ALL READINGS PDF - Introduction to Psychology

WEEK 1 – SCIENCE AND PRACTICE Introducing psychology The world of psychology: An overview Psychology is the science that seeks to understand human behaviour, social interaction and mental processes, taking into account physical attributes and interaction with the enviornment. Psychology – define...

WEEK 1 – SCIENCE AND PRACTICE Introducing psychology The world of psychology: An overview Psychology is the science that seeks to understand human behaviour, social interaction and mental processes, taking into account physical attributes and interaction with the enviornment. Psychology – defined as the science of behaviour and mental processes Subfields of psychology Biological/physiological psychology – study how biological processes in the brain affect, and are affected by, behaviour and mental processes using high tech scanning devices. Biological factors influencing behaviour and mental processes Cognitive Psychology – Cognitive psychologists study mental abilities such as sensation and perception, learning and memory, thinking, consciousness, intelligence and creativity Developmental Psychology – Developmental psychologists describe the changes in behaviour and mental processes that occur from birth through old age and try to understand the causes and effects of those changes Personality Psychology – Personality psychologists study individuality – the unique features that characterize each of us. Traits. Positive psychology – focusing on what goes right Clinical, Counselling, Community and Health Psychology Clinical psychologists conduct or apply research on the causes and treatment of mental health issues and offer services to assist people to overcome these disorders. Seeking to assess, understand and change dysfunctional behaviour Counselling psychologists use a wide range of culturally appropriate practices to assist clients to improve their wellbeing Community psychologists focus on the prevention of psychological disorders by promoting peoples resillience and other personal strengths Health psychologists study the relationship between risky behaviours and the likelihood of suffering health issues Educational and School Psychology  Educational psychologists conduct research and develop theories about teaching and learning School psychologists provide support to teachers and students Social Psychology – Social psychologists study the ways in which people socially interact with those around them, how they think about themselves and others and how people influence one another Organisational Psychology – Organisational psychologists conduct research on leadership, stress, competition, pay rates and other factors that affect efficiency, productivity and satisfaction of people in the workplace Other subfields Cultural and cross cultural psychology – study the interactions between differing cultural groups Environmental psychologists - study the effects of the environment on peoples behaviour and mental processes School of thought Early advocates Goals Methods To study conscious Edward Titchener & experience and its Experiments; Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt structure. introspection consciousness To describe the organisation of Observation of mental processes: Gestalt Max Wertheimer sensory-perceptual The whole is phenomena different from the sum of its parts To explain personality and behaviour; to Study of individual Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud develop techniques cases for treating mental disorders. Studying the unconscious. To study how the Naturalistic Functionalism William James mind works in observation of  allowing an animal and human organism to adapt behaviour to the environment. The role of consciousness in guiding peoples ability to make decisions. Observation of the To study only relationship observable between John B Watson and behaviour and Behavioursm enviornment stimuli B F Skinner explain behaviour and behavioural through learning responses. Operant principles conditioning Charles darwin – evolutionary and behaviourism Wundt – first research lab in 1879 Empiricism – challenged the claim that some knowledge is innate. Biological approach – assumes that behaviour and mental processes are largely shaped by biological processes. Hormones and genes Evolutionary approach – evolution occurs through natural selection. Assumes that the behaviour and mental processes of animals and humans today are the result of evolution through natural selection. Darwin Psychodynamic approach – assumes that our behaviour and mental processes reflect constant and mostly unconscious psychological struggles within us. Freud Behavioural approach – focus on observable behaviour and how that behaviour is learnt. Watson and Skinner. Past experiences with rewards and punishments to shape behaviour. Cognitive approach - focuses on how we take in, mentally represent and store information; how we perceive and process that information and how all these cognitive processes affect our behaviour. Perceived, recalled, decided, labelled, considered, decided, executed Humanistic approach/phenomenological approach – Behaviour is determined primarily by each persons capacity to choose how to think and act. Choices are not driven by instincts, biological processes or rewards and punishments but rather each individuals unique perceptions of the world. Maslow. Cross-cultural psychologists – conduct research that compares and contrasts cultures and cultural ideas Cultural psychologists – make sense of cultures from within IMPORTANT DEBATES IN PSYCHOLOGY Nature vs nurture: revolves around the issue of how people acquire their behaviours and mental processes Free will/determinism: revolves around the issue of whether our behaviours and mental processes are a product of our choice or the unavoidable result of precursors Mind/body: revolves around the issue of establishing the relatinship between the mind (cognitive processes) and the body (behaviour) QUESTIONS Psychology is the science that seeks to understand behaviour, social interactions and cognitive processes, taking into account individual attributes and the interaction with the environment Cognitive psychologists focus on understanding of the mental processes underlying judgment, decision-making, problem-solving, imaging, and other aspects of human thought and perception Clinical psychologists seek to assess, diagnose, modify, and treat behavior disorders Social psychologists study how people influence one another's behavior, social perceptions, and attitudes, individually and in groups Cultural and cross-cultural psychologists help us to better understand the way culture affects our lives and can help us better understand our own and others' perspectives in the world Community psychologists work with all types of people and groups and strive for equity in social systems Darwin's theory of evolution had an especially strong influence on functionalism and behaviorism. In the history of psychology, structuralism was the first school of thought to appear. Founded by Wilhelm Wundt and further developed by his student Edward Titchener, structuralism aimed to analyze the structure of the mind by breaking down mental processes into their most basic components, using a method called introspection Teaching people to be less afraid of heights reflects the behavioral approach Charles Darwin