Architecture: Form, Space, & Order PDF

ARCHITECTURE Form, Space, & Order Fourth Edition ARCHITECTURE Form, Space, & Order Fourth Edition Francis D.K. Ching Cover design: Wiley Cover image: Courtesy of Francis D.K. Ching This book is printed on acid-free ∞ paper. Copyright © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. 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NA2760.C46 2014 720.1--dc23 201402021 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 C ON T E N T S Preface vii Acknowledgments viii Introduction ix 1 Primary Elements 3 Form & Space Primary Elements 2 Form & Space 100 Point 4 Form & Space: Unity of Opposites 102 Point Elements 5 Form Defining Space 110 Two Points 6 Horizontal Elements Defining Space 111 Line 8 Base Plane 112 Linear Elements 10 Elevated Base Plane 114 Linear Elements Defining Planes 15 Depressed Base Plane 120 From Line to Plane 14 Overhead Plane 126 Plane 18 Vertical Elements Defining Space 134 Planar Elements 20 Vertical Linear Elements 136 Volume 28 Single Vertical Plane 144 Volumetric Elements 30 L-Shaped Configuration of Planes 148 L-Shaped Planes 149 2 Form Parallel Vertical Planes 154 Form 34 Parallel Planes 155 Properties of Form 35 U-Shaped Planes 160 Shape 36 Four Planes: Closure 166 Primary Shapes 38 Four Planes: Enlosure 170 Circle 39 Openings in Space-Defining Elements 174 Triangle 40 Openings within Planes 176 Square 41 Openings at Corners 178 Surfaces 42 Openings between Planes 180 Curved Surfaces 43 Qualities of Architectural Space 182 Primary Solids 46 Degree of Enclosure 184 Regular & Irregular Forms 50 Light 186 Transformation of Form 54 View 190 Dimensional Transformation 56 Subtractive Form 58 4 Organization Subtractive & Additive Forms 61 Organization of Form & Space 196 Additive Form 62 Spatial Relationships 197 Centralized Form 64 Space within a Space 198 Linear Form 66 Interlocking Spaces 200 Radial Form 70 Adjacent Spaces 202 Clustered Form 72 Spaces Linked by a Common Space 204 Grid Form 76 Spatial Organizations 206 Formal Collisions of Geometry 78 Centralized Organizations 208 Circle & Square 80 Linear Organizations 218 Rotated Grid 82 Radial Organizations 228 Articulation of Form 84 Clustered Organizations 234 Edges & Corners 86 Grid Organizations 242 Corners 87 Surface Articulation 92 C ON T E N TS 5 Circulation A Selected Bibliography 425 Circulation: Movement through Space 252 Glossary 427 Circulation Elements 253 Index of Buildings 435 Approach 254 Index of Designers 441 Entrance 262 Index of Subject Matter 443 Configuration of the Path 276 Path-Space Relationships 290 Form of the Circulation Space 294 6 Proportion & Scale Proportion & Scale 306 Material Proportions 307 Structural Proportions 308 Manufactured Proportions 310 Proportioning Systems 311 Golden Section 314 Regulating Lines 318 Classical Orders 320 Renaissance Theories 326 Modulor 330 Ken 334 Anthropometry 338 Scale 341 Visual Scale 342 Human Scale 344 A Scalar Comparison 346 7 Principles Ordering Principles 350 Axis 352 Symmetry 360 Hierarchy 370 Datum 380 Rhythm 396 Repetition 397 Transformation 418 Conclusion 422 P RE FA C E The original edition of this study introduced the student of architecture to form and space and the principles that guide their ordering in the built environment. Form and space are the critical means of architecture comprising a design vocabulary that is both elemental and timeless. The second edition continued to be a comprehensive primer on the ways form and space are interrelated and organized in the shaping of our environment, and was refined by editing the text and incorporating diagrams for greater clarity, adding selected examples of architectural works, expanding the sections on openings, stairways, and scale, and finally, by including a glossary and an index to designers. The third edition persisted in illustrating the ways the fundamental elements and principles of architectural design manifest themselves over the course of human history but added an electronic component to introduce the aspects of time and movement to the exposition of elements and principles. In this fourth edition, major changes consist of the addition of more than two dozen contemporary examples, selected to illustrate the new forms that go beyond the timeless elements of basic statics—the columns, beams, and load-bearing walls of stable