Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 2 PDF

BSNR TERM ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 118 01 CHAPTER 2: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE OUTL...

BSNR TERM ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 118 01 CHAPTER 2: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE OUTLINE: ATOMIC STRUCTURE 2.1. BASIC CHEMISTRY a. MATTER, MASS, AND WEIGHT ▪ THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MATTER b. ELEMENTS AND ATOMS RESULT FROM THE STRUCTURE, c. ATOMIC STRUCTURE ORGANIZATION, AND BEHAVIOR OF d. ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER ATOMS. ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF e. ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, SOME OF f. MOLE AND MOLAR MASS WHICH HAVE AN ELECTRICAL CHARGE. g. ELECTRONS AND CHEMICAL BONDING THE THREE MAJOR TYPES OF h. MOLECULES AND COMPOUND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES ARE i. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES NEUTRONS, PROTONS, AND j. SOLUBILITY AND DISSOCIATION ELECTRONS o NEUTRON: NO ELECTRIC CHARGE DEFINITION OF MATTER, MASS, AND WEIGHT o PROTON: ONE POSITIVE CHARGE o ELECTRON: ONE NEGATIVE CHARGE MATTER ▪ THE POSITIVE CHARGE OF A PROTON IS EQUAL IN MAGNITUDE TO THE NEGATIVE CHARGE OF AN ▪ ANYTHING THAT OCCUPIES SPACE AND HAS MASS. ELECTRON. THE NUMBER OF PROTONS AND THE NUMBER MASS OF ELECTRONS IN EACH ATOM ARE EQUAL, AND THE INDIVIDUAL CHARGES CANCEL EACH OTHER. THEREFORE, ▪ THE AMOUNT OF MATTER IN AN OBJECT. EACH ATOM IS ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL. ▪ INTERNATIONAL UNIT FOR MASS = KILOGRAM (KG). ▪ PROTONS AND NEUTRONS FORM THE NUCLEUS AT THE CENTER OF AN ATOM, AND ELECTRONS MOVE AROUND WEIGHT THE NUCLEUS (FIGURE 2.1). THE NUCLEUS ACCOUNTS ▪ THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE ACTING ON AN OBJECT OF A FOR 99.97% OF AN ATOM’S MASS BUT ONLY 1 TEN- GIVEN MASS. TRILLIONTH OF ITS VOLUME. MOST OF THE VOLUME OF ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, THE WEIGHT OF AN APPLE RESULTS FROM AN ATOM IS OCCUPIED BY THE ELECTRONS. BECAUSE THE FORCE OF GRAVITY “PULLING” ON THE APPLE’S ELECTRONS ARE ALWAYS MOVING AROUND THE MASS. NUCLEUS, THE REGION WHERE THEY ARE MOST LIKELY TO BE FOUND CAN BE REPRESENTED BY AN ELECTRON ELEMENTS AND ATOMS CLOUD. ELEMENTS ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER ▪ AN ELEMENT IS THE SIMPLEST TYPE OF MATTER, HAVING UNIQUE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES; COMPOSED OF AN ATOMIC NUMBER ATOM OF ONLY ONE KIND ▪ EACH ELEMENT IS UNIQUELY DEFINED BY THE NUMBER ▪ ABOUT 96% OF THE BODY’S WEIGHT RESULTS FROM THE OF PROTONS IN THE ATOMS OF THAT ELEMENT. ELEMENTS OXYGEN, CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND ▪ THE ATOMIC NUMBER OF AN ELEMENT IS EQUAL TO THE NITROGEN. NUMBER OF PROTONS IN EACH ATOM AND, BECAUSE THE ▪ THE MAJORITY OF THE BODY’S WEIGHT IS FROM OXYGEN. NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IS EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF OXYGEN IS ALSO THE MOST ABUNDANT ELEMENT IN THE PROTONS, THE ATOMIC NUMBER IS ALSO THE NUMBER EARTH’S CRUST. OF ELECTRONS. ▪ CARBON PLAYS AN ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE BODY, DUE IN PART TO ITS MASS NUMBER PROPENSITY TO FORM COVALENT BONDS WITH ITSELF AND OTHER MOLECULES. ▪ PROTONS AND NEUTRONS HAVE ABOUT THE SAME MASS, ▪ ELEMENTS CAN HAVE MULTIPLE ROLES AND EXIST IN AND THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR MOST OF THE MASS OF DIFFERENT STATES IN THE BODY. FOR EXAMPLE, ATOMS. MINERALIZED CALCIUM CONTRIBUTES TO THE SOLID ▪ ELECTRONS, ON THE OTHER HAND, HAVE VERY LITTLE MATRIX OF BONES, WHILE DISSOLVED CALCIUM HELPS MASS. REGULATE ENZYME ACTIVITIES AND NERVOUS SYSTEM ▪ THE MASS NUMBER OF AN ELEMENT IS THE NUMBER OF PROTONS PLUS THE NUMBER OF NEUTRONS IN EACH SIGNALING. ▪ THE FOUR MOST COMMON ELEMENTS IN THE BODY ARE ATOM. HYDROGEN (H), CARBON (C), NITROGEN, (N), AND ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, THE MASS NUMBER FOR CARBON IS 12 OXYGEN (O). BECAUSE IT HAS 6 PROTONS AND 6 NEUTRONS ▪ OTHER ELEMENTS THAT ARE IMPORTANT TO BODY FUNCTION ARE FOUND IN SMALL OR TRACE AMOUNTS ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS AND INCLUDE FLUORINE (F), SODIUM (NA), MAGNESIUM (MG), PHOSPHORUS (P), SULFUR (S), CHLORINE (CL), ISOTOPE POTASSIUM (K), CALCIUM (CA), IRON (FE), AND IODINE (I). ▪ TWO OR MORE FORMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT THAT HAVE THE SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS ATOM BUT A DIFFERENT NUMBER OF NEUTRONS. ▪ AN ATOM (ATOMOS, INDIVISIBLE) IS THE SMALLEST PARTICLE OF AN ELEMENT THAT HAS THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THAT ELEMENT.  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 12 HAS A MASS OF 12 G AND CONTAINS 6.022 × 1023 CARBON-12 ATOMS. ▪ THE MOLAR MASS OF CARBON-12 THEREFORE IS 12 G. ▪ FOR ANY ELEMENT THE MOLAR MASS (GRAMS) IS NUMERICALLY EQUAL TO THE ATOMIC MASS (AMU). ▪ THE ATOMIC MASS OF LITHIUM IS 6.941 AMU, THEREFORE 1 MOLE OF LITHIUM HAS A MASS OF 6.941 GRAMS. ▪ ISOTOPES HAVE THE SAME ATOMIC NUMBER BUT ▪ SIMILARLY, THE MOLAR MASS OF OXYGEN IS 16.00 DIFFERENT MASS NUMBERS. GRAMS. o THERE ARE THREE ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN: HYDROGEN, DEUTERIUM, AND TRITIUM. ELECTRONS AND CHEMICAL BONDING o ALL THREE ISOTOPES HAVE 1 PROTON AND 1 ELECTRON, BUT HYDROGEN HAS NO NEUTRONS IN ITS NUCLEUS, DEUTERIUM HAS CHEMICAL BONDING 1 NEUTRON, AND TRITIUM HAS 2 NEUTRONS. ▪ THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF AN ATOM IS DEPENDENT o ISOTOPES CAN BE DENOTED USING THE ON ITS ELECTRONS SYMBOL OF THE ELEMENT PRECEDED BY THE ▪ CHEMICAL BONDS ARE FORMED WHEN ELECTRONS IN MASS NUMBER (NUMBER OF PROTONS AND THE OUTERMOST ENERGY LEVEL (VALENCE SHELL) ARE NEUTRONS) OF THE ISOTOPE. EITHER SHARED WITH OR TRANSFERRED TO ANOTHER o THUS, HYDROGEN IS 1 H, DEUTERIUM IS 2 H, ATOM. AND TRITIUM IS 3 H. ELECTRON SHELLS ATOMIC MASS ▪ ENERGY LEVELS DEPICTED AS CONCENTRIC RINGS ▪ OUTER SHELLS DO NOT CONTAIN ELECTRONS UNTIL THE ▪ INDIVIDUAL ATOMS HAVE VERY LITTLE MASS. A INNER SHELLS HAVE REACHED THEIR MAXIMUM. HYDROGEN ATOM HAS A MASS OF 1.67 × 10−24 G ▪ VALENCE SHELL: OUTERMOST SHELL ▪ THE ATOMIC MASS OF AN ELEMENT IS THE AVERAGE o INNERMOST SHELL: HOLDS MAX OF 2 ATOMS MASS OF ITS NATURALLY OCCURRING ISOTOPES, TAKING o OUTERMOST SHELL: HOLDS MAX OF 8 ATOMS INTO ACCOUNT THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF EACH ▪ THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN THE VALENCE SHELL ISOTOPE. DETERMINES AN ATOM’S CHEMICAL NATURE. ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, THE ATOMIC MASS OF THE ELEMENT o INERT: IF THE VALENCE LEVEL IS FULL WITH CARBON IS 12.01 DA, WHICH IS SLIGHTLY MORE THAN 12 EIGHT ELECTRONS (CALLED AN OCTET), THE DA BECAUSE OF THE ADDITIONAL MASS OF THE SMALL ATOMS IS INERT AND DOES NOT FORM BONDS AMOUNT OF OTHER CARBON ISOTOPES. WITH OTHER ATOMS ▪ BECAUSE THE ATOMIC MASS IS AN AVERAGE, A SAMPLE o REACTIVE: IF THE VALENCE SHELL IS OF CARBON CAN BE TREATED AS IF ALL THE CARBON INCOMPLETE, THE ATOM IS CHEMICALLY ATOMS HAD AN ATOMIC MASS OF 12.01 DA REACTIVE AND FORMS CHEMICAL BONDS TO ACHIEVE AN OCTET. SUBATOMIC MASS CHARGE o OCTET RULE: THE TENDENCY OF ATOMS TO PARTICLE COMBINE WITH OTHER ATOMS UNTIL EACH ELECTRON 9.10938 × 10-28 g -1.6022 × 10-19 C HAS 8 ELECTRONS (2 ELECTRONS FOR PROTON 1.67262 × 10-24 g +1.6022 × 10-19 C HYDROGEN) IN ITS VALENCE SHELL. NEUTRON 1.67493 ×10-24 g 0 ELECTRONEGATIVITY MOLE AND MOLAR MASS ▪ THE ABILITY OF AN ATOM’S NUCLEUS TO ATTRACT ELECTRONS MOLE ▪ WHETHER AN ELECTRON IS TRANSFERRED OR SHARED ▪ THE SI UNIT FOR THE AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE. BETWEEN TWO ATOMS IS DETERMINED BY THE RELATIVE ▪ A MOLE IS THE AMOUNT OF A SUBSTANCE THAT ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF THE TWO ATOMS CONTAINS AS MANY ELEMENTARY ENTITIES (ATOMS, ▪ ATOMS THAT LACK ONLY 1 OR 2 ELECTRONS FROM MOLECULES, OR OTHER PARTICLES) AS THERE ARE ATOMS HAVING AN OCTET IN THEIR VALENCE SHELL HAVE A IN EXACTLY 12 G OF THE CARBON-12 ISOTOPE. STRONG ELECTRONEGATIVITY ▪ THIS NUMBER IS KNOWN AS THE AVOGADRO’S NUMBER, ▪ ATOMS THAT LACK 6 OR 7 ELECTRONS FROM HAVING AN APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO 6.022 × 10 23 OCTET IN THEIR VALENCE SHELL HAVE A WEAK ELECTRONEGATIVITY Examples: ▪ WHEN THE ELECTRONEGATIVITIES OF TWO ATOMS FORMING A CHEMICAL BOND ARE SIMILAR, THE ATOMS 1 mole Cu = 6.022 × 1023 Cu atoms TEND TO SHARE, RATHER THAN TRANSFER, THE 1 mole H2O = 6.022 × 1023 water molecules ELECTRONS. UNDER THESE CONDITIONS, COVALENT 1 mole NaCl = 6.022 × 1023 sodium chloride formula units BONDS ARE FORMED. ▪ WHEN ELECTRONEGATIVITIES ARE VERY DIFFERENT, THE ATOMS TEND TO TRANSFER ELECTRONS. MOLAR MASS IONIC BONDING ▪ CONVENIENT WAY TO DETERMINE THE NUMBER OF ATOMS IN A SAMPLE OF AN ELEMENT. ▪ A TYPE OF CHEMICAL BOND FORMED BY 2 OPPOSITELY ▪ MASS IN GRAMS OF 1 MOLE OF A SUBSTANCE, WHICH IS CHARGED IONS BY THE TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS. EQUAL TO ITS ATOMIC MASS UNITS 1 MOLE OF CARBON- ▪ USUALLY COMPOSED OF A METAL AND A NONMETAL pg. 2  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 ▪ AFTER A WEAKLY ELECTRONEGATIVE ATOM LOSES AN COVALENT BONDING ELECTRON, IT HAS 1 MORE PROTON THAN IT HAS ELECTRONS AND IS POSITIVELY CHARGED. A SODIUM ▪ A COVALENT BOND FORMS WHEN ATOMS SHARE ONE OR ATOM (NA) CAN LOSE AN ELECTRON TO BECOME A MORE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS. THE SHARING OF POSITIVELY CHARGED SODIUM ION (NA+). ELECTRONS, RATHER THAN TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS, ▪ AFTER AN ATOM GAINS AN ELECTRON, IT HAS 1 MORE OCCURS BECAUSE THE ATOMS HAVE SIMILAR ELECTRON THAN IT HAS PROTONS AND IS NEGATIVELY ELECTRONEGATIVITIES. THE RESULTING COMBINATION CHARGED. A CHLORINE ATOM (CL) CAN ACCEPT AN OF ATOMS IS CALLED A MOLECULE. ELECTRON TO BECOME A NEGATIVELY CHARGED ▪ THIS TYPE OF BOND EXISTS BETWEEN NONMETALS CHLORIDE ION (CL−). AFTER THIS TRANSFER OF ▪ AN EXAMPLE IS THE COVALENT BOND BETWEEN TWO ELECTRONS, BOTH CHLORINE AND SODIUM HAVE FULL HYDROGEN ATOMS TO FORM A HYDROGEN MOLECULE. VALENCE SHELLS. EACH HYDROGEN ATOM HAS 1 ELECTRON. ▪ AS THE TWO HYDROGEN ATOMS GET CLOSER TOGETHER, THE POSITIVELY CHARGED NUCLEUS OF EACH ATOM BEGINS TO ATTRACT THE ELECTRON OF THE OTHER ATOM. o ION: A CHARGED PARTICLE, FORMED WHEN ▪ AT AN OPTIMAL THE NUMBER OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS DISTANCE, THE 2 IN AN ATOM ARE NO LONGER EQUAL NUCLEI MUTUALLY o CATION: POSITIVELY CHARGED IONS ATTRACT THE 2 o ANION: NEGATIVELY CHARGED IONS ELECTRONS, AND EACH ELECTRON IS ION FORMATION SHARED BY BOTH METALS NON-METALS NUCLEI BECAUSE THE ▪ METALS TEND TO FORM ▪ NON-METALS TEND TO CATIONS BECAUSE THEY FORM ANIONS DUE TO ELECTRONEGATIVITES OF THE TWO HYDROGENS ARE HAVE LOW IONIZATION THEIR HIGH ELECTRON EQUAL. ENERGY. AFFINITY ▪ THE TWO HYDROGEN ATOMS ARE NOW HELD TOGETHER BY A COVALENT BOND. ▪ METALS EASILY LOSE ▪ NON-METALS TEND TO THEIR VALENCE GAIN VALENCE TYPES OF COVALENT BOND ELECTRONS ELECTRONS ▪ ATOMS CAN FORM DIFFERENT TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUND SINGLE BOND ▪ THE IONS IN AN IONIC COMPOUND ARE BOUND BY STRONG o TWO ATOMS ARE HELD TOGETHER BY ELECTROSTATIC FORCES; THUS, ITS TAKE A LARGE AMOUNT ONE ELECTRON PAIR OF ENERGY TO SEPARATE THIS IONS. IONIC COMPOUNDS HAVE HIGH MELTING AN BOING POINTS. DOUBLE BOND ▪ SOLID IONIC COMPOUNDS DO NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY, BUT WHEN MOLTEN OR IN SOLUTION, IT CAN CONDUCT o TWO ATOMS THAT SHARE 2 PAIRS OF ELECTRICITY. THIS IS POSSIBLE DUE TO THE MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS IONS. SOLID IONIC COMPOUNDS FORM ELECTROLYTE o STRONGER BUT SHORTER THAN SINGLE SOLUTIONS BOND ▪ IONIC COMPOUNDS ARE THE SOLIDS AT ROOM TRIPLE BOND TEMPERATURE. THIS CAN BE EXPLAINED BY THE GIANT CRYSTAL LATTUCE STRUCTURES THAT IONIC COMPOUNDS o FORMED BETWEEN TWO ATOMS THAT FORM SHARE 3 PAIRS OF ELECTRONS ▪ IONIC COMPOUNDS ARE HARD AND BRITTLE o STRONGEST AMONG THE THREE BONDS PROCESS o SHORTEST BOND LENGTH ▪ THE METAL LOSES ITS VALENCE ELECTRON/S, WHICH THE LEWIS STRUCTURE OF COVALENT BONDS NON-METAL ACCEPTS ▪ THE METAL BECOMES CAT-ION AND THE NON-METAL BECOMES ANION ▪ THE TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS FORMS IONIC BONDS ▪ WAY OF REPRESENTING COMPOUND CONTAINING COVALENT BONDS pg. 3  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 ▪ SHOWED SHARED ELECTRON PAIRS OR BONDING PAIRS ▪ BECAUSE ELECTRONS HAVE A NEGATIVE CHARGE, THE AS WELL AS UNSHARED ELECTRONS OR LONE PAIRS OXYGEN SIDE OF THE MOLECULE IS SLIGHTLY MORE NEGATIVE THAN THE HYDROGEN SIDE POLARITY NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND ▪ NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND IS CHARATERIZED BY AN EQUAL SHARING OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN TWO ATOMS EXAMPE: FORMING OF HYDROGEN MOLECULE BOND DIPOLE ▪ UNEQUAL SHARING OF ELECTRONS RESULTING FROM UNEQUAL ELECTRONEGATIVITIES RESULT TO A POLAR COVALENT BOND ▪ IN A POLAR COVALENT BOND, THE SEPARATION OF CHARGES IS CALLED A BOND DIPOLE EXAMPLE: FORMING OF WATER MOLECULE 1. A WATER MOLECULE FORMS WHEN 1 OXYGEN ATOM FORMS POLAR COVALENT BONDS WITH 2 HYDROGEN ATOMS. THERE IS AN 1. INITIALLY THE 2 ATOMS OF HYDROGEN, EACH WITH 1 UNEVEN ELECTRON, DO NOT INTERACT BECAUSE THEY ARE TOO FAR DISTRIBUTION OF APART. ELECTRONS DUE TO 2. AS THE 2 ATOMS GET CLOSER, THE POSITIVELY CHARGED THE STRONGER NUCLEUS OF EACH ATOM BEGINS TO ATTRACT THE ELECTRON ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF THE OTHER ATOM. OF OXYGEN COMPARED TO 3. A NONPOLAR COVALENT BOND FORMS WHEN THE ELECTRONS HYDROGEN. THIS ARE SHARED EQUALLY BETWEEN THE NUCLEI BECAUSE THE CREATES CHARGED ELECTRONS HAVE THE SAME ATTRACTION TO EACH NUCLEUS. REGIONS OF THE THE 2 HYDROGENS ARE HELD TOGETHER AND FORM A MOLECULE. THE OXYGEN SIDE HAS A SLIGHT NEGATIVE NONPOLAR MOLECULE. CHARGE (Δ−) AND THE HYDROGEN SIDE HAS A SLIGHT POSITIVE CHARGE (Δ+). POLAR COVALENT BOND 2. MOLECULES FORMED BY POLAR COVALENT BONDS HAVE ▪ NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND IS CHARATERIZED BY AN CHARGED PORTIONS DUE TO A GREATER ELECTRON DENSITY UNEQUAL SHARING OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN TWO AROUND THE NUCLEUS WITH THE STRONGER ATOMS ELECTRONEGATIVITY. ▪ POLAR COVALENT BOND HAS SOMETHING TO DO WITH THE SHARING OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN TWO ATOMS RANGE OF TYPE OF BOND ▪ POLAR COVALENT BONDS CAN RESULT IN POLAR ELECTRONEGATIVITY MOLECULES, WHICH ARE ELECTRICALLY ASYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE o ALL POLAR MOLECULES CONTAIN POLAR BONDS 0 TO 0.4 NONPOLAR COVALENT BUT NOT ALL MOLECULES WITH POLAR COVALENT 0.5 TO 1.9 POLAR COVALENT BONDS ARE POLAR MOLECULE. 