was not a psychologist, but his work influenced the evolutionary approach to psychology. Assuming that people inherit mental disorders suggests a biological approach WEEK 2 – BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY Biological psychology – the psychological speciality focused on the physical and chemical changes that cause, and occur in response to, behaviour and mental processes - All behaviour and mental processes are based on biological processes. All biological processes are influenced by enviornment. Nervous system – an enormous and complex combination of cells that allows an organism to gain information about what is going on inside and outside the body and respond appropriately Main functions of nervous system: recieve information (input_, integrate that information with past experiences (processing) and guide actions (output) Neurons – fundamental units of the nervous system; nerve cells Glial cells – cells in the nervous system that hold neurons together and help them communicated with one another. Without glial cells, neurons could not function. Common features of neurons Neurons have an outer membrane, nervous system cells have a cell body that contains the nucleus, nervous system cells contain mitochondria. Structure of neurons Axons – fibres that carry signals from the body of a neuron out to where communication occurs with other neurons Dendrites – neuron fibres that receive signals from the axons of the other neurons and carry those signals to the cell body Synapses – the tiny gaps between neurons across which they communicated Action potential – an abrupt wave of electrochemical changes travelling down an axon when a neuron becomes depolarised. A neuron has ‘fired’. Speed relies on myelin The neurons cell membrane lets some chemical ions pass through but blocks others. These ions are atoms that carry a positive or negative elctrical charge. Ions with a positive charge are attracted to those with a negative charge. When a neuron is polarised, the inside of the cell is more negatively charged than the outside When a neuron is depolarised, the negative charge inside the cell becomes less negative or even positive Myelin – a fatty substance that wraps around some acons and increases the speed of action potential Nodes of ranvier – gaps in the myselin sheath that allow the action potential to be propagated and regenerated. Refractory period – A short rest period between action potentials Synapses and communication between neurons Neurotransmitters – chemicals that assist in the transfer of signals from one neuron to another Neural receptors – specialised cells that detect certain forms of energy and transduce them into nerve cell activity. A neurotransmitter binds to its own receptors. - When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, it stimulates channels in the membrane of the postsynaptic cell to open, allowing chemical ions to flow in or out. The flow of these ions into and out of the postsynaptic cell produces change in its membrane potential. The chemical signal that crosses the synamse creates an electrochemical signal in the postsynaptic cell. Excitatory and inhibitory signals Postsynaptic potential – The change in the membrane potential of a neuron that has receive stimulation from another neuron Excitatory postsynaptic potential – a postsynaptical potential that depolarises the neuronal membrane, making the cell more likely to fire an action potential Inhibitory postsynaptic potential – a postsynaptical potential that hyperpolarises (slightly more polarised) the neuronal membrane, making a cell less likely to fire an action potential Part Function Type of signal carried Axon Carries signals away from The action potential, an all the cell body or nothing electrochemical signal that shoots down the axon, releasing neurotransmitters Dendrite Detects and carries signals The postsynaptic potential, to the cell body an electrochemical signal moving towards the cell body Neurotransmitter A chemical released by one A chemical message telling cell that binds to the the next cell to fire or not receptors on another cell fire its own action potential Receptor Protein on the cell Recognises certain membrane receives neurotransmitters, allowing chemical signals it to begin a postsynaptic potential in the dendrite  Synapse Provides an area for the Chemicals that cross the transfer of signals between synapse and reach neurons, usually between receptors on another cell the axon of one cell and the dendrite of another Organisation and functions of the nervous system Neural networks – neurons that operate together to perfrom complex functions Peripheral nervous system Subsystem Characteristics Somantic nervous system Transmits information from the senses to the CNS and carries signals from the CNS to the muscles Sensory neurons – cells in the nervous system that provide information to the brain about the enviornment Motor neurons – cells in the nervous system that the brain uses to influence muscles and other organs to respond to the environment Autonomic nervous system Carries messages between the CNS and the heart, lungs and other organs Sympathetic nervous system – readies the body for vigorous activity. ‘fight or flight’ Parasympathetic nervous system – influences activity related to protection. ‘rest and digest’ Central nervous system Spinal cord – relays signals from the peripheral senses to the brain and conveys messages from the brain to the rest of the body - In the spinal cord, sensory neurons are called afferent neurons - Motor neurons are called efferent neurons Reflexes – involuntary unlearnt behaviours directed by the spinal cord without instructions from the brain Brain Hindbrain – an extension of the spinal cord contained inside the sckull where nuclei control blood pressure, heart rate, breathing and other vital functions, particularly occurs in the medulla oblongata Reticular formation – a collection of cells and fibres in the hindbrain and midbrain that are involved in arousal and attention Locus coeruleus – small nucleus in the reticular formation that is involved in attention Cerebellum – the part of the hindbrain whose main functions include controlling finely coordinated movements and storing memories about movement. Midbrain – relays information from the eyes, ears and skins and controls certain types of automatic behaviours Forebrain – highly developed part of the brain that is responsible for the most complex aspect of behaviour and mental life Thalamus – a forebrain structure that relays signals from most sense organs to higher levels in the brain and plays an important role in processing and making sense out of this information Hypothalamus – a structure in the forbrain that regulates hunger, thirst and sex drive Amygdala – a structure in the forebrain that among other things is critically involved in dear and reward learning Hippocampus – a structure in the forebrain associated with the formation of new memories Limbic system - a set of brain structures that play important roles in regulating emotion and memory Cerebral hemisphere – the left and right halves of the outermost part of the brain Cerebral cortex – the outer surface of the brain Sensory cortex – the parts of the cerebral cortex that receive stimulus information from the senses Visual information is received by the visual cortex, made up of cells in the occipital lobe Auditory