constructions that are fixed in time and space. Five more modules have also been added to the electronic component to animate certain design decisions regarding scale and proportion, the type of visual, often subtle judgements that designers face in the development of a project. The historical models in this book span time and cross cultural boundaries. While the juxtaposition of styles may appear to be abrupt at times, the diverse range of examples is deliberate. The collage is intended to persuade the reader to look for likenesses among seemingly unlike constructions and bring into sharper focus the critical distinctions that reflect the time and place of their making. Readers are encouraged to take note of additional examples encountered or recalled within the context of their individual experiences. As the design elements and principles become more familiar, new connections, relationships, and levels of meaning may be established. The illustrated examples are neither exhaustive nor necessarily the prototypes for the concepts and principles discussed. Their selection merely serves to illuminate and clarify the formal and spatial ideas being explored. These seminal ideas transcend their historical context and encourage speculation: How might they be analyzed, perceived, and experienced? How might they be transformed into coherent, useful, and meaningful structures of space and enclosure? How might they be reapplied to a range of architectural problems? This manner of presentation attempts to promote a more evocative understanding of the architecture one experiences, the architecture one encounters in literature, and the architecture one imagines while designing. P REFACE / V II A C K NOWL E D G ME NTS I will always be indebted to the following people for their invaluable contributions to the original edition of this work: Forrest Wilson, whose insights into the communication of design principles helped clarify the organization of the material, and whose support made its initial publication possible; James Tice, whose knowledge and understanding of architectural history and theory strengthened the development of this study; Norman Crowe, whose diligence and skill in the teaching of architecture encouraged me to pursue this work; Roger Sherwood, whose research into the organizational principles of form fostered the development of the chapter on ordering principles; Daniel Friedman, for his enthusiasm and careful editing of the final copy; Diane Turner and Philip Hamp, for their assistance in researching material for the illustrations; and to the editorial and production staff at Van Nostrand Reinhold, for their exceptional support and service during the making of the first edition. For the second edition, my appreciation extends to the many students and their teachers who have used this book over the years and offered suggestions for its improvement as a reference and tool for study and teaching. I want to especially thank the following educators for their careful critique of the first edition: L. Rudolph Barton, Laurence A. Clement, Jr., Kevin Forseth, Simon Herbert, Jan Jennings, Marjorie Kriebel, Thomas E. Steinfeld, Cheryl Wagner, James M. Wehler, and Robert L. Wright. In preparing the third edition, I am grateful to Michele Chiuini, Ahmeen Farooq, and Dexter Hulse for their thoughtful reviews of the second edition. While I attempted to incorporate much of their wise counsel, I remain solely responsible for any deficiencies remaining in the text. I especially want to express my gratitude to the editorial and production staff at John Wiley & Sons for their invaluable support and encouragement, and to Nan-ching Tai for his creative contributions and technical assistance in preparing the electronic component of the third edition. Dr. Karen Spence, Gary Crafts, Lohren Deeg, and Dr. Ralph Hammann provided valuable insights and suggestions for this fourth edition. I want to especially recognize Paul Drougas and Lauren Olesky of John Wiley & Sons for their continuing editorial assistance and support, which made this publication not only possible but also an enjoyable endeavor. To Debra, Emily, and Andrew, whose love of life it is ultimately the role of architecture to nourish. V I I I / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R IN T RODUC T I ON Architecture is generally