AQA GCSE (9-1) Chemistry E-Book PDF

AQA GCSE Chemistry Student Book Richard Grime Nora Henry i The Publisher would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material. AQA material is reproduced by permission of AQA. p. 1 and 30 Richard Grime; p. 3 T © johny007pan - Foto...

AQA GCSE Chemistry Student Book Richard Grime Nora Henry i The Publisher would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material. AQA material is reproduced by permission of AQA. p. 1 and 30 Richard Grime; p. 3 T © johny007pan - Fotolia; p. 3 B © Dionisvera - Fotolia; p. 10 © SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p. 14 © sciencephotos / Alamy; p. 15 L © sciencephotos / Alamy; p. 15 M and 100 T © TREVOR CLIFFORD PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p. 15R © The Open University; p. 16 © MARTYN F. 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It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser. Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB. Telephone: +44 (0)1235 827720. Fax: +44 (0)1235 400454. Lines are open 9.00a.m.–5.00p.m., Monday to Saturday, with a 24-hour message answering service. Visit our website at www.hoddereducation.co.uk © Richard Grime and Nora Henry 2016 ISBN 978-1-4718-5134-6 First published in 2016 by Hodder Education An Hachette UK Company Carmelite House 50 Victoria Embankment London, EC4Y 0DZ Impression number 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 All rights reserved. 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Printed in UK A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. Contents Get the most out of this book v 1 Atomic structure and the periodic table 1 Structure of atoms 2 Reactions of elements 9 The periodic table 12 Mixtures 21 2 Bonding, structure and the properties of matter 32 Ionic substances 33 Molecular substances 39 Giant covalent substances 44 Metallic substances 45 Overview of types of bonding and structures 47 Nanoscience 51 The different forms of carbon 54 3 Quantitative chemistry 63 Relative mass and moles 64 Conservation of mass 68 Reacting masses 70 Yield and atom economy 78 Gas volumes 82 The concentration of solutions 85 4 Chemical changes 97 Reactions of metals 98 Extraction of metals 106 Reactions of acids 107 Making salts 114 Electrolysis 117 5 Energy changes 128 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 129 Chemical cells and fuel cells 136 6 The rate and extent of chemical change 146 Rate of reaction 147 Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium 158  7 Organic chemistry 170 Contents Crude oil and alkanes 171 Cracking and alkenes 176 Alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters 181 Polymers 187 Biochemistry 192 8 Chemical analysis 201 Purity, formulations and chromatography 202 Identification of common gases 207 Identification of ions by chemical and spectroscopic means 208 9 Chemistry of the atmosphere 223 The composition and evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere 224 Greenhouse gases 227 Common atmospheric pollutants and their sources 236 10 Using the Earth’s resources 246 Using the Earth’s resources 247 The use of water 252 Metals and other materials 256 Making fertilisers 266 11 Formulae and equations 276 Writing formulae 277 Classifying substances 280 Common reactions 281 Balancing equations 283 Ionic equations 285 Half equations 289 Glossary 292 Index 295 Periodic table XXX iv Get the most out of this book Welcome to the AQA GCSE Chemistry Student Book. This book covers all of the Foundation and Higher-tier content for the 2016 AQA GCSE Chemistry specification. The following features have been included to help you get the most from this book. Prior knowledge Higher-tier only Previously you could have learned: Some material in this book 1 Atomic structure and the periodic table Prior knowledge › Elements are made of particles called atoms. This is a short list of topics › Elements are substances containing only one type of atom – this means they cannot be broken down into simpler substances. › Each element has its own symbol and is listed in the periodic is only required for students you should be familiar with table. taking the Higher-tier › Elements are either metals or non-metals. › Compounds are substances made from atoms of different elements bonded together. before starting a chapter. The › Compounds have different properties from the elements from examination. This content is which they are made. › Compounds are difficult to break back down into their elements. questions will help to test your › Substances in mixtures are not chemically joined to each other. clearly marked with the blue › Substances in mixtures can be separated easily by a range of techniques. Test yourself on prior knowledge understanding. Extra help and 1 What is an element? 2 What is a compound? 