information is received by the auditory cortex, made up of cells in the temporal lobe Skin, touch, pain and temperature is received in the somatosensory cortex, made up of cells in the parietal lobe Motor cortex - in the frontal lobe, the part of the cerebral cortex where neurons control voluntary movements in specific parts of the body Association cortex – the parts of the cerebral cortex that receive information from more than one sense or that combine sensory and motor information to perform complex cognitive tasks Corpus callosum – fibres that connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres and allows them to communicate with each other Lateral dominance (lateralisation) - the tendency for one cerebral hemisphere to excel at a particular function compared to the other hemisphere. Neural plasticity –the ability to create new synapses and to change the strength of synapses Brain divisions Important structures Hindbrain Cerebellum – controls fine movements and coordinates cognitive porcesses Medulla oblongata – Regulates breating, heart rate and blood pressure Reticular formation – regulates arousal and attention Midbrain Substantia nigra – initiates smooth movements Various nuclei – Relay sensory signals to forebrain; create automatic responses to certain stimuli Forebrain Amygdala – Connects sensations and emotions Cerebral cortex – Analyses sensory information; controls voluntary movements, abstract thinking and other complex cognitive activity Corpus callosum – Transfers information between the two cerebral hemispheres Hippocampus – Forms new memories Hypothalamus – regulates hunger, thirst and sex drive Thalamus – Interprets and relays sensory information Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter Normal function Disorder Acetylcholine Memory, movement Alzheimers disease Norepinephrine Mood, sleep, learning Depression Seretonin Mood, appetite, impulsivity Depression Dopamine - Movement, reward Parkinsons, schizophrenia GABA - inhibitory Sleep, movement Anxiety, epilepsy Glutamate - excitatory Memory Damage after stroke. Endorphins – a class of neurotransmitters that bind to opiate receptors and moderate pain Endocrine system Aspect Role Hormones Provide feedback to the brain and to the pituitary gland; this is a negative feedback system. Endocrine organs release hormones into blood stream System as a whole Regulates functions ranging from stress to physical growth Made up of glands that communicate with each other via hormones The brain Has ultimate control over the secretion of hormones Governs stress reactions like fight or flight Neurons and neurotransmitters are commincation chemicals used within the human system and affect behaviour and mental processes QUESTIONS For one neuron to communicate with another, a neurotransmitter has to cross the synapse between them The nervous system's main functions are to receive, process, and transmit information The two types of cells in the nervous system are neurons and glial cells The peripheral nervous system sends sensory information from the eyes, ears, and other sense organs to the central nervous system The somatic nervous system transmits information from the senses to the central nervous system and then carries signals from the central nervous system to the muscles that move the skeleton The autonomic nervous system carries messages back and forth between the central nervous system and the heart, lungs, and other organs and glands. The oldest part of the brain is the brainstem Memory problems seen in Alzheimer's disease are related to the shrinkage of the hippocampus The main neurotransmitter for slowing or inhibiting brain activity is GABA (gamma- aminobutyric acid A group of neurons that use the same neurotransmitter is called a neural pathway or neurotransmitter system The neurotransmitter glutamate can cause brain damage during a stroke Neurons and neurotransmitters are communication chemicals used within the human system and affect behavior and mental processes The pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which causes the adrenal glands to release the hormone cortisol into the bloodstream. WEEK 4 & 5 – SENSATION AND PERCEPTION SENSORY SYSTEMS Sensation – messages from the senses that make up the raw information that affects many kinds of behaviour and mental processes Perception – the process through which messages from the senses are given meaning. Sense – a system that translates information from outside the nervous system into neural activity Senses respond to energy – eyes: light energy, ears: energy of sound, skin: energy of heat and pressure All of these senses respond to incoming stimulus energy, encode it in the form of nerve cell activity and send this coded information to the brain Transduction – the process of converting incoming energy into neural activity Neural receptors – specialised cells that detect certain forms of energy and transduce them into nerve cell activity. Where transduction occurs. Like neurons, neural receptors respond to incoming energy by firing an action potential that causes the release of neurotransmitters. Sensory adaptation – the process through which responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus decreases over time. Response to constant level of stimulation. For all senses except smell, sensory information entering the brain goes to the thalamus, then relays it to the appropriate sensory area of the cerebral cortex. Absolute threshold – the minimum amount of stimulus energy that can be detected 50 per cent of the time Subliminal stimulation – stimulation that is too weak or brief to be perceived Supraliminal stimulation – stimulation that is strong enough to be consistently perceived Psychophysics – focuses on the relationship between the physical characteristics of environmental stimuli and the psychological experiences those stimuli produce Topographical representations – features near eachother in the world stimulate neurons near eachother in the brain (eg. Two similar sounding noises) Sensitivity – the ability to detect a particular stimulus from a background of competing stimuli Webers law – a law stating that the smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy is a constant fraction of the intensity of the stimulus. This fraction is given the symbol ‘K’, the smaller the K is, the more sensitive a sense is to stimulus differences. Weber's Law says that the ability to notice a change in a stimulus depends on the size of the original stimulus. The bigger or stronger the original stimulus, the larger the change needs to be for a person to detect it. For example, adding a small weight to a heavy object is less noticeable than adding the same weight to a light object Magnitude estimation, Fechners Law - Constant increases in physical energy will produce progressively smaller increases in perceived magnitude. if just noticible differences get progressively larger as stimulus magnitude increases, then the amount of change in the stimulus required to double or triple its perceived intensity must get larger too. Eg. It would take a small increase in volume to make a soft sound seem twice as loud, but imagine how much additional volume it would take to make a rock band seem twice as loud. Sensory systems Aspects Processes Sense – a system that translates Encoding – translating the physical information from outside the nervous properties of a stimulus