Week 1 Argumentation and Reasoning PDF

**Week 1** **Argument:** communicative process in which the author tries to convince the reader to accept their claim. Concerned with acceptance.\ **≠ Reasoning: cognitive process.** **≠ Explaining: concerned with understanding**. Argument for Cicero \> A reason, which makes a matter firmer about...

**Week 1** **Argument:** communicative process in which the author tries to convince the reader to accept their claim. Concerned with acceptance.\ **≠ Reasoning: cognitive process.** **≠ Explaining: concerned with understanding**. Argument for Cicero \> A reason, which makes a matter firmer about which there is doubt. Argument for Quintilian \> The reason which, by things that are certain, gives credibility to that is doubted. **Syllogism:** form of deductive argument. Method of reasoning by drawing a conclusion from two premises. - Major premise: provides a statement or a general rule. - Minor premise: connected to the major premise, it applies the general rule/statement to a specific case. - Conclusion: it logically connects the two premises. **Example \> All humans are mortal (major premise), Socrates is human (minor premise) Therefore, Socrates is mortal (Conclusion)** **~~Example~~ \> All cats are mammals (major premise), All dogs are mammals (minor premise). Therefore, all cats are dogs (conclusion)\ **This is an incorrect syllogism known as "faulty generalization". Both premises tell us about cats and dogs, but not about their relationships. The Conclusion is not connected to the two premises. Therefore, you cannot logically conclude anything with this information. **Elements of an argument** 1. The reader doubts the acceptability of one of the statements. 2. The supporting statement must be able to be related to the questioned statement in a relevant way. **\ \ Historical introduction** - Plato and the Academy \> Considered the first "philosopher", because he funded the Akademia (university.) He learned his ways and dialectics from his master Socrates who was known for the way he discredited opponent's arguments by asking pertinent questions. **Philosophy vs Sophism** \> Truth seeking vs winning public speaking contests. Sophists' thought of the truth as *relative*. **Argumentation for Aristotle\ ***Ethos*: based on the character of the speaker (speaker oriented) **Example \> If choosing between following the advice of a fitness blogger with no formal training or a registered dietician, you go for the registered dietician because their qualifications give more weight to the advice.** - *Pathos:* based on the emotions of the public (audience oriented) **Example \> doctors wearing white coats to appear more competent/knowledgeable, alarming messages on cigarette packs to make people feel guilty about smoking.** - *Logos:* based on rational considerations (case oriented) One should be convinced by logos only. It is done by replacing the argument with symbols. If you assume the premises are true, the conclusion might also be true. **Example \> Laura said she would go to the movies (q) or (v) to the pub (p). The movie is sold out so she must have gone to the pub.** **~~Example~~ \> this is not good. Elon redirected the question to Jeff, but he was supposed to argue in favour of his previous statement.\ ** **Argument analysis**: determines how coherent the individual argument is for the position that is being put forward. Determines the extent to which you agree or disagree with the author\'s position. These are considered passive argumentative skills. - **Argument mapping:** Results in an argument map. Answer the questions - Is argumentation present? Which statements in the text have what argumentative function? What is the main standpoint put forward by the author? What arguments are presented to render the main standpoint acceptable? And are those arguments themselves further supported? Results in an argument map that explains the content relation between the main point and the argumentation. - **Identification of argument types:** Answer the question - How are they expressing their argument? -- Complex argumentation is a combination of more argument types. 1. **Dependent**: the conclusion relies on the support of multiple premises, and the premises are interrelated. If one premise is weak or invalid, the entire argument is affected. 2. **Independent**: each premise supports the conclusion independently of the others. The conclusion is supported by multiple, separate arguments. 3. **Chain**: In a chain argument, multiple premises are linked together in a sequence to reach a conclusion. - **Evaluation** *\>* Different approaches depending on the kind of argument. Answer to -- What is the quality of individual arguments? **Example \> All humans need food to survive (major premise). John is human (minor premise). Therefore, John needs food to survive. (Conclusion)\ This is dependent argumentation because the conclusion is dependent on the combined support of both premises.**\ \ **Example \> Regular exercise improves cardiovascular health (major premise). Eating a balanced diet contributes to overall well being (minor premise). To stay healthy, one should both exercise and eat a balanced diet.\ This is independent argumentation because both premises are supporting the conclusion on their own. The validity of the conclusion doesn't rely on the connection between premises.** **Example \> If it rains, the ground will be wet (major premise). If the ground is wet, the game will be cancelled (minor premise). If it rains the game will be cancelled.\ This is chained argumentation because each link in the chain depends on the previous one, and the conclusion is derived by connecting these links.\ ** **Argument mapping** Recognize standpoint and arguments. - **Standpoint:** represents the speaker's main claim or point of view on a particular issue. It often uses strong words like it should, it must.\ **≠ Major premise: limited to the structure of syllogism. It provides a general rule or principle that contributes to logical reasoning.**\ **Example \> "Climate change is the most pressing environmental issue in our time"\ It\'s a standpoint because it states the speaker main position on climate change.** - **Arguments:** reasons or evidence used to support the standpoint. It aims to convince the audience of the validity of the standpoint by proving logical (logos), factual (ethos) or emotional (pathos) support. - **Lever:** connection between a standpoint and arguments. It typically involves introducing a key fact, principle or assertion that should strengthen the arguments.\ **≠ Minor premise: limited to the syllogism. Provides specific case to support the conclusion based on a general rule.\ Example \> We should invest in renewable energy (claim) Renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, have been shown to significantly reduce carbon emissions compared to fossil fuels. (lever)\ The lever here strengthens the argument by providing reasons to support the investment in renewable energy.** **Serial argumentation:** Involves a sequence of arguments that support each other. The strength of the conclusion depends on the cumulative effect of these arguments. Each argument is logically related to the next\ **≠ Dependent argumentation: refers more broadly to arguments that rely on the connectedness of premises to support a conclusion.** **Example \> If we reduce carbon emissions, we can slow down climate change (argument 1). To reduce carbon emissions, we need to invest in renewable energy sources (argument 2). Therefore, investing in renewable energy will help slow down climate change.\ The conclusion is reached by the connection of the arguments, each step depends on the previous one.\ ** **Parallel argumentation:** involves a series of independent arguments that support the same conclusion. They do not rely on each other, but they are interconnected in terms of their support. **≠ Independent argumentation: separate arguments that support the conclusion on their own.** **Example \> Renewable energy reduces greenhouse gas emission (argument 1). Renewable energy decreases our dependence on fossil fuels (argument 2). Renewable energy can lead to job creation in new industries (argument 3). Therefore, investing in renewable energy is beneficial (conclusion)** **Each argument individually support the conclusion, and the conclusion is strengthened by the cumulative support of the arguments.** **Quiz questions**