conceived—designed—realized—built—in response to an existing set of conditions. These conditions may be purely functional in nature, or they may also reflect in varying degrees the social, political, and economic climate. In any case, it is assumed that the existing set of conditions—the problem—is less than satisfactory and that a new set of conditions—a solution—would be desirable. The act of creating architecture, then, is a problem-solving or design process. The initial phase of any design process is the recognition of a problematic condition and the decision to find a solution to it. Design is above all a willful act, a purposeful endeavor. A designer must first document the existing conditions of a problem, define its context, and collect relevant data to be assimilated and analyzed. This is the critical phase of the design process since the nature of a solution is inexorably related to how a problem is perceived, defined, and articulated. Piet Hein, the noted Danish poet and scientist, puts it this way: “Art is solving problems that cannot be formulated before they have been solved. The shaping of the question is part of the answer.” Designers inevitably and instinctively prefigure solutions to the problems they are confronted with, but the depth and range of their design vocabulary influence both their perception of a question and the shaping of its answer. If one’s understanding of a design language is limited, then the range of possible solutions to a problem will also be limited. This book focuses, therefore, on broadening and enriching a vocabulary of design through the study of its essential elements and principles and the exploration of a wide array of solutions to architectural problems developed over the course of human history. As an art, architecture is more than satisfying the purely functional requirements of a building program. Fundamentally, the physical manifestations of architecture accommodate human activity. However, the arrangement and ordering of forms and spaces also determine how architecture might promote endeavors, elicit responses, and communicate meaning. So while this study focuses on formal and spatial ideas, it is not intended to diminish the importance of the social, political, or economic aspects of architecture. Form and space are presented not as ends in themselves but as means to solve a problem in response to conditions of function, purpose, and context—that is, architecturally. The analogy may be made that one must know and understand the alphabet before words can be formed and a vocabulary developed; one must understand the rules of grammar and syntax before sentences can be constructed; one must understand the principles of composition before essays, novels, and the like can be written. Once these elements are understood, one can write poignantly or with force, call for peace or incite to riot, comment on trivia or speak with insight and meaning. In a similar way, it might be appropriate to be able to recognize the basic elements of form and space and understand how they can be manipulated and organized in the development of a design concept, before addressing the more vital issue of meaning in architecture. I NTROD UCTION / IX I N T R O D U CTION In order to place this study in proper context, the following is an overview of the In all cases, however, these elements and systems should be interrelated basic elements, systems, and orders that constitute a work of architecture. All to form an integrated whole having a unifying or coherent structure. of these constituents can be perceived and experienced. Some may be readily Architectural order is created when the organization of parts makes visible apparent while others are more obscure to our intellect and senses. Some may their relationships to each other and the structure as a whole. When these dominate while others play a secondary role in a building’s organization. Some relationships are perceived as mutually reinforcing and contributing to the may convey images and meaning while others serve as qualifiers or modifiers of singular nature of the whole, then a conceptual order exists—an order that these messages. may well be more enduring than transient perceptual visions. Architectural Systems The Architecture of Space t PSHBOJ[BUJPOBMQBUUFSO SFMBUJPOTIJQT DMBSJUZ IJFSBSDIZ Structure t