into a pattern of system into neural activity nerve cell activity that specifically Sensations – messages from the senses identifies those properties that make up the raw information that affects many kinds of behaviour and mental processes Neural receptors – specialised cells that Transduction – the process of converting detect certain forms of energy and incoming energy into neural activity transduce them into nerve cell activity Sensory adaption – the process through which responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus decreases over time Psychophysics – an area of research Signal detection theory – a mathematical focusing on the relationship between the model of how your personal sensitivity and physical characteristics of environmental response bias combine to determine your stimuli and the psychological experiences decision about whether or not a near those stimuli produce threshold stimulus occurred Judging differences – the just noticable difference (Webers Law) is the smallest difference between stimuli that we can detect Magnitude estimation – the perception of stimulus intensity is related to the actual strength (Fechners Law) QUESTIONS Humans are especially dependent on the touch, sight and hearing senses to get information about the world, we depend less on smell and taste Each sense gives us information about the world by responding to a specific kind of energy; for example, for vision, we respond to light HEARING Sound – a repetitive fluctuation in the pressure of a medium, such as air Amplitude - the difference between the peak and the baseline of a waveform, intensity Wavelength - the distance from one peak to the next in a waveform Frequency - the number of complete waveforms/cycles that pass a given point in space every second, described in units called hertz. One cycle per second is one hertz PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF SOUND Loudness (like amplitude)– a psychological dimensions of sound determined by the amplitude of a sound wave Pitch (like frequency) – how high or low a tone sounds; pitch depends on the frequency of a sound wave. High frequency are sensed as sounds of high pitch Timbre- the quality of sound. The mixture of frequencies and amplitudes that make up the quality of sound. THE EAR - Auditory accessory structures Tympanic membrane (eardrum) – a membrane in the middle ear that generates vibrations that match the sound waves striking it. Cochlea – A fluid-filled spiral structure in the ear in which auditory transduction occurs Basilar membrane- the floor of the fluid filled duct that runs through the cochlea Acoustic nerve (auditory nerve) - the bundle of axons that carries stimuli (messages) from the hair cells of the cochlea to the brain Auditory transduction – sound vibrations reach the fluid-filled cochlea. As the fluid moves with sound, this causes the basilar membrane in the cochlea to vibrate. This movement of the basilar membrane bends the hair cells that connect to the auditory nerve. The bending of hair cells stimulate neurons in the auditory nerve, causing them to fire. The pattern of firing creates a coded message that tells the brain about the amplitude and frequency of incoming sound waves, experienced as loudness and pitch. Types of deafness – conduction & nerve Conduction – bones of the middle ear fuse together, preventing accurate conduction of vibrations Nerve – when the auditory nerve or hair cells are damaged. Treatment – stimulate growth of hair cells and hearing aids AUDITORY PATHWAYS TO THE BRAIN Before sounds can be heard, the information encoded in the firing of the axons that make up the auditory nerve must be sent to the brain. This transmission process begins when the auditory nerve conveys the information to the thalamus. From there, the information is relayed to the primary auditory cortex where complex analysis occurs. Auditory cortex – the area in the brains temporal lobe that is the first to receive information about sounds from the thalamus Frequency appears to be coded in two ways, which are described by place theory and frequency-matching theory - Place theory – von Bekesy. Explains how we distinguish between high and low pitch sounds by associating each pitch with a specific location in the cochlea. A theory that hair cells at a particular place on the basilar membrane respond most to a particular frequency of sound. The greatest response by hair cells occurs at the peak of the wave. Location of peak depends on the frequency of the sound that produces them. - Higher frequency peak soon after it starts down the basilar membrane, lower frequency produce a wave that peaks further along the basilar membrane. Place theory does not explain coding of very low frequencies as no auditory nerve fibres response to very low characteristic frequencies – leading to frequency matching theory Frequency matching theory (aka. Volley theory) - the firing rate of an auditory nerve matches a sound waves frequency. A process in which certain neurons in the auditory nerve fire each time a sound wave passes. - Eg) soundwave that is 25 cycles per second would cause neurons to fire 25 times per second Frequency matching vs. Place theory The lowest sound frequencies are coded by frequency matching, whereby the frequency is matched by the firing rate of auditory nerve fibres. Low to moderate frequencies are coded by both frequency matching and the place on the basilar membrane at which the wave peaks. High frequencies are coded only by the place at which the wave peaks. HEARING SUMMARY Aspect of sensory system Elements Key characteristics Accessory structures Ear- pinna, tympanic Changes in pressure membrane, malleus, incus, produced by the original stapes, oval window, wave are amplified basilar membrane Energy Sound – pressure The amplitude, frequency fluctuations of air produced and complexity of sound by vibrations waves determine the loudness, pitch and timbre of sounds Pathways and Acoustic (auditory nerve to Auditory cortex decodes representations thalamus to auditory cortex patterns of information from the auditory nerve, creating sensations of loudness, pitch and timbre Transduction mechanism Hair cells of the organ of Frequencies are coded by Corti the location of the hair cells receiving the greatest stimulation (place theory) and by the firing rate of neurons (frequency matching theory) QUESTIONS Sound energy is converted to nerve cell activity in an inner ear structure called the cochlea Pitch is how high or low a sound sounds and is determined by the frequency of a sound wave VISION Light – electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelenths of approximately 400-750 nanometres Sensations of light depend on two physical dimensions of light waves: intensity and wavelength Light intensity – a physical dimension of light waves that refers to how much energy the light contains; it determines the brightness of light Light wavelength – a physical dimension of light waves that refers to their length, the distance between peaks in light waves, and produces sensations of different colours FOCUSING LIGHT Cornea – the curved, transparent, protective layer through which light rays enter the eye Pupil – an opening in the eye, just behind the cornea, through which light passes Iris – the colourful part of the eye, which constricts or releases to adjust the amount of light entering the eye Lens – the