ANAPHY-CHAPTER-23.pdf

CHAPTER 2: CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATIONS Cells – smallest living units in the human body Terminology for Solutions: Cell Theory: ▪ Solvent: the liquid doing the dissolving, usually water C...

CHAPTER 2: CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATIONS Cells – smallest living units in the human body Terminology for Solutions: Cell Theory: ▪ Solvent: the liquid doing the dissolving, usually water Cells are the building blocks of all organisms ▪ Solute: the dissolved material (particles or gas) All cells come the division of preexisting cells ▪ Concentration - amount of solute in a given amount of Cells are the smallest units that carry out life’s essential solvent physiological functions Types of Solution: Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level a. Isotonic- any solution w/c maintains its normal shape Classifications: and volume 1. Sex cells – sperm and oocytes b. Hypotonic- a solution that has a lower concentration of 2. Somatic cells – body cells solutes than the cytosol inside the RBCs **HEMOLYSIS- rupture of RBCs 3 Main Parts of Cells: c. Hypertonic - has a higher concentration of solutes than Plasma Membrane does the cytosol inside RBCs forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the ▪ cell’s internal environment (inside the cell) from the external environment (outside the cell) ▪ It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell ▪ flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of a cell, is best described by using a structural model called the fluid mosaic model Structure: I. Lipid Bilayer - two back-to-back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules: a. Phospholipids – contains phosphorus (75%) Transport Across Plasma Membrane: b. Cholesterol- steroid with an attached OH (hydroxyl) I. Passive Transport - substance moves down its group (20%) concentration or electrical gradient to cross the c. Glycolipids - lipids with attached carbohydrate groups membrane using only its own kinetic energy (5%) 1. Diffusion - the random mixing of particles in a solution occurs because of the particles’ kinetic energy molecules (and ions) move away from areas where they are more concentrated to areas where they are less concentrated. Factors influencing diffusion rate: Steepness of the concentration gradient - The greater the difference in concentration between the two sides of the membrane, the higher the rate of diffusion. Temperature - higher the temperature, the faster the rate II. Membrane proteins – ion channels, of diffusion. All the body’s diffusion processes occur carriers/transporters, receptors, linkers more rapidly in a person with a fever. a. Integral Proteins - extend into or through the lipid bilayer Mass of the diffusing substance - The larger the mass of among the fatty acid tails and are firmly embedded in it the diffusing particle, the slower its diffusion rate. b. Peripheral Proteins - they associate more loosely with Smaller molecules diffuse more rapidly than larger ones. the polar heads of membrane lipids or with integral Surface Area - The larger the membrane surface area proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane available for diffusion, the faster the diffusion rate. Air III. Membrane Carbohydrates - 3% of the weight of the sacs of the lungs have a large surface area available for plasma membrane diffusion of oxygen from the air into the blood. a. Glycocalyx - layer formed by the large extension from Diffusion Distance - The greater the distance over which the outer surface of the membrane formed by diffusion must occur, the longer it takes. Diffusion across carbohydrates. a plasma membrane takes only a fraction of a second IV. Selective Permeability - means that a barrier allows because the membrane is so thin. some substances to pass through it while excluding others. Thus, it allows nutrients to enter the cell but a. Simple Diffusion - s a passive process in which substances keeps many undesirable or unnecessary substances move freely through the lipid bilayer of the plasma out. At the same time, valuable cell proteins and other membranes of cells without the help of membrane substances are kept within the cell, and wastes are transport proteins allowed to pass out of it b. Facilitated Diffusion - substance moves across the lipid Lipid Bilayer portion of the membrane is permeable to bilayer aided by a channel protein or a carrier protein. nonpolar, uncharged molecules, such as oxygen, c. Osmosis - a type of diffusion in which there is net carbon dioxide, and steroids, but is impermeable to movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable ions and large, uncharged polar molecules such as membrane glucose  1. Non-membranous Organelles - organelles