GPSNBMJNBHFBOETQBUJBMEFGJOJUJPO Enclosure t RVBMJUJFTPGTIBQF DPMPS UFYUVSF TDBMF QSPQPSUJPO t RVBMJUJFTPGTVSGBDFT FEHFT BOEPQFOJOHT Experienced through Movement in t BQQSPBDIBOEFOUSZ Space-Time t QBUIDPOGJHVSBUJPOBOEBDDFTT t TFRVFODFPGTQBDFT t MJHIU WJFX UPVDI TPVOE BOETNFMM Achieved by means of Technology t TUSVDUVSFBOEFODMPTVSF t FOWJSPONFOUBMQSPUFDUJPOBOEDPNGPSU t IFBMUI TBGFUZ BOEXFMGBSF t EVSBCJMJUZBOETVTUBJOBCJMJUZ Accommodating a Program t VTFSSFRVJSFNFOUT OFFET BTQJSBUJPOT t TPDJPDVMUVSBMGBDUPST t FDPOPNJDGBDUPST t MFHBMDPOTUSBJOUT t IJTUPSJDBMUSBEJUJPOBOEQSFDFEFOUT Compatible with its Context t TJUFBOEFOWJSPONFOU t DMJNBUFTVO XJOE UFNQFSBUVSF QSFDJQJUBUJPO t HFPHSBQIZTPJMT UPQPHSBQIZ WFHFUBUJPO XBUFS t TFOTPSZBOEDVMUVSBMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFQMBDF X / ARCHIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R IN T RODUC T I ON …& Orders Physical Form and Space Systems and organizations of tTPMJETBOEWPJET t TQBDF tJOUFSJPSBOEFYUFSJPS t TUSVDUVSF t FODMPTVSF t NBDIJOFT Perceptual Sensory perception and recognition of the physical t BQQSPBDIBOEEFQBSUVSF elements by experiencing them sequentially in time t FOUSZBOEFHSFTT t NPWFNFOUUISPVHIUIFPSEFSPGTQBDFT t GVODUJPOJOHPGBOEBDUJWJUJFTXJUIJOTQBDFT t RVBMJUJFTPGMJHIU DPMPS UFYUVSF WJFX BOETPVOE Conceptual Comprehension of the ordered or disordered t JNBHFT relationships among a building’s elements and systems, t QBUUFSOT and responding to the meanings they evoke t TJHOT t TZNCPMT t DPOUFYU SPACE FUNCTION FORM TECHNICS* * Technics refers to the theory, principles, or study of an art or a process. I NTROD UCTION / X I I N T R O D U CTION Spatial System Structural System t 5IFUISFFEJNFOTJPOBMJOUFHSBUJPOPGQSPHSBNFMFNFOUTBOETQBDFT t "HSJEPGDPMVNOTTVQQPSUTIPSJ[POUBMCFBNTBOETMBCT accommodates the multiple functions and relationships of a house. t 5IFDBOUJMFWFSBDLOPXMFEHFTUIFEJSFDUJPOPGBQQSPBDIBMPOHUIF longitudinal axis. Enclosure System t 'PVSFYUFSJPSXBMMQMBOFTEFGJOFBSFDUBOHVMBSWPMVNFUIBUDPOUBJOT the program elements and spaces. Villa Savoye, Poissy, east of Paris, 1923–31, Le Corbusier This graphic analysis illustrates the way architecture embodies the harmonious integration of interacting and interrelated parts into a complex and unified whole. XI I / AR C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R IN T RODUC T I ON Circulation System Context t 5IFTUBJSBOESBNQQFOFUSBUFBOEMJOLUIFUISFFMFWFMT BOEIFJHIUFO t "TJNQMFFYUFSJPSGPSNXSBQTBSPVOEBDPNQMFYJOUFSJPSPSHBOJ[BUJPO the viewer’s perception of forms in space and light. of forms and spaces. t 5IFDVSWFEGPSNPGUIFFOUSBODFGPZFSSFGMFDUTUIFNPWFNFOUPG t &MFWBUJOHUIFNBJOGMPPSQSPWJEFTBCFUUFSWJFXBOEBWPJETUIFIVNJEJUZ the automobile. of the ground. t "HBSEFOUFSSBDFEJTUSJCVUFTTVOMJHIUUPUIFTQBDFTHBUIFSFEBSPVOEJU “Its severe, almost square exterior surrounds an intricate interior configura- tion glimpsed through openings and from protrusions above.... Its inside order accommodates the multiple functions of a house, domestic scale, and partial mystery inherent in a sense of privacy. Its outside order expresses the unity of the idea of house at an easy scale appropriate to the green field it dominated and possibly to the city it will one day be part of.” Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, 1966 I N T ROD UCTION / X III XI V / AR C HIT EC T UR E: FORM , S PA C E , & O R D E R 1 Primary Elements “All pictorial form begins with the point that sets itself in motion… The point moves... and the line comes into being—the first dimension. If the line shifts to form a plane, we obtain a two-dimensional element. In the movement from plane to spaces, the clash of planes gives rise to body (three-dimensional)... A summary of the kinetic energies which move the point into a line, the line into a plane, and the plane into a spatial dimension.” Paul Klee The Thinking Eye: The Notebooks of Paul Klee (English translation) 1961 P R I M A RY E L E ME N T S This opening chapter presents the primary elements of form in the order of their growth from the point to a one-dimensional line, from the line to a two- dimensional plane, and from the plane to a three-dimensional volume. Each element is first considered as a conceptual element, then as a visual element in the vocabulary of architectural design. As conceptual elements, the point, line, plane, and volume are not visible except to the mind’s eye. While they do not actually exist, we nevertheless feel their presence. We can sense a point at the meeting of two lines, a line marking the contour of a plane, a plane enclosing a volume, and the volume of an object that occupies space. When made visible to the eye on paper or in three-dimensional space, these elements become form with characteristics of substance, shape, size, color, and texture. As we experience these forms in our environment, we should be able to perceive in their structure the existence of the primary elements of point, line, plane, and volume. 