part of the eye behind the pupil that bends light rays, focusing them on the retina Retina – the surface at the back of the eye onto which the lens focuses light rays Ocular accomodation – ability to change the shape of the lens to bend light rays CONVERTING LIGHT INTO IMAGES Photoreceptors – specialised cells in the retina that convert light energy into nerve cell activity. They contain photopigments Photopigments – chemicals in photoreceptors that respond to light and assist in converting light into nerve cell activity Dark adaption – the increasing ability to see in the dark as time in the dark increases Rods – highly light sensitive photoreceptors in the retina that allow vision even in dim light but cannot distinguish colours Cones – phhotoreceptors in the retine that help us distinguish colours. Fovea – a region in the centre of the retina where cones are highly concentrated Visual acuity – visual clarity, which is greatest in the fovea because of its large concentration of cones. FROM RETINA TO BRAIN - Light rays pass through several layers of retinal cells before striking rods and cones. Signals generated by the rods and cones go back to the surface of the retina, making connections with bipolar cells and ganglion cells. The ganglion cell axons continue into the brain, forming synapses with the thalamus. Neurons there send axons to connect to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Optic nerve – a bundle of fibres composed of axons of ganglion cells that carries visual information to the brain. Feature detectors – cells in the cerebral cortex that respond to a specific feature of an object. SEEING COLOUR Psychological dimensions: Hue - the essential ‘colour’ determined by the dominant wavelength of light Colour saturation – the purity of a colour Brightness – the overall intensity of all the wavelengths that make up light TRICHROMATIC THEORY OF COLOUR VISION Trichromatic theory – Helmholtz: a theory of colour vision identifying three types of visual elements, each of which is most sensitive to different wavelengths of light. Theory does not explain aspects of colour vision such as afterimages. Related to rods and cones Short-wavelength cones – respond most to light in the blue range Medium wavelength cones – most sensitive to light in the green range Long wavelength cones – respond best to light in the reddish-yellow range OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY OF COLOUR VISION Opponent process theory – Hering: a theory of colour vision stating that colour sensitive visual elements are grouped into red-green, blue-yellow and black-white elements. Related to ganglion cells Colour blindness – a conditions in which the lack of certain photopigments leaves a person unable to sense certain colours Aspect of sensory system Elements Key characteristics Accessory structures Eye – cornea, pupil, iris, lens Light rats are bent to focus on the retina Colour vision Short, medium and long The combined activity of three wavelength cones in the retina; cone types create colour ganglion cells in the retina and sensations (trichromatic theory); cells in the thalamus and visual output from ganglion cells signals cortex with colour sensitive opponent colours (opponent centre-surround visual receptive process theory) fields Energy Light – electromagnetic radiation The intensity and wavelength of from about 400 nanometres to light waves determine the about 750 nanometres brightness and colour of visual sensations Pathways and representations Optic nerve to optic chiasm to Neighbouring points in the visual lateral geniculate nucleus of world are represented at thalamus to visual cortex neighbout points in the lateral geniculate nucleus and visual cortex. Neurons there respond to particular aspects of the visual stimulus – such as colour, movement, distance or form Transduction mechanism Photoreceptors (rods and cones) Rods are more sensitive to light in the retina than cones, but cones discriminate among colours. Sensations of colour depend first on the cones, which respond differently to different light wavelengths. Interactions among cells of the retina exaggerate differences in the light stimuli reaching the photoreceptors, enhancing the sensation of contrast QUESTIONS The ability to see in very dim light depends on photoreceptors called rods Near-sightedness and far sightedness occur when images are not focused on the eyes retina Colour blindness results when cones in the retina lack one of the three kinds of colour sensitive photopigments CHEMICAL SENSES: SMALL AND TASTE Olfactory perception – the sense of smell Taste perception/gustatory perception – sense of taste - Oduor molecules reach olfactory receptors located on the dendrites of specialised neurons that extend into the mucous membrane in the nose - Oduor molecules bind to these receptors, causing depolarisation of the dendrites membranes, leading to changes in the firing rates of the neurons. Depolarisation – the change of a neurons electrical charge. When a neuron is stimulated, depolarisation occurs, meaning the inside of the neuron becomes less negative (or positive). This shift in electrical charge can lead to action potential, where the electrical signal travels down the neuron to communicate with other neurons. Olfactory neurons – repeatedly replaced by new ones as each lives for about two months Olfactory receptors – about 1000 different receptors, 2 per cent of genetic code may be devoted to these olfactory receptors Olfactory bulb – a brain structure that receives messages regarding smell - Pathways in the olfactory bulb sense the information on for further processing, including the frontal lobe and the amgydala, which is involved in memory and emotional experience Pheromones – chemicals released by one animal and detected by another that shape the second animals behaviour or physiology Vomeronasal system - olfactory system that is senstic to pheromones GUSTATION Papillae – structures on the tongue containing groups of taste receptors, or taste buds Orbitofrontal cortex – where the olfactory and gustatory pathways converge. Aspect of sensory system Elements Key characteristics Energy Smell – volatile chemicals The amount, intensity and Taste – chemicals in location of the chemicals solution determine taste and smell sensations Structures of tase and Smell – chemical receptors Oduor and taste molecules smell in the mucous membrane stimulate chemical of the nose receptors Taste – taste buds grouped in papillae in the mouth Pathways to the brain Smell – olfactory bulb Axons from the nose bypass Taste – taste buds the thalamus and extend directly to the olfactory bulb QUESTIONS The flavour of food arises from a combination of taste and smell Emotion and memory are linked especially closely to our sense of smell Humans are especially dependent on vision, hearing, and the tactile senses to get information about the world; we depend less on smell and taste. Each sense gives information about the world by responding to a specific kind of energy; for example, for vision we respond to light Sound energy is converted to nerve cell activity in an inner-ear structure called the cochlea. hearing loss due to damage to hair cells or the acoustic nerve is called nerve deafness Pitch is how high or low a sound sounds and is determined by the frequency of a sound wave. The ability to see in very dim light depends on photoreceptors