Anaphy 101 Midterms PDF

ANAPHY 101 (LEC & LAB) 1ST SEM | MIDTERMS | A.Y. 2024-2025 INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY (LEC) How is the human body organized to sustain life? Which organ helps maintain the body function? What specific functions do these organs perform? ANATOMY Study of the body’s...

ANAPHY 101 (LEC & LAB) 1ST SEM | MIDTERMS | A.Y. 2024-2025 INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY (LEC) How is the human body organized to sustain life? Which organ helps maintain the body function? What specific functions do these organs perform? ANATOMY Study of the body’s structures Gross anatomy (larger structures) - seen readily, measured, weighted Microscopic anatomy (smaller structures) - can be seen in microscopes such as POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP cells, tissues, etc. Subcategories - Regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, histology, cytology PHYSIOLOGY Study of the function of the human body Helps to understand the chemistry and physics of the anatomical structures of the body and how they work. Categories of Physiology - Neurophysiology - Cardiovascular physiology - Renal physiology - Pathology - Endocrinology Set point HOMEOSTASIS ↓ The dynamic stability of the body’s Sensor → Control Center → Effectors (Sweating) internal environment. ↩ Regulated variable (Temperature) ↩ The body parameters, or variables are kept stable equilibrium pH, temperature, blood pressure, oxygen STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN levels, nutrient levels, and electrolyte levels BODY (LAB) are constantly monitored. Receptors - monitor and send information THE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION to a control center Chemical → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ Control centers - determines if changes are System → Organism necessary Effectors - made changes to parameters, or ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE HUMAN BODY variables 1. Integumentary System 2. Skeletal System BODY TEMPERATURE HOMEOSTASIS 3. Muscular System Sensors - skin detect ↑↓ temperature 4. Nervous System Control center - receives sensory 5. Endocrine System information → maintain body temperature 6. Cardiovascular System Effectors 7. Lymphatic System 8. Respiratory System FEEDBACK LOOPS 9. Digestive System The method of control for many variables 10. Urinary System of the human body 11. Reproductive System Most variables are controlled through NEGATIVE FEEDBACK. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AND SKELETAL - The body’s response is to decrease SYSTEM the original stimulus. Integumentary POSITIVE FEEDBACK occurs when the - Creates a barrier that protects the original stimulus is enhanced. body from pathogens and fluid loss - Sensory reception EXAMPLES - Derivatives: hair, nails, glands, skin NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP Skeletal - Supports and protects the body ↪ ribs, pelvic, spine, skull ANAPHY 101 (LEC & LAB) 1ST SEM | MIDTERMS | A.Y. 2024-2025 MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS SYSTEM The body is standing upright Muscular Feet one parallel and shoulder-width - Creates the movement of the body apart - Contributes to body temperature Toes pointed forward homeostasis Upper limbs are held out to each side with Nervous palms facing forward - Acts as the sensor for homeostasis - Connects the brain to every part of the body BODY POSITIONS - Use during specific physical examinations ENDOCRINE AND CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM and surgical procedures Endocrine - Prone & Supine - Secrets the hormones that regulate - Anterior & Posterior many bodily processes Cardiovascular - Deliver oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body - Contributes to temperature regulated Oxygenated blood - artery Unoxygenated/Deoxygenated blood - vein Capillaries - exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide LYMPHATIC AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Lymphatic - Regulates fluid balance in the body - Houses some of the immune cells that defend the body from pathogens Respiratory - Exchange air with the atmosphere - Provides surface area of the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood DIGESTIVE AND URINARY SYSTEM Digestive - 2nd brain - Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients into the body - Vitamin zinc for absorption Urinary - Contribute to blood pressure and pH DIRECTIONAL TERMS homeostasis - Sections through the body can be used to - Removes waste products from the investigate internal anatomy body - Prone & Supine - Anterior/Ventral & Posterior/Dorsal REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - Lateral & Medial - Produce and exchange gametes - Cranial & Caudal - Houses