3 Why do compounds have different properties from the elements symbol seen here. practice questions can be found from which they are made? 4 List some differences between metals and non-metals. 5 Why is it easy to separate the substances in a mixture but not to break apart a compound? online in our AQA GCSE Science 6 Name four methods of separating mixtures. Teaching & Learning Resources Structure of atoms Protons, neutrons and electrons TIP Atoms are the smallest part of an element that can exist. Atoms are made Remember that: up of smaller particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. The table protons are positive below shows the relative mass and electric charge of these particles. The neutrons are neutral mass is given relative to the mass of a proton. Protons and neutrons have leaving electrons as negative the same mass as each other while electrons are much lighter (Table 1.1). KEY TERMS TIP The charge of a proton can be written Table 1.1 Relative mass Proton 1 Neutron 1 Electron very small as + or +1. The charge of an electron Relative charge +1 0 −1 Important words and concepts are can be written as − or −1. KEY TERM The structure of atoms Atom The smallest part of an element that can exist. A particle with no electric Atoms are very small. Typical atoms have a radius of about 0.1 nm highlighted in the text and clearly charge made up of a nucleus containing (0.000 000 000 1 m, that is 1 × 10−10 m). Atoms have a central nucleus protons and neutrons surrounded by which contains protons and neutrons (Figure 1.1). The nucleus is electrons in energy levels. surrounded by electrons. The electrons move around the nucleus in energy levels or shells. explained for you in the margin. 2 Practical These practical-based activities will help consolidate your learning and test your practical skills. Required practical Examples AQA’s required practicals are clearly highlighted. Examples of questions and calculations that feature full workings and sample answers. TIPS These highlight important facts, common misconceptions and Test yourself questions Show you can... signpost you towards other These short questions, found relevant chapters. They also offer Complete the Show you can tasks throughout each chapter, allow useful ideas for remembering to prove that you are confident in you to check your understanding difficult topics. your understanding of each topic. as you progress through a topic. v  Chapter review questions Get the most out of this book Answers These questions will test your understanding of the whole chapter. Answers for all questions and They are colour coded to show the level of difficulty and also include activities in this book can be questions to test your maths and practical skills. found online at: Simple questions that everyone should be able to answer without www.hoddereducation.co.uk/ difficulty. aqagcsechemistry These are questions that all competent students should be able to handle. More demanding questions for the most able students. Practice questions Chapter review questions 5 Energy changes 1 The following reactions all took place in solution in a beaker. The temperature before and after the chemicals were mixed was recorded in each case. Decide whether each reaction is exothermic or endothermic. Start temperature in °C End temperature in °C You will find Practice questions at Reaction 1 21 15 Reaction 2 20 27 Reaction 3 22 67 the end of every chapter. These 2 Copy and complete the spaces in the following sentences. In an exothermic reaction, thermal energy is transferred from the chemicals to their surroundings and so the temperature ________________. In an ________________ reaction, thermal energy is transferred away from the surroundings to the chemicals and so the temperature ________________. 3 Copy and complete the spaces in the following sentences. Chemical reactions can only take place when particles _____________ with follow the style of the different each other and have enough energy. The minimum energy particles need to react is called the _____________ energy. 4 The reaction profile for a reaction is shown. types of questions you might see in your examination and have Energy D E marks allocated to each question reactants F C products A B Progress of reaction a) Give the letter of the arrow that shows the activation energy for the reaction. part. b) Give the letter of the arrow that shows the overall energy change for the reaction. c) Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic? 5 Decide whether each of the following reactions is likely to be endothermic or exothermic. a) burning magnesium b) decomposition of silver oxide c) reaction inside a sports injury cold pack d) reaction inside a self-heating food can e) neutralisation of sulfuric acid by sodium hydroxide f) neutralisation of sulfuric acid by sodium hydrogen carbonate 6 The table shows the potential difference (voltage) when chemical cells were Working