called rods Near-sightedness and far-sightedness occur when images are not focused on the eye's retina Color blindness results when cones in the retina lack one of the three kinds of color- sensitive photopigments The gate control theory offers an explanation as to why we sometimes do not feel pain Professional dancers look at the same spot for as long as possible during repeated spins to avoid the dizziness caused when the sense of balance (or vestibular sense) is overstimulated. Without your sense of taste, you would not be able to swallow food without choking Bottom-up arguments arise for the information contained in the stimuli coming to us from the environment rather than from our interpretations, inferences, and expectations Top-down processes emphasize that our perception is strongly influenced by what we have learned from our experiences Perceptual illusions are where our perceptual experience of a stimulus differs from the actual characteristics of that stimulus The movement we see in movies, videos, and GIFs is due to a perceptual illusion called stroboscopic illusions The grouping principle of closure allows you to identify objects seen through a picket fence SENSING YOUR BODY Cutaneous senses – senses of touch, temperature, pain and kinaesthetic perception A-delta fibres – nerve fibres that carry signals that feel like sharp, prickling sensations C- fibres – create a sensation of dull, continuous aches and burning sensations Gate control theory of pain – a theory suggesting that a functional ‘gate’ in the spinal cord can either let pain impulses travel upwards to the brain or block their progress Analgesia – the absence of pain sensations in the presence of a normally painful stimulus PROPRIOCEPTION: SENSING BODY POSITION Proprioceptive senses - (proprioception) the sensory systems that tell us about the location of our body parts and what each part is doing Sense of equilibrium (vestibular sense) - the proprioceptive sense that provides information about the position of the head (and hence the body) in space and about its movements Vestibular sacs – organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals and the cochlea and contribute to the bodys sense of balance Otoliths – small crystals in the fluid-filled vestibular sacs of the inner ear that, when shifted by gravity, stimulate nerve cells that inform the brain of the position of the head Semicircular canals - tubes in the inner ear whose fluid stimulates nerve cells that tell the brain about those movements Kinaesthetic perception – the proprioceptive sense that tells you where the parts of your body are in respect to one another Proprioceptors – receptors in muscles and joints that provide information to the brain about movement and body positions Sense Energy Conversion of physical Pathways and energy to nerve activity characteristics Touch Mechanical deformation Skin receptors Nerve endings respond of the skin to changes in weight and location of touch Temperature Heat Sensory neurons in the Changes in temperature skin are detected by warm sensing and cool sensing fibres Pain Increases with intensity Free nerve endings in or Changes in intensity of touch or temperature near the skin surface cause the release of chemicals detected by receptors in pain nurons Sense of equilibrium Mechanical energy of Neural receptors in the Information about fluid head movements inner ear moving in the semicircular canals is sent to the brain along the acoustic nerve  Kinaesthetic Mechanical energy of Neural receptors Information from joints perception joint and muscle (proprioceptors) in joints and muscle fibres is movement and muscle fibres sent to the spinal cord, thalamus, cerebellum and cortex QUESTIONS The gate control theory offers an explanation as to why we sometimes do not feel pain Without your sense of taste you would not be able to swallow food without choking PERCEPTION Perception – the process through which people tak raw sensations from the environment and interpret them, using knowledge, experience and understanding of the world so that the sensations become meaningful experiences Three approaches to perception Approach Description Computational model An approach to perception that focuses on how computations by the nervous system translate raw sensory stimulation into an experience of reality Constructivist approach An approach to perception taken by those who argue that the perceptual system uses fragments of sensory information to construct an image of reality Ecological approach An approach to perception maintaining that humans and other species are so well adapted to their natural enviornment that many aspects of the world are perceived without requiring higher level analysis QUESTIONS Ecological arguments arise for the information contained in the stimuli coming to us from the environment rather than from our interpretations, inferences and experiences Constructivist theories emphasise that our perception is strongly influenced by what we have learnt from our experiences Perceptual illusions are where our perceptual experience of a stimulus differs from the actual characteristics of that stimulus Perceptual organisation - the task of determining what edges and other stimuli go together to form an object BASIC PROCESSES IN PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION Figure-ground discrimination – the ability to organise a visual scene so that it contains meaningful figures set against a less relevant background Gestalt laws of grouping Proximity – the closer objects are to one another, the more likely we are to perceive them as belonging together Similarity - we tend to perceive similar elements as part of a group Continuity – when sensations appear to create a continuous form, we tend to perceive them as belonging together Closure – we tend to fill in missing contours to form a complete object Texture – when basic features of stimuli have the same texture we tend to group these stimuli together Simplicity – we tend to group features of a stimulus in a way that provides the simplest interpretation of the world Common fate - when objects are moving in the same direction at the same speed, we tend to perceive them as belonging together. Stephen palmer and his three additional grouping principles: Synchrony – when different stimuli occur at the same time, we are likely to perceive them as belonging together Common region – when stimulus elements are located within some boundary, we tend to perceive them as being together Connectedness – when stimulus elements are connected to other elements, we tend to group them together PERCEPTION OF LOCATION AND DISTANCE Depth perception – the ability to perceive distance Interposition - a depth cue whereby closer objects block ones view of things father away Liner perspective – a depth cue whereby objects closer to the point at which two lines appear to converge are perceived as being at a greater distance Gradient of texture – a graduated change in the texture of the visual field, whereby objects with finer, less detailed textures are perceived as more distant Motion parallax – a depth cue whereby a difference in the apparent rate of movement of different objects provides information about the relative distance of those objects. Eg. Looking out window of car, things closer go by quicker Eye convergence - a depth cue involving the rotation of the eyes to project the image