the fetus until birth - Proximal & Distal - Lactation - Superficial & Deep ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY - What is the importance of using Sagittal/Longitudinal (Left & Right) Anatomical Position? - Median or midsagittal - Parasagittal (not equal) Transverse/Cross-section Plane ANATOMICAL POSITION - Up & Down - Standardized way to view the human body; Frontal/Coronal Plane standard position when describing one - Front & Back structure to another. ANAPHY 101 (LEC & LAB) 1ST SEM | MIDTERMS | A.Y. 2024-2025 ORGANIZATION AND COMPARTMENTALIZATION - Parietal layer lines the wall of the OF THE HUMAN BODY body cavity (closest to surfaces or Cavities - internal compartments organize cavity) the body’s internal space - Visceral layer lies directly on the Posterior/Dorsal - cranial & surface of the organ (closest to the spinal/vertebral cavities organ) Anterior/Ventral - thoracic & Cavity between the layers contains serous abdominopelvic cavities fluid SUBDIVISIONS OF THE POSTERIOR AND HEART ANTERIOR CAVITIES POSTERIOR BODY CAVITY AND SUBDIVISIONS Cranial - brain Spinal/Vertebral - spinal cord, beginning of the spinal nerves ANTERIOR BODY CAVITY AND SUBDIVISIONS THORACIC Mediastinum - Thymus, Esophagus, Trachea LUNGS Pleural - Lungs Pericardial - Heart ABDOMINOPELVIC Abdominal - Stomach, Spleen, Liver, Small Intestine Pelvic - Urinary bladder & Ovaries ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS REGIONS POSTERIOR AND ANTERIOR BODY CAVITIES Right Hypochondriac Region - liver, right kidney, gallbladder, large/small intestine Epigastric Region - liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, adrenal gland, duodenum Left Hypochondriac Region - liver’s tip, stomach, pancreas, left kidney, spleen, large/small intestine Right Lumbar Region - ascending colon, small intestine, right kidney Umbilical Region - small intestine, duodenum, transverse colon Left Lumbar Region - descending colon, small intestine, left kidney Right Iliac Region - appendix, cecum, ascending colon, small intestine Hypogastric Region - bladder, sigmoid colon, small intestine, reproductive organs Left Iliac Region - sigmoid colon, descending colon, small intestine QUADRANTS Right upper quadrant Left upper quadrant Right lower quadrant Left lower quadrant SEROUS MEMBRANES OF THE ANTERIOR BODY CAVITY Serous membranes are sheets of tissue that cover organs in the anterior body cavity. - Reduce rubbing and friction as internal organs more Serous membranes have two layers: ANAPHY 101 (LEC & LAB) 1ST SEM | MIDTERMS | A.Y. 2024-2025 MEDICAL IMAGING PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURE Technique and process of imaging the interior of the body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Application of image analysis method X-RAYS Medical imaging provides an internal view of the human body - Aids in diagnosing disease X-ray used for teeth and bones COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY Phosphate & Glycerol - hydrophilic Uses computers and series of x-rays to Saturated & Unsaturated - hydrophobic visualize internal structures in planes Provides more detail than x-ray alone. CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING Uses radio signals emitted by internal structures to provide very precise details. Expensive OTHER FORMS OF MEDICAL IMAGING POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY Uses small amounts of radiation to detect Selectively permeable barrier composed metabolic activity mainly of phospholipids bilayer Useful in diagnosing cancers, heart disease, Intracellular fluid (ICF) inside of the cell and strokes Extracellular fluid (ECF) outside of the cell Proteins also associate with cell membrane ULTRASONOGRAPHY Uses sound waves to yield a real-time MEMBRANE PROTEINS image of internal anatomy Proteins associated with cell membranes Uses in sensitive situation like pregnancy add functionality - Serves as channel proteins, THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION receptors, and the cell recognition - Transmembrane, or integral proteins STRUCTURE OF THE CELL MEMBRANE - Span the entire width of the cell Separates the cell’s internal environment membrane acts as a gateway to from the external environment permit transportation of substances Regulates the movement of materials into - Peripheral protein and out of the cell - Do not span the membrane attach Composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, to the interior or exterior of the carbohydrates, and proteins membrane: temporary Flexible, dynamic, structure Glycoproteins - proteins that have carbohydrate molecules attached PHOSPHOLIPIDS - Aid in cell recognition Major structural component of the Cell (developing/structuring) Membrane Glycocalyx - is formed by numerous Amphipathic Molecules glycoproteins - Hydrophilic (water-loving) phosphate heads TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE - Hydrophobic (water-fearing) fatty Cell membrane is selectively permeable acid tail - Allows only small, nonpolar Arranged into a bilayer: molecules to pass freely - Phosphate reads face internal and external - Fatty acid tail Molecules able to pass will flow across the membrane if there is a gradient - Flow occurs from high to low concentration unless prevented by resistance PASSIVE TRANSPORT Movement does not require energy ANAPHY 101 (LEC & LAB) 1ST SEM | MIDTERMS | A.Y. 2024-2025 Requires a concentration gradient EFFECT OF TONICITY ON CELLS Two forms: Isotonic solution has equal water 1. Simple diffusion: molecules moves concentration across the cell membrane from higher to lower concentration - Cell functions normally without the use of membrane Hypertonic solution contains more solutes proteins. in the environment 2. Facilitated diffusion: molecules - Cell shrinks move from higher to lower Hypotonic solution contains fewer solutes concentration through membrane in the environment proteins. - Cells swell and may burst EXAMPLES OF DIFFUSION ACTIVE TRANSPORT Everyday examples of diffusion: Requires energy to move molecules against - Perfume diffuses across the room their concentration gradient - Sugar molecules dissolve in coffee - From areas of lower concentration - Dye diffuses through water to areas of higher concentration Primary active transport - uses ATP as SIMPLE DIFFUSION ACROSS A CELL MEMBRANE energy source Small, nonpolar molecules can pass Secondary active transport - uses through the cell membrane electrochemical gradient as energy source Diffusion continues until a net equilibrium - Symporters - move two molecules is reached in the same direction Diffusion occurs faster at higher at higher - Antiporters – move two molecules temperatures in the different directions FACILITATED DIFFUSION ACROSS A CELL SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP MEMBRANE Requires assistance of transmembrane proteins Molecule still moves down concentration gradient Used for molecules that cannot diffuse through the cell membrane such as polar or ionic molecules Common example of primary transport OSMOSIS Uses ATP to move 3 sodium ions out of the The movement of the water across the cell cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell, membrane against their concentration gradients Water moves from areas of lower solute to Basis electrical signalling of neurons; higher solute concentration stabilizing membrane potential Hypotonic solution - less solute outside of the cell ENDOCYTOSIS - Water enters cells when they are in A form of active transport hypotonic solutions Uses the cell membrane to engulf materials Hypertonic solution - more solute outside Cell membrane pinches off to form a vesicle of the cell and material enters the cell - Water will leave cells in hypertonic Three forms of endocytosis: solutions 1. Phagocytosis - extends the cell membrane to bring in large WATER MOLECULE CONCENTRATION molecules Osmosis depends on the ratio of solute 2. Pinocytosis - membrane molecules to water invagination brings in small Water will move from areas of lower solute amounts of fluid containing dissolve concentration to areas of higher solute substances concentration 3. Receptors - more selective - Ligand binds to membrane SOLUTION COMPARISONS receptors for cellular entry Isosmotic solution have equal concentrations of solute EXOCYTOSIS Hyperosmotic solution contains more The process of a cell exporting material, or solute by comparison cell selection Hypoosmotic solution contains less solute Vesicle fuses with cell membrane by comparison Contents are released from cell Tonicity describes the osmolarity (no. of Hormones and digestive enzymes secreted particles of solute/L) of the ECF compared this way to the cytosol/ICF of the cell. ANAPHY 101 (LEC & LAB) 1ST SEM | MIDTERMS | A.Y. 2024-2025 1. Microtubules - made of tubulin THE CYTOPLASM AND CELLULAR ORGANELLES 2. Intermediate filaments - made of keratin INTERNAL COMPONENTS OF CELLS 3. Microfilaments - made of actin Major components of the inside of the cells include: DYNAMIC NATURE OF THE CYTOSKELETON - Cytoplasm - the fluid-like interior Cytoskeleton is not fixed of the cells including its Cytoskeleton components form and can compartments and organelles move depending on needs of the cell - Organelles - membrane-bound Helps moves molecules and structures structures that perform specific around interior of cell functions - Cytosol - the gel-like substance CELL SURFACE SPECIALIZATIONS within the cytoplasm Microvilli help increase surface area of the - contains organelles are molecules cell needed by cell Cilia aid in movement of the cell or movement across the surface of the