that are not contained by a membrane a. Cytoskeleton - a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol ✓ Microfilament - provide much of the mechanical support that is responsible for the basic strength and shapes of cells ✓ Intermediate filament - help stabilize the position of organelles such as the nucleus and help attach cells to one another. ✓ Microtubules - largest of the cytoskeletal components and are long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin II. Active Transport - energy is required for carrier proteins to b. Microvilli (microvillus) - Greatly increase the move solutes across the membrane against a concentration surface area of the cell exposed to the extracellular gradient. movement Sources of Cellular Energy: ATP, energy stored in an ionic c. Centrosome - Region of cytoplasm located next to concentration gradient the nucleus in a cell. 1. Primary Active Transport - energy derived from hydrolysis **CENTRIOLES (pair) - cylindrical structures, of ATP changes the shape of a carrier protein, which each composed of nine clusters of three “pumps” a substance across a plasma membrane microtubules (triplets) arranged in a circular against its concentration gradient pattern 2. Secondary Active Transport - Na+ or H+ gradient is established by primary active transport; secondary active transport indirectly uses energy obtained from the hydrolysis of ATP the energy stored in a Na+ or H+ concentration gradient is used to drive other substances across the membrane against their own concentration gradients. Carrier proteins **PERICENTRIOLAR MATERIAL- surrounds a. Symporters - transporters move two substances in the the centrioles ◦ contains hundreds of ring-shaped same direction complexes composed of the protein tubulin b. Antiporters - move two substances in opposite directions across the membrane d. Cilia - numerous, short, hairlike projections that 3. Vesicular Transport - Requires energy, so it is also a form of extend from the surface of the cell - Provides active transport steady movement of fluid along the cell’s surface. Very large molecules cross the plasma membrane with a e. Flagella - much longer than cilia - generates different sort of help: forward motion along its axis by rapidly wiggling in ** Endocytosis - is the type of vesicle transport that a wavelike pattern moves a substance into the cell. ** The only example of a flagellum in the human PHAGOCYTOSIS - is a form of endocytosis in body is a sperm cell’s tail, which propels the sperm which the cell engulfs large solid particles, such as worn- toward the oocyte in the uterine tube out cells, whole bacteria, or viruses f. Ribosomes - Responsible for protein synthesis ** Exocytosis - is the type of vesicle transport that **The name of these tiny organelles reflects their moves a substance out of the cell high content of one type of ribonucleic acid, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) g. Proteasomes - Contain assortment of Cytoplasm proteindigesting enzymes or “proteases” ▪ cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the **Removes recycles damaged or denatured plasma membrane. It is the site of most cellular proteins activities, so you might think of the cytoplasm as the “factory floor” of the cell. 2. Membranous Organelles - possess their own plasma membrane ▪ Consists of all the cellular contents between the to create a lumen, separate from the cytoplasm. plasma membrane and the nucleus, and has two a. Endoplasmic Reticulum - is a network of membranes in components: the form of flattened sacs or tubules **Extends from the nuclear envelope which surrounds I. Cytosol - fluid portion of the cytoplasm the nucleus that surrounds organelles **Synthesis, storage, transport, detoxification constitutes about 55% of total cell volume ✓ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - Involved in the synthesis of lipids, fatty acids and carbohydrates II. Organelles - specialized structures within ✓ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - The site where newly the cell that have characteristic shapes; synthesized proteins are chemically modified and they perform specific functions in cellular packaged for export towards the Golgi Apparatus growth, maintenance, and reproduction  CELLULAR GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION Cell Cycle - is an orderly sequence of events by which somatic cell duplicates its contents and divides in two - 23 pairs of chromosomes - homologous chromosomes / HOMOLOGS - contains two sets of chromosomes “DIPLOIDS” Somatic Cell Division - it takes place in all types of cells that are not involved in the production of gametes. Reproductive Cell Division – result into formation of new b. Golgi Apparatus - An organelle that looks a bit like a stack organism (union of two gametes one produced by each parent) of dinner plates **Composed of 5-6 cisternae Modifies and packages secretions Ads/ removes carbohydrates to or from proteins CHAPTER 3A: TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION Renews or modifies the plasma membrane Tissues - group of cells that usually have a common origin in an Package special enzymes within vesicles embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities c. Lysosomes - Has 60 kinds of powerful digestive and Cell Junctions - Are contact points between the plasma hydrolytic enzymes can break down a wide variety of membranes of tissue cells. molecules once it fuses with vesicles formed during 1. Tight Junctions - consist of weblike strands of endocytosis (suicide bag of cell) transmembrane proteins that fuse together the outer **can engulf another organelle, digest it, and return the surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off digested components to the cytosol for reuse. passageways between adjacent cells d. Peroxisomes - Another group of organelles similar in structure to lysosomes, but smaller. Abundant in the liver e. Mitochondria - Produces energy in the form of ATP Nucleus Largest structure in the cell Control center of all cellular operations Stores all the information needed for synthesis Structure: 2. Adherens Junctions - contain plaque, a dense layer of Nuclear Envelope - surrounds the nucleus which proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that encloses its contents, including the DNA attaches both to membrane proteins and to connected thru the endoplasmic reticulum microfilaments of the cytoskeleton Nuclear Pores - where communication between the nucleus and Cadherin - Transmembrane glycoproteins cytoplasm takes place inserts into the plaque from the opposite side of the plasma membrane, partially crosses the intercellular Contents: space (the space between the cells) and connects to 1. Nuclear Envelope – a double membrane barrier separated by a cadherins of an adjacent cell. fluid-filled space *OUTER- continuous with the rough ER of the cytoplasm and is studded *INNER- lined by nuclear lamina - encloses a jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm 57 2. Nucleoplasm - dark-staining spherical bodies found within the nucleus where ribosomal subunits are assembled contain the DNA that issues genetic instructions for synthesizing ribosomal RNA 3. Chromatin - composed of approximately 30% DNA, our genetic material 60% globular histone proteins which package and regulate the DNA 3. Desmosomes - contain plaque and have 10% RNA chains, newly formed or forming transmembrane glycoproteins (cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another the plaque of desmosomes does not attach to microfilaments.  plaque attaches to elements of the cytoskeleton known as intermediate Types of Tissues: filaments, which consist of the protein Epithelial tissue keratin - covers body surfaces - lines body cavities, hollow organs, and ducts - forms glands. - formed of closely adjoined cells with very little extracellular matrix between them - covers the external surface and line the internal surfaces of the body Parts: 1. Apical (free) surface - faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen (interior space) of an internal organ, or a tubular duct that receives cell secretions 2. Lateral surface - which face the adjacent cells on either 4. Hemidesmosomes - resemble desmosomes, but they side do not link adjacent cells - may contain tight junctions, adherens junctions, integrins as transmembrane protein attach to desmosomes, and/or gap junctions. intermediate filaments made of the protein 3. Basal surface - opposite the apical surface keratin - deepest layer of epithelial cells adheres to On the outside of the plasma membrane, the extracellular materials such as the basement integrins attach to the protein laminin, which membrane is present in the basement membrane I. COVERING s LINING EPITHELIUM (MEMBRANE) - It anchors cells not to each other but to the cover surfaces or line body cavities, ducts, and lumina of basement membrane. vessels Categories Base on Cell Layers: a. Simple - a single layer of cells with every cell in direct contact with the basement membrane that separates it from the underlying connective tissue - most concerned with absorption, secretion, and filtration. b. Stratified - contain two or more layers of cells - a function primarily in protection c. Pseudostratified - made up of closely packed cells that appear to be arranged in layers because they're different sizes, but there's actually just one layer of cells. 