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R PR IMA RY E L E M E N T S As the prime generator of form, the Point indicates a position in space. Point A point extended becomes a Line with properties of: Line t MFOHUI t EJSFDUJPO t QPTJUJPO A line extended becomes a Plane with properties of: Plane t MFOHUIBOEXJEUI t TIBQF t TVSGBDF t PSJFOUBUJPO t QPTJUJPO A plane extended becomes a Volume with properties of: Volume t MFOHUI XJEUI BOEEFQUI t GPSNBOETQBDF t TVSGBDF t PSJFOUBUJPO t QPTJUJPO PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 3 POINT t A point marks a position in space. Conceptually, it has no length, width, or depth, and is therefore static, centralized, and directionless. As the prime element in the vocabulary of form, a point can serve to mark: t UIFUXPFOETPGBMJOF t UIFJOUFSTFDUJPOPGUXPMJOFT t UIFNFFUJOHPGMJOFTBUUIFDPSOFSPGBQMBOFPSWPMVNF t UIFDFOUFSPGBGJFME Although a point theoretically has neither shape nor form, it begins to make its presence felt when placed within a visual field. At the center of its environment, a point is stable and at rest, organizing surrounding elements about itself and dominating its field. When the point is moved off-center, however, its field becomes more aggressive and begins to compete for visual supremacy. Visual tension is created between the point and its field. 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R P O INT E L E M E N T S A point has no dimension. To visibly mark a position in space or on the ground plane, a point must be projected vertically into a linear form, as a column, obelisk, or tower. Any such columnar element is seen in plan as a point and therefore retains the visual characteristics of a point. Other point-generated forms that share these same visual attributes are the: Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome, c. 1544, Michelangelo Buonarroti. The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius marks the center of this urban space. t $JSDMF 5IPMPTPG1PMZDMFJUPT, Epidauros, Greece, c. 350 B.C. t $ZMJOEFS #BQUJTUFSZBU1JTB, Italy, 1153–1265, Diotisalvi t 4QIFSF $FOPUBQIGPS4JS*TBBD/FXUPO, Project, 1784, Étienne-Louis Boulée Mont St. Michel, France, 13th century and later. The pyramidal composition culminates in a spire that serves to establish this fortified monastery as a specific place in the landscape. PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 5 TW O POIN TS Two points describe a line that connects them. Although the points give this line finite length, the line can also be considered a segment of an infinitely longer path. Two points further suggest an axis perpendicular to the line they describe and about which they are symmetrical. Because this axis may be infinite in length, it can be at times more dominant than the described line. In both cases, however, the described line and the perpendicular axis are optically more dominant than the infinite number of lines that may pass through each of the individual points. 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R T W O P OI N T S Two points established in space by columnar elements or centralized forms can define an axis, an ordering device used throughout history to organize building forms and spaces. 