cell ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) Flagella are long appendages used for Series of channels continuous with the movement nuclear membrane; provides passages for Organelles Functions: synthesis; transportation and storage. - Rough ER - protein synthesis - Rough ER - contains ribosomes - Smooth ER - lipid synthesis - Involved in protein synthesis - Lysosomes - breakdown wastes - Smooth ER - lacks ribosomes within cell - Involved in lipid synthesis - Peroxisomes - detoxification - Mitochondria - ATP production GOLGI APPARATUS - Golgi apparatus - sorts and modifies products from rough ER Series of flattened sacs - Sorts and modified products Cis-face receives products for modification THE NUCLEUS AND DNA Trans-face releases products after modification ORAGANIZATION OF THE NUCLEUS Nucleus houses the DNA of the cell MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES FOR Most human cells have a single nucleus DETOXIFICATION AND ENERGY PRODUCTION Nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear Lysosome - membrane-bound vesicles envelope that contain digestive enzymes - Nuclear pores allow small - Used to break down waste within cell molecules to move into and out of Peroxisomes - contain hydrogen peroxide nucleus - Used to detoxification and lipid Nucleolus within nucleus is involved in metabolism ribosome production Mitochondria - site of aerobic respiration - Responsible for nutrient breakdown NUCLEIC ACIDS FOUND IN HUMAN CELLS and ATP production Nucleic acids found in a healthy human cell include DNA, mRNA,tRNA, rRNA MITOCHONDRIA - DNA is storage form of genome “Energy transformer” of the cell - mRNA is used in translation of Lined by 2 bilayers: proteins - Outer membrane - tRNA moves amino acids during - Inner membrane is folded into translation cristae - rRNA is structural component of More numerous in muscle and nerves ribosomes NUCLEOTIDE BASES OF DNA DNA has a double-helix structure formed by hydrogen bonds between nucleotide bases The four nucleotide bases of DNA are: 1. Adenine (A) 2. Thymine (T) 3. Cytosine (C) and 4. Guanine (G) Adenine forms a double bonds with THE CYTOSKELETON thymine Helps maintain the structure of the cell Cytosine forms a triple bond with guanine Organizes cytoplasm Aids in separation during cellular division Composed of protein filaments that provide support ANAPHY 101 (LEC & LAB) 1ST SEM | MIDTERMS | A.Y. 2024-2025 ORGANIZATION OF DNA 4. Telophase: Nucleoli and nuclear DNA strands are wrapped around histone membranes start to form and proteins for organization chromosomes return to chromatin Chromatin is packed during replication to form form chromosomes CELL AND DNA REPLICATION FACTORS THAT REGULATE CELL DIVISION Cellular division is regulated by: THE CELL CYCLE - Growth factors like hormones - Contact inhibition Three phases: interphase, mitosis, and - If cell is surrounded, it won’t cytokinesis divide The cell spends most of its time in interphase - Increasing efficiency Interphase is split into: - Larger cells are less efficient 1. G1 phase - cell grows, makes proteins, and carries but cellular functions APOPTOSIS 2. S phase - cell replicates its DNA Programmed cell death 3. G2 phase - cell prepare for mitosis Series of molecular steps in a cell that leads to its death CELLULAR REPLICATION Mechanism that allows cells to self- destruct when stimulated by the Cellular replication occurs as the parent cell appropriate trigger divides to form two daughter cells Triggered by mild cellular injury - Mitosis occurs in somatic cells Damaged cells are then disposed of an - Daughter cells are identical to orderly fashion parent cell NECROSIS - death as a result of disease or - Cells contain 46 chromosomes or injury the diploid number NECROBIOSIS - natural death or wearing - Meiosis occurs for reproductive out tissue cells - Resulting cells have half the amount of genetic material from one parent and half from the other parent - Cell contains 23 chromosomes or the haploid number DNA REPLICATION The process of copying DNA Occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle Three phases: 1. Initiation: the DNA strands are separated by helicase 2. Elongation: the DNA polymerase synthesizes a new strand 3. Termination: the DNA replication stops Chromatin - the linear form of DNA Condensed into Chromosomes during replication Replicated copy is called a sister chromatid Sister Chromatids are attached at a centromere Chromatids separate during mitosis - Makes sure each daughter cell has a complete copy of DNA MITOSIS Cell replication consists of four major phases, followed by cytokinesis: 1. Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell 2. Metaphase: Chromatids align in the middle of the cell 3. Anaphase: Chromatids separate and move toward the opposite sides of the cell