2 OR GREATER IONIC o THE OVERALL POLARITY OF A MOLECULE CAN BE AFFECTED BY TWO FACTORS: (1) POLARITY OF THE BONDS (2) SHAPE OF THE SYMMETRY OF THE MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS MOLECULES FOR A MOLECULE TO BE POLAR IT MUST BE: MOLECULE o HAVE POLAR BONDS ▪ COMPOSED OF TWO OR MORE ATOMS CHEMICALLY o BE AN ASYMMETRIC MOLECULE COMBBINED TO FORM A STRUCTURE THAT BEHAVES AS AN INDEPENDENT UNIT. ▪ WHEN COVALENT BONDING BETWEEN AN OXYGEN ATOM ▪ SOMETIMES THE ATOMS THAT COMBINE ARE OF THE AND TWO HYDROGEN ATOMS FORMS A WATER SAME TYPE, SUCH AS TWO HYDROGEN ATOMS MOLECULE, THE ELECTRON CLOUD IS CLOSER TO THE COMBINING TO FORM A HYDROGEN MOLECULE. OXYGEN NUCLEUS THAN TO THE HYDROGEN NUCLEI. ▪ HOWEVER, MORE TYPICALLY, A MOLECULE CONSISTS OF TWO OR MORE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATOMS, SUCH AS pg. 4  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 TWO HYDROGEN ATOMS AND AN OXYGEN ATOM COMBINNING TO FORM WATER. INTRA ATOM TO ATOM ▪ THUS, A GLASS OF WATER CONSISTS OF A COLLECTION OF INTER MOLECULE TO MOLECULE INDIVIDUAL WATER MOLECULES POSITIONED NEXT TO ONE ANOTHER. HYDROGEN BONDING COMPOUND ▪ SPECIAL STRONG DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MOLECULES THAT HAVE HYDROGEN BONDED ▪ A SUBSTANCE RESULTING FROM THE CHEMICAL TO A HIGHLY ELECTRONEGATIVE ATOM SUCH AS OXYGEN, COMBINATION OF TWO OR MORE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NITROGEN, OR FLUORINE ATOMS. ▪ AN IMPORTANT ROLE OF HYDROGEN BONDS IS TO HELP ▪ WATER IS A MOLECULE THAT IS ALSO A COMPOUND BUILD THE SHAPE OF COMPLEX MOLECULES. THE BONDS BECAUSE IT IS A COMBINATION OF TWO DIFFERENT CAN OCCUR BETWEEN DIFFERENT POLAR PARTS OF A ATOMS, HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. MOLECULE TO STABILIZE THE FINAL THREE-DIMENSIONAL ▪ BUT NOT ALL MOLECULES ARE COMPOUNDS. FOR SHAPE EXAMPLE, A HYDROGEN MOLECULE IS NOT A COMPOUND ▪ NOTE: THE LARGE DIFFERENCE IN ELECTRONEGATIVITY BECAUSE IT DOES NOT CONSIST OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESULTS IN A LARGE PARTIAL POSITIVE CHARGE ON ATOMS. HYDROGEN AND CORRESPONDINGLY LARGE PARTIAL o COVALENT COMPOUNDS, IN WHICH NEGATIVE ON THE O, N, OR F ATOM. H-O, H-N, AND H-F DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATOMS ARE HELD BONDS HAVE VERY LARGE BOND DIPOLES THAT CAN TOGETHER BY COVALENT BONDS, ARE INTERACT STRONGLY WITH ONE ANOTHER. MOLECULES BECAUSE THE SHARING OF ELECTRONS RESULTS IN DISTINCT UNITS. o ON THE OTHER HAND, IONIC COMPOUNDS, IN WHICH IONS ARE HELD TOGETHER BY THE FORCE OF ATTRACTION BETWEEN OPPOSITE CHARGES, ARE NOT MOLECULES BECAUSE THEY DO NOT CONSIST OF DISTINCT UNITS. MOLECULAR MASS SOLUBILITY AND DISSOCIATION ▪ THE MOLECULAR MASS OF A MOLECULE OR COMPOUND SOLUBILITY CAN BE DETERMINED BY ADDING UP THE ATOMIC MASSES OF ITS ATOMS (OR IONS). ▪ THE ABILITY OF ONE SUBSTANCE TO DISSOLVE IN ▪ THE TERM MOLECULAR MASS IS USED FOR CONVENIENCE ANOTHER— FOR EXAMPLE, SUGAR DISSOLVING IN FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS, EVEN THOUGH THEY ARE NOT WATER. MOLECULES. ▪ CHARGED SUBSTANCES, SUCH AS SODIUM CHLORIDE, ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, THE ATOMIC MASS OF SODIUM IS 22.99 AND POLAR SUBSTANCES, SUCH AS GLUCOSE, READILY AND THAT OF CHLORIDE IS 35.45. THE MOLECULAR MASS DISSOLVE IN WATER, WHEREAS NONPOLAR SUBSTANCES, OF NACL IS THEREFORE 58.44 (22.99 + 35.45). SUCH AS OILS, DO NOT. WE ALL HAVE SEEN HOW OIL FLOATS ON WATER. ▪ SUBSTANCES DISSOLVE IN WATER WHEN THEY BECOME INTERMOLECULAR FORCES SURROUNDED BY WATER MOLECULES. ▪ IF THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ENDS OF THE WATER ▪ THE WEAK ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTIONS THAT EXIST MOLECULES ARE MORE ATTRACTED TO THE CHARGED BETWEEN OPPOSITELY CHARGED PARTS OF MOLECULES, ENDS OF OTHER MOLECULES THAN TO EACH OTHER, THE OR BETWEEN IONS AND MOLECULES. HYDROGEN BONDS BETWEEN THE ENDS OF THE WATER ▪ THERE IS NO EXCHANGE OF ELECTRONS IN MOLECULES BREAK, AND WATER MOLECULES SURROUND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES. THIS DIFFERS FROM OTHER THE OTHER MOLECULES, WHICH BECOME DISSOLVED IN CHEMICAL BONDS. WATER. ▪ INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ARE MUCH WEAKER THAN THE FORCES PRODUCING CHEMICAL BONDING. ▪ INTERMOLECULAR FORCES INCLUDE HYDROGEN BONDS DISSOCIATION AND THE PROPERTIES OF SOLUBILITY AND DISSOCIATION. ▪ WHEN IONIC COMPOUNDS DISSOLVE IN WATER, THEIR ▪ MUCH WEAKER THAN INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES IONS DISSOCIATE, OR SEPARATE, FROM ONE ANOTHER ▪ ELECTROSTATIC IN NATURE, MEANING THEY ARISE FROM BECAUSE CATIONS ARE ATTRACTED TO THE NEGATIVE THE INTERACTION BETWEEN POSITIVELY AND ENDS OF WATER MOLECULES AND ANIONS ARE NEGATIVELY CHARGED SPECIES ATTRACTED TO THE POSITIVE ENDS OF WATER MOLECULES. ▪ WHEN NACL DISSOCIATES IN WATER, SODIUM AND CHLORIDE IONS SEPARATE, AND WATER MOLECULES SURROUND AND ISOLATE THE IONS, THEREBY KEEPING THEM IN SOLUTION ▪ When Molecules (Covalent Compounds) Dissolve In Water, They Usually Remain Intact, Even Though They Are Surrounded By Water Molecules. Thus, In A Glucose Solution, Glucose Molecules Are Surrounded By Water Molecules. pg. 5  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 ELECTROLYTES AND NONELECTROLYTES PARTS OF A CHEMICAL EQUATION ELECTROLYTES H2 + O2 → H2O ▪ CATIONS AND ANIONS THAT DISSOCIATE IN WATER ARE ▪ REACTANTS SOMETIMES CALLED ELECTROLYTES BECAUSE THEY HAVE o THE SUBSTANCES THAT ENTER INTO A THE CAPACITY TO CONDUCT AN ELECTRIC CURRENT, CHEMICAL REACTION WHICH IS THE FLOW OF CHARGED PARTICLES. o REACTANTS ARE PLACED AT THE LEFT SIDE OF ▪ AN ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG) IS A RECORDING OF THE ARROW. ELECTRIC CURRENTS PRODUCED BY THE HEART. THESE o THE STARTING MATERIALS IN A CHEMICAL CURRENTS CAN BE DETECTED BY ELECTRODES ON THE REACTION SURFACE OF THE BODY BECAUSE THE IONS IN THE BODY o IN THE CHEMICAL EQUATION ABOVE FLUIDS CONDUCT ELECTRIC CURRENTS HYDROGEN (H2) AND OXYGEN (O2) ARE ▪ MAINTAINING THE PROPER BALANCE OF ELECTROLYTES IS CALLED THE REACTANTS IMPORTANT FOR KEEPING THE BODY HYDRATED, ▪ PRODUCTS CONTROLLING BLOOD PH, AND ENSURING THE PROPER o THE SUBSTANCES THAT RESULT FROM THE FUNCTION OF MUSCLES AND NERVES. CHEMICAL REACTION ▪ UNDER MOST CONDITIONS INCLUDING MODERATE o A CHEMICAL REACTION CAN HAVE ONE OR EXERCISE, THE BODY’S USUAL REGULATORY MORE PRODUCTS. MECHANISMS ARE SUFFICIENT TO MAINTAIN o PRODUCTS ARE PLACED AFTER THE ARROW ELECTROLYTE HOMEOSTASIS. HOWEVER, PEOPLE SYMBOL. ENGAGING IN PROLONGED EXERCISE, SUCH AS o WATER ON THE OTHER HAND IS CALLED THE COMPETING IN A TRIATHLON, ARE ADVISED TO CONSUME PRODUCT SPORTS DRINKS CONTAINING ELECTROLYTES. ▪ IN AN EMERGENCY, ADMINISTERING INTRAVENOUS SYMBOLS USED IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS SOLUTIONS CAN RESTORE ELECTROLYTE AND FLUID ▪ + BALANCE o THIS SYMBOL MEANS REACTS WITH, IS ADDED TO, OR COMBINES WITH. NONELECTROLYTES o THIS SYMBOL IS ALSO USED IN CHEMICAL ▪ MOLECULES THAT DO NOT DISSOCIATE FORM SOLUTIONS REACTIONS WITH TWO OR MORE PRODUCTS. THAT DO NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY ▪ → ▪ PURE WATER IS A NONELECTROLYTE. o THIS SYMBOL MEANS PRODUCES, YIELDS, OR FORMS. 