Scientifically set up by placing two strips of metal into a beaker of salt solution. In each case the copper was connected to the positive terminal of a voltmeter. Metal 1 Metal 2 Potential difference (V) Copper Zinc +1.10 Copper Magnesium +2.71 Copper Copper Silver Nickel –0.46 +0.59 In this book, Working 140 Scientifically skills are explored in detail in the activity at the end Practice questions of each chapter. Work through these activities on your own ientifically: Working sncg prefixes and or in groups. You will develop Units: Usi n for orders ium cture for calc [1 mark] skills such as Dealing with type of stru iii)Name the te powers of of magnitude when chloride. how atoms t happens ram to show on to form you can, wha s to produce and cross diag of carb , as fully as chlorine atom in your iv) Use a dot combine with atoms [2 marks] c) Describe data, Scientific thinking and s react with ram rine matter sodium atom. You may use a diag [3 marks] of chlo. ethane CCl4 [1 mark] sodium chlo ride tetrachlorom in CCl4. ding found answer. type of bon on tion will chloride solu ride solid v) Name the very closely why sodium nds depend of pou only Experimental skills. com with d) Explain sodium chlo [2 marks] erties of wing table tricity, but c) The prop aw the follo s of properties uct elec. Redr the prop ertie cond their bonding s to show some of [2 marks] will not. Period 3 word ne. erties of the um the corr ect chlorom etha bers so that e of the prop compounds, magnesi ride and tetra form small num a e gives som calcium chlo melting e or very 8 The tabl mag nesi um and one of its Solubility in Relative point Standard is used to express and very larg managed. It is easier to say that of it has a mas s element Compou nd water form ood –6 grams than to say um chloride high Standard ily underst chloride. ble Low/ more eas re and the Magnesi Soluble/insolu 1.2 × 10 um high they are a mass of ers of ten. Magnesi Calcium chlo ride ble Low/ dust has 714 thane Solu ble/insolu speck of It uses pow Property 649 conduct is very and carbon 2 grams. this: es t in °C Does not Tetrachlorome ium 0.000 001 look like point mov Melting poin Conducts elements calc calcium and in carbon form mus t always of places the decimal n will be negative) conductiv ity ding in the ding in [6 marks] Standard the number 1, the valu e of Electrical Conducts d) The bon ribe the bon n is bers less than different. Desc graphite). ys (for num g, structu when solid ity Conducts A must alwa 1 and 10 conductiv of electricity. be between Electrical (in the form uct Example ain the can cond n en to expl hite rent when molt t structure and bonding properties of the e) Both calc ium and grap calcium which are diffe marks] properties of [2 A × 10 000 in stan dard form. Use ideas abou differences between [6 marks] State two. Write 4 600 and. of graphite similarities um chloride delivery 2 Bondin and magnesi diatomic from those in new drug magnesium h exists as renes be used ement A, B or C. Answer s with a n gas whic might fulle non-zero digit rst number rine is a gree f) Why se the corr ect stat [1 mark] Write the e after the fi 9 a) Chlo systems? Choo decimal plac × 10 after it: molecules. and then write nt by the term [1 mark] on atoms. what is mea e from carb i) Suggest They are mad 4.6 × 10 diat omi c. rly show A y places the ram to clea hollow. t how man and cross diag to form chlo rine B They are Then coun t has moved and write ii) Use a dot of chlorine combine [2 marks] decimal poin n value is how atoms very strong. suitable n value. The C They are s make them C. this as the greater e of nanotube 4 600 000 is molecules. pounds with both the structur statement A, B or positive as a range of com g) How does ? Choose the correct [1 mark] than 1. can form b) Chlorine -metals. n as catalysts = 4.6 × 10 6 non whe ratio. 4 600 000 metals and t hap pens volume kg. This is you can, wha atoms to produce ace area to 000 000 000 000 000 , as fully as chlorine a large surf 972 200 000 1024 kg. i) Describe react with in your A They have carbon atom s. Earth is 5 × calcium atom s use a diag ram e from reac tive mass of the as 5.9722 [3 marks] 2.33 The ntific form chlo ride. You may B They are mad ds. ▲ Figure ten in scie calc ium lent bon eniently writ strong cova more conv answer. in calcium C They have ding found [1 mark] type of bon ii) Name the Example dard form. chloride. 