of an object on each retina Retinal disparity/binocular disparity – a depth cue based on the difference between two retinal images received by each eye Perception of motion Optical flow: looming – looming is a motion cue involving rapid expansion in the size of an image so that it fills the available space on the retina Stroboscopic illusion – an illusion of motion that is created when we see slightly different images or slightly misplaced lights flashed in rapid succession. When objects appear, disappear and then quickly reappear nearby, perceived as moving smoothly. Like a movie Perceptual constancy – the perception of objects as constant in size, shape, colour and other properties despite changes in their retinal image QUESTIONS The movement we see in movies, videos and dvds is due to a perceptual illusion called stroboscopic illusion People who have lost an eye also lose the depth cue called retinal disparity The grouping principle of closure allows you to identify objects seen through a picket fence Principle Description Example Figure-ground Certain objects or sounds are automatically You see a person discrimination identified as figures, whereas others become standing against meaningless background a building, not a building with a person shaped hole in it Grouping Properties of stimuli lead us to automatically group People who are them together. These include proximity, similarity, sitting together or continuity, closure, texture, simplicity, common who are dressed fate, synchony, common region and similarly are connectedness perceived as a group Depth perception – Knowing an objects two dimensional position (left perception of and right, up and down) and distance enables us to location locat it. The image on the retina and the orientation of the head provide information about the two dimensional position of visual stimuli, auditory localisation relies on differences in the information received by the ears. Depth of distance perception uses stimulus cues, such as interposition, relative size, hight in the visual field, gradient of texture, linear perspective, clarity, colour and shadow Perceptual Objects are perceived as constant in size, shape, constancy brightness, colour and other properties, despite changes in their retinal images RECOGNISING THE PERCEPTUAL WORLD Top-down processing – aspects of recognition that are guided by higher level cognitive processes and psychological factors, such as expectations Bottom down processing – aspects of recognition that depend first on the information about the stimulus that comes to the brain from the sensory receptors Schemas - mental represenations (generalisations) of categories of objects, events and people Parallel distributed processing – a theoretical model of object recognition in which various elements of the object are thought to be simultaneously analysed by several widely distributed but connected neural units in the brain Mechanism Description Example  Bottom-up processing Raw sensations from the You recognise a dog as a eye or ear are analysed into dog because its features basic features, such as match your perceptual form, colour or movement; category for a dog these features are then recombined at higher brain centres, where they are compared with stored information about objects or sounds Top-down processing Knowledge of the world and On a dark night, what you experience in perceiving see as a small, vague blob allow people to make pulling on the end of a leash inferences about the is recognised as a dog identity of stimuli, even because the stimulus when the quality of raw occurs at a location where sensory information is low you would expect a dog to be Parallel distributed Recognition depends on A dog standing behind a processing communication among picket fence will be feature analysis systems recognised as a dog even operating simultaneously though each disjointed and enlightened by past ‘slice’ of the stimulus may experience not look like a dog QUESTIONS Your ability to read a battered old sign that has some letters missing is a result of top-down processing When stimulus features match the stimulus we are looking for, ___ takes place Context and prior knowledge can affect perception as they can create differing expectations and processes ATTENTION Attention – the process of directing and focusing psychological resources to enhance perception, performance and mental experience. Attention improves mental processing, takes effort, and is limited Aspects Characteristics Directing attention You can direct your perceptual systems towards different aspects of your external and internal enviornments by overt  orienting – pointing sensory systems at a particular stimulus – or by shifting attention without having to move a muscle – called covert orienting Ignoring information Inattentional blindness is where your attention is voluntarily or involuntarily focused on one part of the environment; you may ignore, or be blind to stimuli occurring in other parts Divided attention Multitasking is the process whereby we divide our attention, which is thought to be limited Attention and automatic Our ability to search for targets rapidly and automatically is processing called parallel processing. Colour recognition is so automatic, it is thought that colour is analysed before the point at which attention is required Attention and the brain Evidence of the extra mental work attention requires is found by using PET and MRI scans QUESTIONS The process of directing and focusing psychological resources to enhance perception, performance and mental experience is called attention A task that requires little to no attention is said to be automatic Attention is a linked set of resources that improves perception WEEK 6 – MOTIVATION Motivation – the influences that account for the initiation, directions, intensity and persistence of behaviour Instinct doctrine – a view that explains human behaviour as motivated by automatic, involuntary and unlearnt responses Drive reduction theory – a theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis. Cannot account for curiosity Homeostasis – the tendency for organisms to keep their physiological systems at a stable level by constantly adjusting themselves in response to change Drive – a psychological state of arousal created by an imbalance in homeostasis that prompts an organism to take action to restore the balance and reduce the drive Primary drives – arise from basic biological needs Secondary drives – arise through learning and can be as motivating as primary drives Arousal theory - a theory of motivation stating that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain what is for them an optimal level of arousal Incentive theory - a theory of motivation stating that behaviour is directed towards attaining desirable stimuli (rewards) and avoiding unwanted stimuli (punishments). Emphasises the role of external stimuli Hunger and eating Stimulate eating Stimulate eating Inhibit eating Biological factors - Glucose and insulin in - Hormones released the blood provide signals into the bloodstream that stimulate eating produce signals that - Neurotransmitters inhibit eating affecting neurons in the - Hormones act as hypothalamus also neurotransmitters stimulate eating and affect neurons - Stomach contractions in the hypothalamus are associated with and inhibit eating subjective feelings of hunger Non-biological