5PSJJ *TF4ISJOF, Mie Prefecture, Japan, A.D. 690 In plan, two points can denote a gateway signifying passage from one place to another. Extended vertically, the two points define both a plane of entry and an approach perpendicular to it. The Mall, Washington, D.C., lies along the axis established by the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, and the United States Capitol building. PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 7 LINE A point extended becomes a line. Conceptually, a line has length, but no width or depth. Whereas a point is by nature static, a line, in describing the path of a point in motion, is capable of visually expressing direction, movement, and growth. A line is a critical element in the formation of any visual construction. A line can serve to: t KPJO MJOL TVQQPSU TVSSPVOE PS intersect other visual elements t EFTDSJCFUIFFEHFTPGBOEHJWFTIBQFUPQMBOFT t BSUJDVMBUFUIFTVSGBDFTPGQMBOFT 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R LINE Although a line theoretically has only one dimension, it must have some degree of thickness to become visible. It is seen as a line simply because its length dominates its width. The character of a line, whether taut or limp, bold or tentative, graceful or ragged, is determined by our perception of its length–width ratio, its contour, and its degree of continuity. Even the simple repetition of like or similar elements, if continuous enough, can be regarded as a line. This type of line has significant textural qualities. The orientation of a line affects its role in a visual construction. While a vertical line can express a state of equilibrium with the force of gravity, symbolize the human condition, or mark a position in space, a horizontal line can represent stability, the ground plane, the horizon, or a body at rest. An oblique line is a deviation from the vertical or horizontal. It may be seen as a vertical line falling or a horizontal line rising. In either case, whether it is falling toward a point on the ground plane or rising to a place in the sky, it is dynamic and visually active in its unbalanced state. PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 9 L I N E A R E L E ME N TS Vertical linear elements, such as columns, obelisks, and towers, have been used throughout history to commemorate significant events and establish particular points in space. #FMM5PXFS $IVSDIBU7VPLTFOOJTLB, Imatra, Finland, 1956, Alvar Aalto.FOIJS, $PMVNOPG.BSDVT"VSFMJVT, 0CFMJTLPG-VYPS, a prehistoric monument consisting of an Piazza Colonna, Rome, A.D. 174. Place de la Concorde, Paris. The obelisk, which upright megalith, usually standing alone This cylindrical shaft commemorates marked the entrance to the Amon Temple at Luxor, but sometimes aligned with others. the emperor’s victory over Germanic was given by the viceroy of Egypt, Mohamed Ali, to tribes north of the Danube. Louis Phillipe and was installed in 1836. Vertical linear elements can also define a transparent volume of space. In the example illustrated to the left, four minaret towers outline a spatial field from which the dome of the Selim Mosque rises in splendor. Selim Mosque, Edirne, Turkey, A.D. 1569–1575 1 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R LIN EA R E L E M E N T S Linear members that possess the necessary material strength can perform structural functions. In these three examples, linear elements: t FYQSFTTNPWFNFOUBDSPTTTQBDF t QSPWJEFTVQQPSUGPSBOPWFSIFBEQMBOF t GPSNBUISFFEJNFOTJPOBMTUSVDUVSBMGSBNF for architectural space $BSZBUJE1PSDI, The Erechtheion, Athens, 421–405 B.C., Mnesicles. 4BMHJOBUPCFM#SJEHF, Switzerland, 1929–1930, Robert Maillart. The sculptured female figures stand as columnar supports for the Beams and girders have the bending strength to span the space entablature. between their supports and carry transverse loads. ,BUTVSB*NQFSJBM7JMMB, Kyoto, Japan, 17th century. Linear columns and beams together form a three-dimensional framework for architectural space. PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 1 L I N E A R E L E ME N TS A line can be an imagined element rather than a visible one in architecture. An example is the axis, a regulating line established by two distant points in space and about which elements are symmetrically arranged. 