 9780415774871_C05.indd 05.indd 3838 7/4/2008 1:34:47 PM  UNIT 6 The subject case particle 㧊/Ṗ i/ka Case and special particles One unique characteristic of Korean is that nouns are typically marked by particles. There is no corresponding equivalent in English. Korean has two types of particles: case particles and special particles. Case particles indicate the syntactic role of the noun to which they are attached (e.g., whether the noun is a subject, an object, an indirect object, and so on). Case particles include 㧊/Ṗ “subject case particle,” 㦚/⯒ “object case particle,” and so on. Consider the following exemplary sentence: 㺆㓺ṖG䄺䞒⯒GⰞ㎪㣪 “Charles drinks coffee”