2.2. CHEMICAL REACTION AND ENERGY o THIS IS USED TO INDICATE WHAT PRODUCTS ARE FORMED IN A CHEMICAL REACTION. a. CHEMICAL REACTION ▪ (aq)- AQUEOUS SOLUTION, DISSOLVED IN WATER i. SYNTHESIS REACTION ▪ (s)- SOLID ii. DECOMPOSITION REACTION ▪ (l) – LIQUID iii. REVERSIBLE REACTION ▪ (g) – GAS iv. OXIDATION-REDUCTION ▪ ∆- HEAT REACTION b. ENERGY THREE IMPORTANT POINTS c. SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS ▪ FIRST, IN SOME REACTIONS, LESS COMPLEX REACTANTS ARE COMBINED TO FORM A LARGER, MORE COMPLEX PRODUCT. AN EXAMPLE IS THE SYNTHESIS OF THE CHEMICAL REACTION COMPLEX PROTEINS OF THE HUMAN BODY FROM AMINO ACID “BUILDING BLOCKS” OBTAINED FROM FOOD. ▪ SECOND, IN OTHER REACTIONS, A REACTANT CAN BE ▪ PROCESS IN WHICH A ONE OR MORE SUBSTANCES IS BROKEN DOWN, OR DECOMPOSED, INTO SIMPLER, LESS CHANGED INTO ONE OR MORE NEW SUBSTANCES. COMPLEX PRODUCTS. AN EXAMPLE IS THE BREAKDOWN ▪ OCCURS WHEN ATOMS, IONS, MOLECULES, OR OF CARBOHYDRATE MOLECULES INTO GLUCOSE COMPOUNDS INTERACT EITHER TO FORM OR TO BREAK MOLECULES CHEMICAL BONDS. ▪ THIRD, ATOMS ARE GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER ▪ CHEMICAL BONDS ARE MADE (SYNTHESIS; ANABOLISM) ATOMS THROUGH CHEMICAL BONDING OR AND BROKEN (DECOMPOSITION; CATABOLISM) DURING INTERMOLECULAR FORCES; THEREFORE, TO SYNTHESIZE CHEMICAL REACTIONS. NEW PRODUCTS OR BREAK DOWN REACTANTS, IT IS ▪ METABOLISM: COLLECTIVE TERM USED FOR THE SUM OF NECESSARY TO CHANGE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALL OF THE ANABOLIC AND CATABOLIC REACTIONS IN THE ATOMS BODY. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS SYNTHESIS REACTION ▪ SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF A CHEMICAL REACTION ▪ CHEMISTS USE SYMBOLS AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS TO ▪ WHEN TWO OR MORE REACTANTS CHEMICALLY ILLUSTRATE WHAT HAPPENS IN A CHEMICAL REACTION COMBINE TO FORM A NEW AND LARGER PRODUCT. ▪ THE SYNTHESIS REACTIONS OCCURRING IN THE BODY ARE COLLECTIVELY REFERRED TO AS ANABOLISM ▪ THESE REACTIONS PRODUCE THE MOLECULES CHARACTERISTIC OF LIFE, SUCH AS ATP, PROTEINS, CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, AND NUCLEIC ACIDS. pg. 6  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 ▪ THE GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, AND REPAIR OF THE BODY COULD NOT TAKE PLACE WITHOUT ANABOLIC REACTIONS. ▪ EQUILLIBRIUM: o WHEN THE RATE OF PRODUCT FORMATION IS EQUAL TO THE RATE OF THE REVERSE REACTION o AT EQUILIBRIUM, THE AMOUNT OF REACTANTS RELATIVE TO THE AMOUNT OF PRODUCTS REMAINS CONSTANT. EXAMPLE EXAMPLE: THE COMBINATION OF TWO AMINO ACIDS TO FORM A DIPEPTIDE ▪ AN IMPORTANT REVERSIBLE REACTION IN THE HUMAN BODY INVOLVES CARBON DIOXIDE AND HYDROGEN IONS. ▪ AS THE AMINO ACIDS ARE BOUND TOGETHER, WATER ▪ CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) AND WATER (H2O) COMBINE TO RESULTS. FORM CARBONIC ACID (H2CO3). ▪ DEHYDRATION: SYNTHETIC REACTION WHERE WATER IS ▪ CARBONIC ACID THEN SEPARATES BY A REVERSIBLE A PRODUCT. REACTION TO FORM HYDROGEN IONS (H+) AND EXAMPLE: the formation of adenosine triphosphate BICARBONATE IONS (HCO3 −) ▪ TP, WHICH IS COMPOSED OF ADENOSINE AND THREE CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3 – PHOSPHATE GROUPS, IS SYNTHESIZED FROM ADENOSINE ▪ IF MORE CO 2 IS ADDED TO THE REACTION, THEN DIPHOSPHATE (ADP), WHICH HAS TWO PHOSPHATE ADDITIONAL H2CO3 FORMS, WHICH CAUSES MORE H + GROUPS, AND AN INORGANIC PHOSPHATE (H 2PO4 ) THAT AND HCO3 – TO FORM. IS OFTEN SYMBOLIZED AS Pi ▪ THE AMOUNT OF H+ AND + HCO 3– RELATIVE TO CO 2 THEREFORE REMAINS CONSTANT. ▪ MAINTAINING A CONSTANT LEVEL OF H+ IN THE BODY CAN BE ACHIEVED, IN PART, BY REGULATING BLOOD CO 2 LEVELS. FOR EXAMPLE, SLOWING DOWN THE RESPIRATION RATE CAUSES BLOOD CO2 LEVELS TO INCREASE AND THUS INCREASE H+ LEVELS. DECOMPOSITION REACTION ▪ A DECOMPOSITION REACTION IS THE REVERSE OF A OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION SYNTHESIS REACTION—A LARGER REACTANT IS CHEMICALLY BROKEN DOWN INTO TWO OR MORE ▪ CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT RESULT FROM THE SMALLER PRODUCTS. EXCHANGE OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN THE REACTANTS ▪ THE DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS OCCURRING IN THE ▪ WHEN SODIUM AND CHLORINE REACT TO FORM SODIUM BODY ARE COLLECTIVELY CALLED CATABOLISM CHLORIDE, THE SODIUM ATOM LOSES AN ELECTRON, AND ▪ THEY INCLUDE THE DIGESTION OF FOOD MOLECULES IN THE CHLORINE ATOM GAINS AN ELECTRON. THE INTESTINE AND WITHIN CELLS, THE BREAKDOWN OF o OXIDATION: THE LOSS OF AN ELECTRON BY AN FAT STORES, AND THE BREAKDOWN OF FOREIGN MATTER ATOM AND MICROORGANISMS IN CERTAIN BLOOD CELLS THAT o REDUCTION: THE GAIN OF AN ELECTRON BY PROTECT THE BODY AN ATOM ▪ THE TRANSFER OF THE ELECTRON CAN BE COMPLETE, RESULTING IN AN IONIC BOND, OR IT CAN BE PARTIAL, RESULTING IN A COVALENT BOND. ▪ BECAUSE ONE ATOM PARTIALLY OR COMPLETELY LOSES AN ELECTRON AND ANOTHER ATOM GAINS THAT ELECTRON, THESE REACTIONS ARE CALLED OXIDATION- EXAMPLE: THE BREAKDOWN OF A DISACCHARIDE INTO GLUCOSE REDUCTION REACTIONS. MOLECULES ▪ SYNTHESIS AND DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS CAN BE OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS. ▪ NOTE THAT THIS REACTION REQUIRES THAT WATER BE ▪ CHEMICAL REACTION CAN BE DESCRIBED IN MORE THAN SPLIT INTO TWO PARTS AND THAT EACH PART BE ONE WAY. CONTRIBUTED TO ONE OF THE NEW GLUCOSE MOLECULES ENERGY ▪ HYDROLYSIS: WATER IS SPLIT INTO TWO PARTS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE FORMATION OF THE PRODUCTS ▪ ENERGY IS THE CAPACITY TO DO WORK—THAT IS, TO EXAMPLE: THE BREAKDOWN OF ATP TO ADP AND AN INORGANIC MOVE MATTER. PHOSPHATE ▪ ENERGY CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO POTENTIAL ENERGY REVERSIBLE REACTION AND KINETIC ENERGY. ▪ POTENTIAL ENERGY IS STORED ENERGY THAT COULD DO ▪ SOME CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE REVERSIBLE. WORK BUT IS NOT DOING SO. ▪ THE REACTION CAN RUN IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION, SO ▪ KINETIC ENERGY IS THE FORM OF ENERGY THAT IS THAT THE PRODUCTS ARE CONVERTED BACK TO THE ACTUALLY DOING WORK AND MOVING MATTER ORIGINAL REACTANTS ▪ ACCORDING TO THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY PRINCIPLE, THE TOTAL ENERGY OF THE UNIVERSE IS CONSTANT. pg. 7  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 ▪ THEREFORE, ENERGY IS NEITHER CREATED NOR HEAT ENERGY DESTROYED, BUT IT CAN TAKE ON DIFFERENT FORMS. ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, THE POTENTIAL ENERGY IN THE BALL IS ▪ FORM OF ENERGY THAT FLOWS FROM A HOTTER OBJECT CONVERTED INTO KINETIC ENERGY AS THE BALL FALLS TO A COOLER OBJECT. TOWARD THE FLOOR. ▪ TEMPERATURE IS A MEASURE OF HOW HOT OR COLD A ▪ CONVERSELY, THE KINETIC ENERGY REQUIRED TO RAISE SUBSTANCE IS RELATIVE TO ANOTHER SUBSTANCE. THE BALL FROM THE FLOOR IS CONVERTED BACK INTO ▪ ALL OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY CAN BE CONVERTED INTO POTENTIAL ENERGY HEAT ENERGY. ▪ WHEN A MOVING OBJECT COMES TO REST, ITS KINETIC ENERGY IS CONVERTED INTO HEAT ENERGY BY FRICTION. FORMS OF ENERGY ▪ SOME OF THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF CHEMICAL BONDS IS RELEASED AS HEAT ENERGY DURING CHEMICAL ▪ POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY EXIST IN MANY REACTIONS. DIFFERENT FORMS. HERE WE CONSIDER MECHANICAL, ▪ HUMAN BODY TEMPERATURE IS MAINTAINED BY HEAT CHEMICAL, AND HEAT ENERGY. PRODUCED AS A BY-PRODUCT OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS. MECHANICAL ENERGY SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTION ▪ MECHANICAL ENERGY RESULTS FROM THE POSITION OR ▪ MOLECULES ARE CONSTANTLY IN MOTION AND MOVEMENT OF OBJECTS. THEREFORE HAVE KINETIC ENERGY. ▪ MANY OF THE ACTIVITIES OF THE HUMAN BODY, SUCH AS ▪ A CHEMICAL REACTION OCCURS ONLY WHEN MOLECULES MOVING A LIMB, BREATHING, AND CIRCULATING BLOOD, WITH SUFFICIENT KINETIC ENERGY COLLIDE WITH EACH INVOLVE MECHANICAL ENERGY OTHER. ▪ AS TWO MOLECULES MOVE CLOSER TOGETHER, THE CHEMICAL ENERGY NEGATIVELY CHARGED ELECTRON CLOUD OF ONE MOLECULE REPELS THE NEGATIVELY CHARGED ELECTRON ▪ A FORM OF POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED WITHIN THE CLOUD OF THE OTHER MOLECULE. IF THE MOLECULES CHEMICAL BONDS OF A SUBSTANCE. HAVE SUFFICIENT KINETIC ENERGY, THEY OVERCOME ▪ IN ANY CHEMICAL REACTION, THE POTENTIAL ENERGY IN THIS REPULSION AND COME TOGETHER. THE CHEMICAL BONDS OF THE REACTANTS CAN BE COMPARED WITH THE POTENTIAL ENERGY IN THE CHEMICAL BONDS OF THE PRODUCTS. ▪ IF THE POTENTIAL ENERGY IN THE REACTANTS IS LESS THAN THAT IN THE PRODUCTS, ENERGY MUST BE SUPPLIED FOR THE REACTION TO OCCUR. ▪ AN EXAMPLE IS THE SYNTHESIS OF ATP FROM ADP ▪ IF THE POTENTIAL ENERGY IN THE CHEMICAL BONDS OF THE REACTANTS IS GREATER THAN THAT OF THE PRODUCTS, THE REACTION RELEASES ENERGY. ACTIVATION ENERGY ▪ THE MINIMUM AMOUNT OF ENERGY THAT THE REACTANTS MUST HAVE TO START A CHEMICAL REACTION ▪ NOTE THAT THERE ARE TWO QUANTITIES OF ENERGY IN ▪ EVEN REACTIONS THAT RELEASE ENERGY MUST THIS REACTION. OVERCOME THE ACTIVATION ENERGY BARRIER FOR THE o THE FIRST IS ENERGY REQUIRED TO BREAK THE REACTION TO PROCEED. REACTANT CHEMICAL BONDS. o THE SECOND IS ENERGY RELEASED FROM CATALYSTS THOSE CHEMICAL BONDS, WHICH YIELDS THE ▪ SUBSTANCES THAT INCREASE THE RATE OF CHEMICAL NET RELEASE OF ENERGY IN THE REACTION. REACTIONS WITHOUT BEING PERMANENTLY CHANGED ▪ THUS, BREAKDOWN OF ATP RESULTS IN THE NET RELEASE OR DEPLETED THEMSELVES. OF ENERGY WHEN THE OVERALL REACTION IS CONSIDERED. ENZYMES ▪ THIS ENERGY FROM ATP CAN BE ▪ PROTEINS THAT ACT AS CATALYSTS USED TO ▪ INCREASE THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS BY SYNTHESIZE AND LOWERING THE ACTIVATION ENERGY NECESSARY FOR TRANSPORT OTHER THE REACTION TO BEGIN MOLECULES, TO ▪ AS A RESULT, MORE MOLECULES HAVE SUFFICIENT DO MECHANICAL ENERGY TO UNDERGO CHEMICAL REACTIONS. AN WORK (SUCH AS ENZYME ALLOWS THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION TO MUSCLE TAKE PLACE MORE THAN A MILLION TIMES FASTER THAN CONTRACTION), IT WOULD WITHOUT THE ENZYME. OR TO PRODUCE ▪ HEAT. pg. 8  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE REACTION RATE; ▪ HYDROPHOBIC: SUBSTANCES NOT ATTRACTED TO WATER; “WATER-FEARING”. TEMPERATURE COHESION AND ADHESION PROPERTIES ▪ AFFECT THE SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS. ▪ AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES, REACTANTS HAVE MORE ▪ COHESION IS THE ATTRACTION OF ONE WATER KINETIC ENERGY, MOVE AT FASTER SPEEDS, AND COLLIDE MOLECULE TO ANOTHER; CREATES A SURFACE TENSION WITH ONE ANOTHER MORE FREQUENTLY AND WITH o EXAMPLES OF COHESION ARE THE SURFACE GREATER FORCE, THEREBY INCREASING THE LIKELIHOOD TENSION EXHIBITED WHEN WATER BULGES OF A CHEMICAL REACTION. OVER THE TOP OF A FULL GLASS WITHOUT SPILLING OVER AND WHEN BEADS OF WATER CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS FORM ON THE SKIN. ▪ ADHESION IS THE ATTRACTION OF WATER MOLECULES TO ▪ WITHIN LIMITS, THE GREATER THE CONCENTRATION OF OTHER MOLECULES; CAUSES THE UPWARD MOVEMENT THE REACTANTS, THE GREATER THE RATE AT WHICH A OF WATER IN THE XYLEM OF PLANTS. GIVEN CHEMICAL REACTION PROCEEDS. o AN EXAMPLE OF ADHESION IS THE SURFACE ▪ AS THE CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS INCREASES, TENSION THAT DRAWS WATER ACROSS A THEY ARE MORE LIKELY TO COME INTO CONTACT WITH GLASS PLATE AND HOLDS A BEAD OF WATER ONE ANOTHER. TO THE SKIN BEFORE IT FALLS TO THE GROUND. 2.3. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY ▪ THE COMBINATION OF COHESION AND ADHESION HELPS HOLD CELLS TOGETHER AND MOVE FLUIDS THROUGH THE a. INORGANIC AND ORGANIC BODY. CHEMISTRY ▪ WATER ACCOUNTS FOR APPROXIMATELY 50% OF THE b. WATER WEIGHT OF A YOUNG ADULT FEMALE AND 60% OF A c. SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS YOUNG ADULT MALE. FEMALES HAVE A LOWER d. ACIDS AND BASES PERCENTAGE OF WATER THAN MALES BECAUSE THEY e. OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE TYPICALLY HAVE MORE BODY FAT, WHICH IS RELATIVELY FREE OF WATER. ▪ PLASMA, THE LIQUID PORTION OF BLOOD, IS 92% WATER. INORGANIC AND OGRANIC CHEMISTRY PROPERTIES OF WATER INORGANIC CHEMISTRY STABILIZING BODY TEMPERATURE X DEALS WITH SUBSTANCES THAT DO NOT CONTAIN ▪ WATER TENDS TO RESIST LARGE TEMPERATURE CARBON, ALTHOUGH A MORE RIGOROUS DEFINITION IS FLUCTUATIONS BECAUSE IT CAN ABSORB LARGE THE LACK OF CARBON-HYDROGEN BONDS. AMOUNTS OF HEAT AND REMAIN AT A FAIRLY STABLE WATER, OXYGEN, CARBON DIOXIDE, CALCIUM TEMPERATURE. PHOSPHATE, METAL IONS. ▪ AS A RESULT OF THIS PROPERTY, BLOOD, WHICH IS MOSTLY WATER, CAN TRANSFER HEAT FROM DEEP IN THE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE BODY TO THE SURFACE, WHERE THE HEAT IS RELEASED. ▪ WHEN WATER EVAPORATES, IT REMOVES EXCESS HEAT ▪ PLAY MANY VITAL ROLES IN HUMAN ANATOMY AND FROM THE SURFACE OF THE BODY. PHYSIOLOGY ▪ EXAMPLES INCLUDE THE OXYGEN WE BREATHE, THE PROTECTION CALCIUM PHOSPHATE THAT MAKES UP OUR BONES, AND THE MANY METALS REQUIRED FOR PROTEIN FUNCTIONS, ▪ WATER PROTECTS THE BODY BY ACTING AS A LUBRICANT RANGING FROM IRON IN BLOOD GAS TRANSPORT TO AND A CUSHION FOR ORGANS. ZINC IN ALCOHOL DETOXIFICATION. IN THIS SECTION, WE ▪ LUBRICATION REDUCES DAMAGE FROM FRICTION. DISCUSS THE IMPORTANT ROLES OF OXYGEN, CARBON ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, TEARS PROTECT THE SURFACE OF THE EYE DIOXIDE, AND WATER—ALL INORGANIC MOLECULES—IN FROM RUBBING OF THE EYELIDS. THE BODY. ▪ BY FORMING A FLUID CUSHION AROUND ORGANS, WATER HELPS PROTECT THE ORGANS FROM TRAUMA. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, THE CEREBROSPINAL FLUID HELPS PROTECT THE BRAIN. ▪ STUDY OF CARBON-CONTAINING SUBSTANCES, WITH A FEW EXCEPTIONS PARTICIPATES IN CHEMICAL REACTION ▪ CARBON MONOXIDE (CO), CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2), AND BICARBONATE IONS (HCO3 −) ARE SEVERAL IMPORTANT ▪ MANY OF THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS NECESSARY FOR INORGANIC SUBSTANCES THAT CONTAIN CARBON BUT LIFE DO NOT TAKE PLACE UNLESS THE REACTING LACK C—H BONDS. MOLECULES ARE DISSOLVED IN WATER. ▪ WATER ALSO DIRECTLY PARTICIPATES IN MANY CHEMICAL REACTIONS. AS PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED, A WATER DEHYDRATION REACTION IS A SYNTHESIS REACTION THAT ▪ WATER HAS REMARKABLE PROPERTIES DUE TO ITS POLAR PRODUCES WATER, AND A HYDROLYSIS REACTION IS A NATURE. DECOMPOSITION REACTION THAT REQUIRES WATER ▪ A MOLECULE OF WATER IS FORMED WHEN AN ATOM OF OXYGEN FORMS POLAR COVALENT BONDS WITH TWO MIXING MEDIUM ATOMS OF HYDROGEN. ▪ WATER’S ABILITY TO MIX WITH OTHER SUBSTANCES ▪ HYDROPHILIC: SUBSTANCES ATTRACTED TO WATER; ENABLES IT TO ACT AS A MEDIUM FOR TRANSPORT, “WATER-LOVING”. pg. 9  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 MOVING SUBSTANCES FROM ONE PART OF THE BODY TO SODIUM CHLORIDE CAN BE MADE BY DISSOLVING 10 G OF ANOTHER. BODY FLUIDS, SUCH AS PLASMA, TRANSPORT SODIUM CHLORIDE INTO ENOUGH WATER TO MAKE 100 NUTRIENTS, GASES, WASTE PRODUCTS, AND A VARIETY ML OF SOLUTION. OF MOLECULES INVOLVED IN REGULATING BODY ▪ A SECOND WAY, OFTEN USED BY PHYSIOLOGISTS, IS TO FUNCTIONS EXPRESS CONCENTRATIONS IN OSMOLES, WHICH INDICATE THE NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN A SOLUTION. MIXTURE o AN OSMOLE (OSM) IS AVOGADRO’S NUMBER OF PARTICLES OF A SUBSTANCE IN 1 ▪ COMBINATION OF TWO OR MORE SUBSTANCES KILOGRAM (KG) OF WATER. PHYSICALLY BLENDED TOGETHER, BUT NOT CHEMICALLY o THE OSMOLALITY OF A SOLUTION REFLECTS COMBINED THE NUMBER, NOT THE TYPE, OF PARTICLES IN SOLUTION A SOLUTION. o BECAUSE THE CONCENTRATION OF PARTICLES ▪ ANY MIXTURE IN WHICH THE SUBSTANCES ARE IN BODY FLUIDS IS SO LOW, PHYSIOLOGISTS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED USE THE MEASUREMENT MILLIOSMOLE ▪ SOLUTIONS CAN BE LIQUID, GAS, OR SOLID. (MOSM), 1/1000 OF AN OSMOLE. ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, A SALT SOLUTION CONSISTS OF SALT o MOST BODY FLUIDS HAVE A CONCENTRATION DISSOLVED IN WATER, AIR IS A SOLUTION CONTAINING A OF ABOUT 300 MOSM AND CONTAIN MANY VARIETY OF GASES, AND WAX IS A SOLID SOLUTION DIFFERENT IONS AND MOLECULES. THE COMPOSED OF SEVERAL FATTY SUBSTANCES. CONCENTRATION OF BODY FLUIDS IS ▪ SOLUTIONS ARE OFTEN DESCRIBED IN TERMS OF ONE IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT INFLUENCES THE SUBSTANCE DISSOLVING IN ANOTHER: MOVEMENT OF WATER INTO OR OUT OF CELLS o SOLVENT: THAT WHICH DISSOLVES THE SOLUTE. ACIDS AND BASES o SOLUTE: THAT WHICH DISSOLVES IN THE SOLVENT. THE BODY CONTAINS MANY MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS, CALLED SUSPENSION ACIDS AND BASES, THAT CAN ALTER BODY FUNCTIONS BY RELEASING AND BINDING PROTONS. A NORMAL BALANCE OF ACIDS AND BASES ▪ A MIXTURE CONTAINING MATERIALS THAT SEPARATE IS MAINTAINED BY HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS INVOLVING FROM EACH OTHER UNLESS THEY ARE CONTINUALLY, BUFFERS, THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, AND THE KIDNEYS PHYSICALLY BLENDED TOGETHER ▪ BLOOD IS A SUSPENSION—THAT IS, RED BLOOD CELLS ARE ACID SUSPENDED IN A LIQUID CALLED PLASMA. AS LONG AS ▪ DEFINED AS A PROTON DONOR. THE RED BLOOD CELLS AND PLASMA ARE MIXED ▪ A HYDROGEN ION (H+) IS A PROTON BECAUSE IT RESULTS TOGETHER AS THEY PASS THROUGH BLOOD VESSELS, THE WHEN AN ELECTRON IS LOST FROM A HYDROGEN ATOM, RED BLOOD CELLS REMAIN SUSPENDED IN THE PLASMA. WHICH LEAVES JUST THE PROTON NUCLEUS. HOWEVER, IF THE BLOOD IS ALLOWED TO SIT IN A ▪ THEREFORE, A MOLECULE OR COMPOUND THAT CONTAINER, THE RED BLOOD CELLS AND PLASMA RELEASES H+ IS AN ACID SEPARATE FROM EACH OTHER. HCl → H+ + Cl− COLLOID BASE ▪ A MIXTURE IN WHICH A DISPERSED SUBSTANCE OR PARTICLE IS UNEVENLY DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT THE ▪ DEFINED AS A PROTON ACCEPTOR. MIXTURE. ▪ ANY SUBSTANCE THAT BINDS TO (ACCEPTS) H+ IS A BASE. ▪ UNLIKE A SUSPENSION, THE DISPERSED PARTICLES ARE ▪ MANY BASES FUNCTION AS PROTON ACCEPTORS BY SMALL ENOUGH THAT THEY DO NOT SETTLE OUT. RELEASING HYDROXIDE IONS (OH−) WHEN THEY ▪ PROTEINS ARE COMMON DISPERSED PARTICLES, DISSOCIATE. PROTEINS AND WATER FORM COLLOIDS. FOR INSTANCE, ▪ THE BASE SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) DISSOCIATES TO THE PLASMA PORTION OF BLOOD AND THE LIQUID FORM Na+ AND OH−: INTERIOR OF CELLS ARE COLLOIDS CONTAINING MANY IMPORTANT PROTEINS. NaOH → Na+ + OH− IN LIVING ORGANISMS, THE COMPLEX FLUIDS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE ▪ THE OH− ARE PROTON ACCEPTORS THAT COMBINE WITH CELLS CONSIST OF SOLUTIONS, SUSPENSIONS, AND COLLOIDS. H+ TO FORM WATER: OH− + H+ → H2O BLOOD IS AN EXAMPLE OF ALL OF THESE MIXTURES. IT IS A SOLUTION CONTAINING DISSOLVED NUTRIENTS, SUCH AS SUGAR; A STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES SUSPENSION HOLDING RED BLOOD CELLS; AND A COLLOID ▪ ACIDS AND BASES ARE CLASSIFIED AS STRONG OR WEAK. CONTAINING PROTEINS. ▪ STRONG ACIDS OR BASES DISSOCIATE ALMOST COMPLETELY WHEN DISSOLVED IN WATER. SOLUTIONS CONCENTRATIONS o CONSEQUENTLY, THEY RELEASE ALMOST ALL OF THEIR H+ OR OH−. ▪ CONCENTRATION: MEASURE OF NUMBER OF PARTICLES o THE MORE COMPLETELY THE ACID OR BASE OF SOLUTE PER VOLUME OF SOLUTION. DISSOCIATES, THE STRONGER IT IS. FOR EXAMPLE, HCl IS A STRONG ACID BECAUSE IT THE CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTE PARTICLES DISSOLVED IN COMPLETELY DISSOCIATES IN WATER: SOLVENTS CAN BE EXPRESSED IN TWO WAYS. HCl → H+ + Cl− ▪ ONE WAY IS TO INDICATE THE PERCENT OF SOLUTE BY NOT EASILY REVERSIBLE WEIGHT PER VOLUME OF SOLUTION. A 10% SOLUTION OF pg. 10  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 ▪ WEAK ACIDS OR BASES ONLY PARTIALLY DISSOCIATE IN CHANGES IN PH WHEN EITHER ACIDS OR BASES ARE WATER. ADDED TO A SOLUTION o CONSEQUENTLY, THEY RELEASE ONLY SOME ▪ IMPORTANT BUFFERS IN LIVING SYSTEMS OF THEIR H+ OR OH−. ARE COMPOSED OF BICARBONATE, PHOSPHATES, o FOR EXAMPLE, WHEN ACETIC ACID (CH3COOH) AMINO ACIDS, AND PROTEINS. IS DISSOLVED IN WATER, SOME OF IT DISSOCIATES, BUT SOME OF IT REMAINS IN CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS THE UNDISSOCIATED FORM. o AN EQUILIBRIUM IS ESTABLISHED BETWEEN ▪ BUFFERS PREVENT LARGE CHANGES IN PH VALUES BY THE IONS AND THE UNDISSOCIATED WEAK ACTING AS CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS. ACID: ▪ A CONJUGATE BASE IS WHAT REMAINS OF AN ACID AFTER THE H+ (PROTON) IS LOST. CH3COOH⇌ CH3COO− + H+ ▪ A CONJUGATE ACID IS FORMED WHEN A H+ IS EASILY REVERSIBLE TRANSFERRED TO THE CONJUGATE BASE. ▪ TWO SUBSTANCES RELATED IN THIS