7JMMB"MEPCSBOEJOJ, Italy, 1598–1603, Giacomo Della Porta )PVTF, 1966, John Hejduk Although architectural space exists in three dimensions, it can be linear in form to accommodate the path of movement through a building and link its spaces to one another. Buildings also can be linear in form, particularly when they consist of repetitive spaces organized along a circulation path. As illustrated here, linear building forms have the ability to enclose exterior spaces as well as adapt to the environmental conditions of a site. $PSOFMM6OJWFSTJUZ6OEFSHSBEVBUF)PVTJOH (Project), Ithaca, New York, 1974, Richard Meier 1 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R LIN EA R E L E M E N T S 5PXO)BMM 4ÊZOÊUTBMP, Finland, 1950–1952, Alvar Aalto At a smaller scale, lines articulate the edges and surfaces of planes and volumes. These lines can be expressed by joints within or between building materials, by frames around window or door openings, or by a structural grid of columns and beams. How these linear elements affect the texture of a surface will depend on their visual weight, spacing, and direction. $SPXO)BMM, School of Architecture and Urban Design, Illinois Institute of Technology, 4FBHSBN#VJMEJOH, New York City, 1956–1958, Chicago, 1956, Mies van der Rohe Mies van de Rohe and Philip Johnson PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 3 FR O M L I N E TO PL ANE Two parallel lines have the ability to visually describe a plane. A transparent spatial membrane can be stretched between them to acknowledge their visual relationship. The closer these lines are to each other, the stronger will be the sense of plane they convey. A series of parallel lines, through their repetitiveness, reinforces our perception of the plane they describe. As these lines extend themselves along the plane they describe, the implied plane becomes real and the original voids between the lines revert to being mere interruptions of the planar surface. The diagrams illustrate the transformation of a row of round columns, initially supporting a portion of a wall, then evolving into square piers which are an integral part of the wall plane, and finally becoming pilasters—remnants of the original columns occurring as a relief along the surface of the wall. “The column is a certain strengthened part of a wall, carried up perpendicular from the foundation to the top … A row of columns is indeed nothing but a wall, open and discontinued in several places.” Leon Battista Alberti 1 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R LIN EA R ELEMEN T S D EF INI N G P L A N E S "MUFT.VTFVN, Berlin, 1823–1830, Karl Friedrich Schinkel A row of columns supporting an entablature—a colonnade—is often used to define the public face or facade of a building, especially one that fronts on a major civic space. A colonnaded facade can be penetrated easily for entry, offers a degree of shelter from the elements, and forms a semi-transparent screen that unifies individual building forms behind it. The Basilica, Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio designed this two-story loggia in 1545 to wrap around an existing medieval structure. This addition not only buttressed the existing structure but also acted as a screen that disguised the irregularity of the original core and 4UPBPG"UUBMVT fronting the Agora in Athens presented a uniform but elegant face to the Piazza del Signori. PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 5 L I N E A R E L E ME N TS DEFINING PLANES Cloister of.PJTTBD"CCFZ, France, c. 1100 In addition to the structural role columns play in supporting an These two examples illustrate how columns overhead floor or roof plane, they can articulate the penetrable can define the edges of an exterior space boundaries of spatial zones which mesh easily with adjacent defined within the mass of a building spaces. as well as articulate the edges of a building mass in space. 5FNQMFPG"UIFOB1PMJBT, Priene, c. 334 B.C., Pythius 4U1IJMJCFSU, Tournus, France, 950–1120. This view of the nave shows how rows of columns can provide a rhythmic measure of space. 1 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R LIN EA R ELEMEN T S D EF INI N G P L A N E S $BSZ)PVTF, Mill Valley, California, 1963, Joseph Esherick Trellised Courtyard, (FPSHJB0,FFGF3FTJEFODF, Abiquiu, northwest of Sante Fe, New Mexico The linear members of trellises and pergolas can provide a moderate degree of definition and enclosure for outdoor spaces while allowing filtered sunlight and breezes to penetrate. Vertical and horizontal linear elements together can define a volume of space such as the solarium illustrated to the right. Note that the form of the volume is determined solely by the configuration of the linear elements. Solarium of $POEPNJOJVN6OJU 4FB3BODI, California, 1966, Moore, Lyndon, Turnbull, Whitaker (MLTW) PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 7

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