5. Gap Junctions - allow the exchange of ions, second messengers, and small metabolites between adjacent cells and are formed by two unrelated protein families, the pannexins and connexins. Connexins - membrane protein Form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexons ions and small molecules can diffuse from the cytosol of Categories Base on Shape: one cell to another, but the passage of large molecules is a. Squamous - a single thin layer of flattened cells with prevented irregular boundaries. b. Cuboidal - cube-like in appearance, meaning they have equal width, height and depth. c. Columnar - column-like in appearance, meaning they are taller than they are wide.  ✓ Transitional Epithelium - is a highly modified, stratified polysaccharide molecules trap water as they intertwine. As squamous epithelium that forms the lining of only a few these polysaccharides become more abundant, they organs—the urinary bladder, the ureters, and part of the cause the matrix to vary from fluid to gel-like to firm in its urethra. consistency. Polysaccharides includes: *Hyaluronic acid * Chondroitin sulfate II. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM - type of tissue that lines * Dermatan Sulfate * Keratan Sulfate certain internal organs and makes and releases substances in the body, such as mucous, digestive IV. Fiber juices, and other fluids. a. collagen (white) fibers – very strong and resist forces (protein – collagen) a. Endocrine Glands – lose their ducts; thus, they are often b. elastic (yellow) fibers - smaller stretch and return to called ductless glands. Their secretions (all hormones) original length (protein elastin surrounded by a diffuse directly into the blood vessels that weave through glycoprotein named fibrillin) the glands. Examples of endocrine glands include the c. reticular fibers – provide support and strength (protein – thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary. collagen) a complex of various glands that produce hormones - which are fine collagen fibers that form the internal involved in bodily processes such as metabolic “skeleton” of soft organs such as the spleen. processes, water and electrolyte balance, maturation, growth and reproduction. Connective Tissue Cells 1. Fibroblasts - most numerous b. Exocrine Glands – retain their ducts, and their secretions 2. Adipocytes – stores triglycerides, found at heart and kidneys exit through the ducts to the epithelial surface. Exocrine 3. White Blood Cells glands, which include the sweat and oil glands, liver, and a. Neutrophils - gather at sites of infection pancreas, are both internal and external b. Eosinophils - migrate to sites of parasitic invasions and secrete sweat, tears, saliva, milk and digestive juices. allergic responses Tubular - have an oblong tubular structure and gland 4. Macrophages - type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills shape. Examples of tubular glands are seen in the microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the sweat glands as well as in the stomach and uterus. action of other immune system cells. Alveolar - also called saccular glands, are glands a. Fixed Macrophages - tend to reside within a particular with a saclike secretory portion. tissue in the body and stay in that tissue. - They typically have an enlarged lumen (cavity), hence b. Wandering Macrophages - move around in the the name: they have a shape similar to alveoli, the bloodstream and lymph nodes to detect invaders. very small air sacs in the lungs. 5. Plasma Cells – develop from a type of WBC (B lymphocyte) 6. Mast Cells – produces Histamine ---a chemical that dilates CHAPTER 3B: TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION small blood vessels as part of the inflammatory response, Connective Tissue the body’s reaction to injury or infection - connects body parts. - It is the most abundant and widely distributed of the Classification of Connective Tissues tissue types. 1. Bone (osseous tissue) - is composed of osteocytes sitting in - primarily involved in protecting, supporting, and binding cavities called lacunae. together other body tissues Forms most of the skeleton - stores energy reserves as fat, and Supports, protects, and allows movements, site of blood - provides immunity formation and storage of minerals a. Compact Bone -Osteon/Haversian System Features: I. Lamellae- consists of mineral salts which give bones 1. Highly Vascular - Most connective tissues are well vascularized its strength (that is, they have a good blood supply), but there are II. Lacunae- are small spaces between lamellae that exceptions. contain mature bone cells called osteocytes. I. Tendons and ligaments, for example, have a poor blood III. Canaliculi- provide routes for nutrients to reach supply, and cartilage is avascular. Consequently, all these osteocytes and for wastes to leave them structures heal very slowly when injured. (This is why IV. Haversian