WAY ARE A o FOR A GIVEN WEAK ACID OR BASE, THE CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIR. AMOUNT OF THE DISSOCIATED IONS RELATIVE ACTION OF BUFFER TO THE WEAK ACID OR BASE IS A CONSTANT. ▪ THE ADDITION OF AN ACID TO AN UNBUFFERED pH SCALE SOLUTION RESULTS IN A LARGE INCREASE OF H+ THAT ▪ REFERS TO THE HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION IN A CAUSES A LARGE DECREASE IN PH. SOLUTION. ▪ TO REDUCE LARGE CHANGES IN PH, A BUFFER IS ADDED o NEUTRAL: PH OF 7 OR EQUAL AMOUNTS OF THAT HAS A COMPONENT THAT WILL BIND H+. HYDROGEN AND HYDROXIDE IONS. ▪ WHEN THE ACID IS ADDED TO THE BUFFERED SOLUTION, o ACIDIC: PH OF LESS THAN 7 WITH A GREATER THE CONJUGATE BASE FORM OF THE BUFFER, BINDS TO CONCENTRATION OF HYDROGEN IONS. AND REMOVES THE H+. THE RESULT IS A SMALLER o ALKALINE (BASIC): PH OF GREATER THAN 7 CHANGE IN THE SOLUTION PH. AND A GREATER CONCENTRATION OF ▪ THE GREATER THE BUFFER CONCENTRATION, THE MORE HYDROXIDE IONS. EFFECTIVELY IT CAN RESIST A CHANGE IN PH; HOWEVER, ▪ THE NORMAL PH RANGE FOR HUMAN BLOOD IS 7.35 TO BUFFERS CANNOT ENTIRELY PREVENT SOME CHANGE IN 7.45. THE PH OF A SOLUTION. FOR EXAMPLE, WHEN AN ACID IS ▪ ACIDOSIS RESULTS IF BLOOD PH DROPS BELOW 7.35, IN ADDED TO A BUFFERED SOLUTION, THE PH DECREASES, WHICH CASE THE NERVOUS SYSTEM BECOMES BUT NOT TO THE EXTENT IT WOULD HAVE WITHOUT THE DEPRESSED AND THE INDIVIDUAL MAY BECOME BUFFER. DISORIENTED AND POSSIBLY COMATOSE. ▪ ALKALOSIS RESULTS IF BLOOD PH RISES ABOVE 7.45. OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE THEN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM BECOMES OVEREXCITABLE, AND THE INDIVIDUAL MAY BECOME EXTREMELY NERVOUS OR HAVE CONVULSIONS. OXYGEN ▪ BOTH ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS CAN BE FATAL. ▪ AN INORGANIC MOLECULE CONSISTING OF TWO OXYGEN SALTS ATOMS BOUND TOGETHER BY A DOUBLE COVALENT BOND. ▪ COMPOUND CONSISTING OF A CATION OTHER THAN H+ ▪ ABOUT 21% OF THE GAS IN THE ATMOSPHERE IS OXYGEN, AND AN ANION OTHER THAN OH−. AND IT IS ESSENTIAL FOR MOST LIVING ORGANISMS. ▪ SALTS ARE FORMED BY THE INTERACTION OF AN ACID ▪ HUMANS REQUIRE OXYGEN IN THE FINAL STEP OF A AND A BASE IN WHICH THE H+ OF THE ACID ARE REPLACED SERIES OF REACTIONS THAT EXTRACT ENERGY FROM BY THE POSITIVE IONS OF THE BASE. FOOD MOLECULES ▪ FOR EXAMPLE, IN A SOLUTION IN WHICH HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCl) REACTS WITH THE BASE SODIUM HYDROXIDE CARBON DIOXIDE (NaOH), THE SALT SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl) IS FORMED: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O ▪ CONSISTS OF ONE CARBON ATOM BOUND TO TWO (Acid) (Base) (Salt) (Water) OXYGEN ATOMS. ▪ TYPICALLY, WHEN SALTS SUCH AS SODIUM CHLORIDE ▪ EACH OXYGEN ATOM IS BOUND TO THE CARBON ATOM DISSOCIATE IN WATER, THEY FORM POSITIVELY AND BY A DOUBLE COVALENT BOND. NEGATIVELY CHARGED IONS ▪ CARBON DIOXIDE IS PRODUCED WHEN ORGANIC MOLECULES, SUCH AS GLUCOSE, ARE METABOLIZED BUFFERS WITHIN THE CELLS OF THE BODY MUCH OF THE ENERGY STORED IN THE COVALENT BONDS OF GLUCOSE IS ▪ THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF MANY MOLECULES TRANSFERRED TO OTHER ORGANIC MOLECULES WHEN CHANGES AS THE PH OF THE SOLUTION IN WHICH THEY GLUCOSE IS BROKEN DOWN AND CARBON DIOXIDE IS ARE DISSOLVED CHANGES. RELEASED. ▪ THE SURVIVAL OF AN ORGANISM DEPENDS ON ITS ABILITY ▪ ONCE CARBON DIOXIDE IS PRODUCED, IT IS ELIMINATED TO MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS BY KEEPING BODY FLUID PH FROM THE CELL AS A METABOLIC BY-PRODUCT, WITHIN A NARROW RANGE. DEVIATIONS FROM THE TRANSFERRED TO THE LUNGS BY THE BLOOD, AND NORMAL PH RANGE FOR HUMAN BLOOD ARE LIFE- EXHALED DURING RESPIRATION. THREATENING ▪ IF CARBON DIOXIDE IS ALLOWED TO ACCUMULATE ▪ ONE WAY BODY FLUID PH IS REGULATED INVOLVES THE WITHIN CELLS, IT BECOMES TOXIC. USE OF BUFFERS. BUFFERS ARE CHEMICALS THAT RESIST pg. 11  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 2.3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY o LARGE MOLECULES ARE NECESSARY FOR LIFE THAT ARE BUILT FROM SMALLER ORGANIC a) CARBON AS A FRAMEWORK OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES ARE CALLED BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE MACROMOLECULES b) SYSNTHESIS AND BREAKDOWN OF o MACROMOLECULES ARE POLYMERS, BUILT MOLECULE FROM MONOMERS c) CARBOHYDRATES ▪ POLYMER IS A LONG MOLECULE d) LIPIDS CONSISTING OF MANY SIMILAR e) PROTEINS BUILDING BLOCKS f) NUCLEIC ACIDS ▪ THE REPEATING UNITS THAT SERVE g) ATP AS BUILDING BLOCK ARE CALLED MONOMERS CARBON: THE FRAMEWORK OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULE ▪ POLYMER: CARBOHYDRATE; MONOMER: MONOSACCHARIDE ▪ LIVING ORGANISMS CONSISTS MOSTLY OF CARBON-BASED ▪ POLYMER: PROTEIN; MONOMER: COMPOUNDS AMINO ACIDS ▪ CARBON IS UNPARALLELED IN ITS ABILITY TO FORM LARGE, ▪ POLYMER: NUCLEIC ACIDS; COMPLEX, AND VARIED MOLECULES MONOMER: NUCLEOTIDE ▪ CARBON IS THE “FOUNDATION” ELEMENT FOR MOLECULES IN LIVING THINGS SYNTHESIS AND BREAKDOWN OF POLYMERS ▪ PROTEINS, DNA, CARBOHYDRATES, AND OTHER MOLECULES ▪ HYDROLYSIS AND DEHYDRATION OCCURS WITH THE HELP THAT DISTINGUISH LIVING MATTER ARE ALL COMPOSED OF OF ENZYMES. ENZYMED SPEEDS UP THE PROCESS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS HYDROLYSIS AND DEHYDRATION ▪ BECAUSE OF CARBON’S ABILITY TO FORM FOUR BONDS, THESE BUILDING BLOCKS CAN BE USED TO MAKE AN EXHAUSTIBLE DEHYDRATION REACTION/ DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS VARIETY OF ORGANIC MOLECULES ▪ CARBON CONTAINS 4 ELECTRONS ON ITS OUTER SHELL AND 6 ▪ OCCURS WHEN TWO MONOMERS ELECTRONS IN TOTAL, THEREFORE IT CAN FORM 4 COVALENT BOND TOGETHER THROUGH THE BONDS WITH OTHER ATOMS OR MOLECULES LOSS OF WATER MOLECULE ▪ THE VALENCES OF CARBON AND ITS MOST FREQUENT PARTNERS (HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, AND NITROGEN) ARE THE BUILDING CODE FOR THE ARCHITECTURE OF LIVING HYDROLYSIS MOLECULES ▪ POLYMERS ARE DISASSEMBLED TO ▪ CARBON ATOM CAN PARTNER WITH ATOMS OTHER THAN HYDROGEN MONOMERS BY HYDROLYSIS ▪ A REACTION IN WHICH A BOND IS MOLECULAR DIVERSITY ARISING FROM VARIATION IN CARBON BROKEN, OR LYSED, BY ADDITION OF WATER MOLECULE SKELETON CARBOHYDRATES ▪ ORGANIC MOLECULES COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN ATOMS AND RANGE IN SIZE FROM SMALL TO VERY LARGE. ▪ COMMONLY KNOWN AS “CARBS”, SUGARS, OR SUGAR POLYMERS ▪ THE SMALL SUGAR MOLECULES DISSOLVED IN SOFT DRINKS AND THE LONG STARCH MOLECULES IN PASTA AND POTATOES. ▪ IN ANIMALS (INCLUDING HUMANS), CARBOHYDRATES ARE A ▪ THIS DIVERSITY OF MOLECULAR FORMS ACCOUNTS FOR THE PRIMARY SOURCE OF DIETARY ENERGY. DIVERSITY OF FUNCTIONS OF THE BIOLOGICAL ▪ IN PLANTS, THE SERVE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL FOR MUCH MACROMOLECULES AND IS BASED TO A LARGE DEGREE ON OF THE PLANT BODY. THE ABILITY OF CARBON TO FORM MULTIPLE BONDS WITH ITSELF AND OTHER ATOMS MONOSACCHARIDE MOLECULES OF LIFE ▪ LARGE CARBOHYDRATES ARE COMPOSED OF NUMEROUS, RELATIVELY SIMPLE BUILDING BLOCKS CALLED ▪ ALL LIVING THINGS ARE MADE UP OF FOUR CLASSES OF LARGE MONOSACCHARIDES BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES: CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, ▪ MOLECULAR FORMULA: CH2O AND NUCLEIC ACIDS. ▪ GLUCOSE (C6H12O6) – MOST COMMON MONOSACCHARIDE ▪ LARGE BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES HAVE UNIQUE PROPERTIES ▪ MONOSACCHARIDES ARE CLASSIFIED BY: THAT ARISE FROM THE ORDERLY ARRANGEMENT OF THEIR o THE LOCATION OF THE CARBONYL GROUP (AS ATOMS ALDOSE OR KETOSE) ▪ MACROMOLECULES o ARE LARGE MOLECULES AND ARE COMPLEX o TEND TO BE POLYMERS OF SMALL BIOMOLECULES o SIMPLE OR COMPLEX - BOTH INVOLVE IN METABOLIC REACTIONS pg. 12  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 ALDOSE (E.G. GLUCOSE) KETOSE (E.G. FRUCTOSE) ALDOSE KETOSE HAVE AN ALDEHYDE GROUP HAVE A KETO GROUP, (ALDEHYDE SUGAR) (KETONE SUGAR) AT THE END USUALLY AT C2 HEXOSES: SIX-CARBON SUGARS C6H12O6 o THE NUMBER OF CARBOSIN IN THE CARBON SKELETON IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS, GLUCOSE MOLECULES, AS WELL AS MONOSACCHARIDE (CH20)n MOST OTHER FIVE- AND SIX-CARBON SUGARS, FORM RINGS, IF n =3, TRIOSE (GLYCERALDEHYDE) C3H6O3 BECAUSE THEY ARE THE MOST STABLE FORM OF THESE SUGARS IF n =4, TETROSE (THEOSE, C4H8O4 ERTHRULOSE) UNDER PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. IF n =5, PENTOSE (RIBOSE) C5H10O5 IF n =6, HEXOSE (GLUCOSE, C6H12O6 GALACTOSE) ISOMERS ▪ MOLECULES THAT HAVE THE SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA BUT DIFFERENT STRUCTURES ▪ ISOMERS ARE LIKE ANAGRAMS – WORDS THAT CONTAIN SAME LETTER IN A DIFFERENT ORDER: HEART AND EARTH o ALPHA AND BETA MONOSACCHARIDE ▪ MINOR DIFFERENCES IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS GIVE o ALPHA GLUCOSE – OH UNDER CARBON NUMBER 1 ISOMERS DIFFERENT PROPERTIES o BETA GLUCOSE – OH ABOVE CARBON NUMBER 1 ▪ THE REARRANGEMENT OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP MAKES FRUCTOSE TASTE CONSIDERABLY SWEETER THAN GLUCOSE ALDOSE KETOSE (ALDEHYDE SUGAR) (KETONE SUGAR) TRIOSES: THREE-CARBON SUGARS C3H6O3 EXAMPLES: HONEY FRUIT JUICE SODA GLUCOSE o CARBOHYDRATES FORM USED BY THE BODY, ALDOSE KETOSE REFERRED TO AS “BLOOD SUGAR” (ALDEHYDE SUGAR) (KETONE SUGAR) o MAJOR CARBOHYDRATE IN THE BLOOD AND A PENTOSES: FIVE-CARBON SUGARS C5H10O5 MAJOR NUTRIENT FOR MOST CELLS OF THE BODY. o BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS ARE TIGHTLY REGULATED BY INSULIN AND OTHER HORMONES. o IN PEOPLE WITH DIABETES, THE BODY IS UNABLE TO REGULATE GLUCOSE LEVELS PROPERLY. DIABETICS NEED TO MONITOR THEIR BLOOD GLUCOSE CAREFULLY TO MINIMIZE THE DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF THIS DISEASE. o BASIC SUB-UNIT OF OTHER LARGER CARBOHYDRATE MOLECULES o FOUND IN FRUITS, VEGETABLES, HONEY FRUCTOSE o SWEETEST OF THE SUGARS pg. 13  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 o OCCURS NATURALLY IN FRUITS AND HONEY, “FRUIT STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDE SUGAR” o COMBINES WITH GLUCOSE TO FORM SUCROSE STARCH GALACTOSE ▪ A STORAGE POLYSACCHARIDE OF PLANTS, CONSISTS OF LONG o COMBINES WITH GLUCOSE TO FORM LACTOSE, BRANCHED OR UNBRANCHED CHAINS “MILK SUGAR” OF GLUCOSE ▪ PLANTS STORE SURPLUS STARCH AS DISACCHARIDE GRANULES WHERE IT IS AVAILABLE AS ▪ FORMED WHEN A DEHYDRATION REACTION JOINS TWO A SUGAR STOCKPILE THAT CAN BE MONOSACCHARIDES THROUGH DEHYDRATION REACTION BROKEN DOWN AS NEEDED TO PROVIDE ENERGY AND RAW MATERIAL FOR BUILDING OTHER MOLECULES ▪ AMYLOPLAST – STORAGE PLASTIN USED BY PLANTS STORING A LOT OF STARCH ▪ POTATOES AND GRAINS, SUCH AS WHEATE, CORN, AND RICE ARE THE MAJOR SOURCE OF TARCH IN THE HUMAN DIET GLYCOGEN ▪ GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE – BOND CREATED IN ORDER TO FORM DISACCHARIDE OR POLYSACCHARIDE ▪ ANIMAL STORAGE FORM OF CARBOHYDRATE, IS COMPOSED o BOND ABOVE - BETA OF HIGHLY BRANCHED CHAINS OF GLUCOSE UNIT o BOND BELOW – ALPHA ▪ MOST OF OUR GLYCOGEN IS STORED AS GRANULES IN OUR o NAME OF BOND FORMULATION: LIVER AND MUSCLE CELLS, WHICH BREAK DOWN THE ▪ TYPE OF BOND + CARBON GLYCOGEN TO RELEASE GLUCOSE WHEN IT IS NEEDED FOR JOINED + GLYCOSIDIC BOND ENERGY ▪ “CARBO-LOADING”- THE CONSUMPTION OF LARGE AMOUNTS SUCROSE OFSTARCHY FOODS THE NIGT BEFORE AN ATHLETIC EVENT ▪ THE STARCH IS CONVERTED TO GLYCOGEN, WHICH IS THEN ▪ TABLE SUGAR AVAILABLE FOR RAPID USE DURING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY THE ▪ GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE NEXT DAY ▪ MAIN CARBOHYDRATE IN PLANT SAP, AND NOURISHES ALL THE STRUCTURAL POLYACCHARIDE PARTS OF THE PLANT ▪ EXTRACTED FROM THE STEM OF CELLULOSE SUGARCANE OR THE ROOTS OF ▪ A POLYSACCHARIDE OF GLUCOSE UNITS IN UNBRANCHED SUGAR BEETS CHAINS; FORMS CABLE-LIKE FIBRILS IN THE TOUGH WALLS THAT ENCLOSE PLANT CELLS AND IS A MAJOR COMPONENT OF LACTOSE WOOD MILK SUGAR ▪ CANNOT BE DIGESTED BY HUMAS BECAUSE HUMANS CANNOT GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE BREAK DOWN 𝛽 − 1,4 − 𝐺𝐿𝑌𝐶𝑂𝑆𝐼𝐷𝐼𝐶 𝐵𝑂𝑁𝐷𝑆 ▪ BECAUSE IT REMAINS UNDIGESTED, FIBER DOES SERVE AS MALTOSE NUTRIENT SOURCE, BUT IT DOES APPEAR TO HELP KEEP OUR DIGESTIVE SYSTEM HEALTHY GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE NATURALLY FOUND IN GERMINATING SEEDS USED IN MAKING BEER, MALT WHISKEY AND LIQUOR, CEREALS AND CANDIES POLYSACCHARIDE ▪ THE POLYMERS OF SUGARS, HAVE STORAGE AND CHITIN STRUCTURAL ROLES ▪ ANOTHER STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDE ▪ THE ARCHITECTURE FOUND IN THE EXOSKELETON OF ARTHROPODS AND FUNCTION OF A ▪ PROVIDES STRUCTURAL SUPPORT FOR HE CELL POLYSACCHARIDE ARE WALLS OF MANY FUNGI DETERMINED BY IT SUGAR MONOMERS AND THE POSITIONS OF ITS GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGES ▪ LONG CHAINS OF MONOSACCHARIDES. ▪ THESE CHAINS CAN BE EITHER STRAIGHT OR BRANCHED. pg. 14  BSNR 118 | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | TERM 01 LIPIDS TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS (ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF DOUBLE BONDS) ▪ DIVERSE GROUP OF HYDROPHOBIC MOLECULES SATURATED (NO BOND) ▪ UNLIKE CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, AND NUCLEIC ACIDS, MONOUNSATURATED (1 LIPIDS ARE NEITHER MACROMOLECULES NOR POLYMERS. BOND) ▪ THE UNIFYING FEATURE OF LIPID IS THAT THEY MIX POORLY, IF POLYUNSATURATED (>1 BOND) AT ALL, WITH WATER ▪ LIPIDS CONSIST MOSTLY OF HYDROGEN REGIONS ▪ THE MOST BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT LIPIDS ARE FATS, SATURATED FATTY ACIDS UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS PHOSPHOLIPIDS, AND STEROIDS (UNHEALTHY FATS) (HEALTHY FATS) ONLY SINGLE C-C BONDS ONE OR MORE DOUBLE C-C BOND TYPES OF LIPIDS MOLECULES THAT FIT NATURALLY OCCURRING HAVE ONE CLOSELY TOGETHER IN A OR MORE IS DOUBLE BOND FATTY ACIDS REGULAR PATTERN HAVE PROPERTIES THEY HAVE KINKS/ BENDS ▪ FATS SIMILAR TO ALKANES o ARE CONSTRUCTED FROM TWO TYPES OF SMALLER MOLECULES: GLYCEROL AND FATTY ACIDS TRIGLYCERIDE / TRIACYLGLYCEROLS FIT CLOSELY TOGETHER IN DO NOT PACK CLOSELY A REGULAR PATTERN FEWER ATTRACTION BETWEEN CHAINS HIGHER MELTING POINTS LOWER MELTING POINTS SOLID AT ROOM LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE ▪ A TERM YOU MAY SEE IN THE RESULTS OF MEDICAL TESTS FOR