0345 in stan Write 0.00 then number and r the first place afte a decimal Answer digits with non-zero Write the after it: write × 10 e this as ed and writ t has mov 3.45 × 10 decimal poin than 1. y places the as 0.000 345 is less t how man tive Then coun The n value is nega e. the n valu −4 = 3.45 × 10 61 0.000 345 AM 2/2/16 8:31 ndd 61 2_032-062.i hemistry_C0 A_GCSE_C 851346_AQ AM 2/2/16 8:31 60 ndd 60 2_032-062.i hemistry_C0 A_GCSE_C 851346_AQ vi 1 Atomic structure and the periodic table Until you reached GCSE, Chemistry was studied at the particle level. In order to take chemistry further, you now need to understand what is inside atoms. The elements in the periodic table are ordered by what is inside their atoms. An understanding of the periodic table allows you to explain and/or work out a lot of chemistry even if you have never studied it. Specification coverage This chapter covers specification points 4.1.1 to 4.1.3 and is called Atomic structure and the periodic table. It covers the structure of atoms, reactions of elements, the periodic table and mixtures. Writing formulae and equations is covered separately in the Appendix. 1  Previously you could have learned: 1 Atomic structure and the periodic table Prior knowledge › Elements are made of particles called atoms. › Elements are substances containing only one type of atom – this means they cannot be broken down into simpler substances. › Each element has its own symbol and is listed in the periodic table. › Elements are either metals or non-metals. › Compounds are substances made from atoms of different elements bonded together. › Compounds have different properties from the elements from which they are made. › Compounds are difficult to break back down into their elements. › Substances in mixtures are not chemically joined to each other. › Substances in mixtures can be separated easily by a range of techniques. Test yourself on prior knowledge 1 What is an element? 2 What is a compound? 3 Why do compounds have different properties from the elements from which they are made? 4 List some differences between metals and non-metals. 5 Why is it easy to separate the substances in a mixture but not to break apart a compound? 6 Name four methods of separating mixtures. Structure of atoms Protons, neutrons and electrons TIP Atoms are the smallest part of an element that can exist. Atoms are made Remember that: up of smaller particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. The table protons are positive below shows the relative mass and electric charge of these particles. The neutrons are neutral mass is given relative to the mass of a proton. Protons and neutrons have leaving electrons as negative the same mass as each other while electrons are much lighter (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 TIP Proton Neutron Electron The charge of a proton can be written Relative mass 1 1 very small as + or +1. The charge of an electron Relative charge +1 0 −1 can be written as − or −1. KEY TERM The structure of atoms Atom The smallest part of an element that can exist. A particle with no electric Atoms are very small. Typical atoms have a radius of about 0.1 nm charge made up of a nucleus containing (0.000 000 000 1 m, that is 1 × 10−10 m). Atoms have a central nucleus protons and neutrons surrounded by which contains protons and neutrons (Figure 1.1). The nucleus is electrons in energy levels. surrounded by electrons. The electrons move around the nucleus in energy levels or shells. 2  Structure of atoms Key nucleus containing proton protons and neutrons neutron electron electrons move around the nucleus in energy levels (shells) 3D diagram 2D diagram ▲ Figure 1.1 KEY TERMS The nucleus is tiny compared to the size of the atom as a whole. The radius Proton Positively charged particle of the nucleus is less than 1/10 000th of that of the atom (1 × 10−14 m). found inside the nucleus of atoms. This difference in size between a nucleus and an atom is equivalent to a pea placed in the middle of a football pitch (Figure 1.2). Neutron Neutral particle found inside the nucleus of atoms. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. These are much heavier Electron Negatively charged particle than electrons. This means that most of the mass of the atom is found in energy levels (shells) contained in the tiny nucleus in the middle. surrounding the nucleus inside atoms. Nucleus Central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons. Test yourself 1 Carbon atoms have a radius of 0.070 nm. Write this in standard form in the Energy level (shell) The region an units of metres. electron occupies surrounding the 2 The radius of a hydrogen atom is 2.5 × 10 −11 m. Write this in nanometres. nucleus inside an atom. 3 The radius of a chlorine atom is 1 × 10 −10 m and the radius of a silicon TIP atom is 0.060 nm. Which atom is bigger? 4 Sodium atoms have a radius of 0.180 nm. The nucleus of an atom is about 1 nm = 1 × 10−9 m (0.000 000 001 m) 10 000 times smaller. Estimate the radius of the nucleus of a sodium atom. Write your answer in both nanometres and metres. TIP 5 A copper atom has a diameter of 0.256 nm. A copper wire has a diameter The SI units for length are metres (m). of 0.0440 cm. a Write the diameter of the atom and the wire in metres. b How many times wider is the copper wire than a copper atom? Give your answer to 3 significant figures.