Canal- Contains blood vessels and nerves; some people say that, given a choice, they would rather also called CENTRAL CANAL have a broken bone than a torn ligament.) b. Spongy Bone - Lacks osteons but consists of TRABECULAE 2. Extracellular Matrix - it is what makes connective tissue so 2. Cartilage - is less hard and more flexible than bone different from the other tissue types. a. hyaline cartilage – a resilient gel as its ground substance Two Components: and appears in the body as a bluish-white, shiny I. Ground Substance - component of a connective tissue substance (forms the trachea) between the cells and fibers Reduces friction and absorbs shock II. Composed of water, protein, polysaccharide molecules most abundant cartilage in the body III. The cell adhesion proteins serve as a glue that allows the Weakest type of cartilage connective tissue cells to attach themselves to the matrix b. Fibrocartilage - Strongest cartilage, f. cushion like disk fibers embedded in the ground substance. The charged Intervertebral disk spaces  c. Elastic Cartilage - Provides strength and elasticity - ex: Lines the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive Maintains the shape of certain structures tracts, and much of the urinary tract Ex: external ear b. SEROUS MEMBRANE/ SEROSA - lines a body cavity 3. Dense Connective Tissue – also called dense fibrous tissue, (thoracic and abdominal) that does not open directly to collagen fibers are the main matrix element the exterior, and it covers the organs that lie within the a. Dense Regular Tissue - collagen fibers are regularly cavity arranged in parallel patterns that provide the tissue with c. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE/ SKIN - entire surface of the great strength. body and consists of a superficial portion called the b. Dense Irregular Tissue - collagen fibers that are usually epidermis and a deeper portion called the dermis irregularly arranged 2. Synovial Membrane - Lines the cavities of freely movable joints c. Elastic Connective Tissue - strong and can recoil to its Contains Synovial fluid lubricates and nourishes the original shape after being stretched. cartilage covering the bones at movable joints and 4. Loose Connective Tissue - have more cells and fewer fibers contains macrophages that remove microbes and debris a. Areolar Connective Tissue - One of the most widely from the joint cavity distributed connective tissues contains several types of cells, including fibroblasts, MEDICAL TERMINOLOGIES macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, and adipocytes a. Atrophy - A decrease in the size of cells, with a Consists of 3 fibers subsequent decrease in the size of the affected tissue or b. Adipose tissue (fat)- is found wherever areolar organ connective tissue is located b. Biopsy - Removal of a sample of living tissue for Good insulator microscopic examination to help diagnose disease. c. Reticular Connective - Consists of interlacing reticular c. Hypertrophy- Increase in the size of a tissue because its fibers and reticular cells cells enlarge without undergoing cell division Forms the stroma of the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes Helps bind together smooth muscle cells. 5. Liquid Connective Tissue - it consists of blood cells surrounded by a nonliving, fluid matrix called blood plasma. a. Blood Tissue - Contains a liquid connective matrix called blood plasma Blood Plasma: Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, Thrombocytes b. Lymph - extracellular fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels Muscular Tissue - produces body movements, maintains posture, and generates heat. - generates the physical force needed to make body structures move 1. Skeletal Muscles – bones, can be controlled voluntarily 2. Cardiac Muscle – heart, found only in the heart wall 3. Smooth Muscle - Located in the walls of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, airways to the lungs, the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, and urinary bladder Nervous Tissue - detects changes inside and outside the body and - initiates and transmits nerve impulses that coordinate body activities to help maintain homeostasis - found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities. 1. Neurons - sensitive to various stimuli convert stimuli into electrical signals called action impulses basic parts: cell body, 2 cell processes---axon, dendrites 2. Neuroglia - Supporting cells Do not generate or conduct nerve impulses MEMBRANES – flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body 1. Epithelial Membrane a. MUCOUS MEMBRANE/ MUCOSA - Lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior CELL EPITHELIAL TISSUES Covering and Lining Epithelium Glandular Epithelium – Exocrine