factors - Sights and smells the Values in contemporary elicit eating because of society encourage thinnes prior associations and thus can inhibit eating - Family customes and social occasions include norms for eating - Stress is associated with eating Set point theory – set point of eating where there is homestasis/balance/comfort Biology of sex Oestrogen - sex hormones that circulate in the bloodstream of both men and women, more oestrogen in women Progestational hormones – sex hormones that circulate the bloodstream of both men and women, more in women than men Androgens – sex hormones that circulate the bloodstream of both men and women, more in men Sex response cycle – the pattern of physiological arousal during and after sexual activity Achievement motivation Acheivement motivation – the degree to which a person establishes specific goals, cares about meeting those goals and experiences feelings of satisfaction by doing so Wellbeing - a combination of a cognitive judgement of satisfaction with life and the frequent experiencing of positive moods and emotions, also known as subjective wellbeing Alternative to maslows hierarchy – ERG theory Existence, relatedness and growth. From bottom up QUESTIONS The fact that some people like rollercoasters and other scary amusement park rides has been cited as evidence for the arousal theory of motivation Evolutionary theories of motivation are modern outgrowths of theories based on instincts. The values of incentives are affected by biological, social, and cognitive factors People may continue to eat when they are full, suggesting that eating is not controlled by biological needs alone. People with an eating disorder called bulimia nervosa know they have a problem, while those with an eating disorder called anorexia nervosa tend not to. Psychologists have found that we experience motivation when we recognize a discrepancy between our current situation and how we want that situation to be. In revising Maslow's model, self-actualization can be replaced by three other needs: the need to find a mate, the need to keep a mate, and the need to become a parent WEEK 7 – CONSCIOUSNESS, SLEEP AND DREAMS Consciousness – the awareness of external stimuli and our own mental activity Dualism – mind and brain as different Materialism – mind and brain are one and the same Theatre view – consciousness is a single phenomenon , a kind of stage. Parallel distributed processing – mind as processing many parallel streams of information, whose interactions create the unitary experience of consciousness. Analysed in separate brain regions. William james – consciousness as a stream Consciousness state – the characteristics of consciousness at any particular moment Conscious level – the level of consciousness at which mental activities that people are normally aware of occur Non-conscious level – a level of mental activity that is inaccessible to conscious awareness Pre-conscious level – a level of mental activity that is not currently conscious but of which we can easily become conscious. Eg. Doing something without realising like humming. Ready to be brought into awareness Unconscious level – a level of mental activity that influences consciousness but is not conscious Blindsight – visual processing without visual awareness Priming – stimuli presented so briefly that participants are not aware of seeing them Neuropsychology of consciousness Altered state of consciousness – a condition in which changes in mental processes are extensive enough that a person or others notice significant differences in psychological and behavioural functioning  Aspects Description Definition Consciousness is the awareness of external stimuli and our own mental activity Approaches Dualism – sees the mind and brain as different, but they interact Materialism – sees the mind and brain as the same thing Theatres – sees it as a single phenomenon Parallel distributed processing – sees it as processing many parallel streams of information, making the experience of consciousness Levels Conscious – level at which mental activities people are normally aware occur Non conscious – level of mental activity inaccessible to conscious awareness Preconscious – level of mental activity that influences consciousness but is not conscious Neuropsychology Prosopagnosia – cannot consciously recognise faces Anterograde amnesia – inability to form new memories Processing without Evidence for mental processing without awareness awareness come from studies of anaesthesia, blindsight, hunches, intuition, priming States of consciousness Active – waking state. Positive – daydreaming. Altered – changes in mental processes that a person or others notice. Sleep Non-REM (NREM) sleep – sleep stages N1, N2, N3, they are accompanied by gradually slower and deeper breathing, a calm and regular heartbeat, reduced blood pressure and slower brain waves. Stage N3 is called slow wave sleep. Consolidates memory Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep – the stage of sleep in which brain activity and other functions resemble the waking state but that is accompanied by rapid eye movements and virtual muscle paralysis. The EEG resembles that of someone who is awake. Restores sensitivity to norepinephrine Circadian rhythm (human biological rhythm) - a cycle, such as waking and sleeping, that repeats about once a day. Body clock is in the suprachiasmatic nuclei in the hypothalamus REM behaviour disorder – a sleep disorder in which a person does not lose muscle tone during REM sleep, allowing the person to act out dreams. Dreaming Wish fulfilment – Sigmund Freud. Satisfy unconscious urges and resolve unconscious conflicts Activation-synthesis theory – Signals from the hindbrain activate the cerebral cortex QUESTIONS Some research suggests that the automatic process helps us carry out routine and mundane daily activities Altered states of consciousness have been shown to have a spiritual role in some cultures Jet lag occurs because of a disruption in a traveler's circadian rhythm The importance of NREM sleep is suggested by its appearance early in the night WEEK 8 – ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS Hypnosis – a phenomenon brought on by special techniques and characterised by varying degrees of responsiveness to suggestions for changes in experience and behaviour Hypnotic susceptibility – the degree to which a person responds to hypnotic suggestions State theories of hypnosis – theories proposing that hypnosis creates an altered state of consciousness Non-state theories of hypnosis (role theory) – theories, such as role theory, proposing that hypnosis does not create an altered state of consciousness Dissociation theory – a theory that combines aspects of role and state theories, hypnotised individuals enter into a social contract/agreement with the hypnotist to allow normally integrated mental processes to become dissociated and to share control over these processes. Easier for those hypnotically susceptible.  Aspects Description Definition Hypnosis is a phenomenon brought on by special induction techniques characterised by varying degress of responsiveness to suggestions for changes in experience and behaviour Experiences Hypnotic susceptibility is the degress to which a person responds to hypnotic suggestions. Individuals can age-regress, be playful and be open to posthypnotic susceptibility Explanations State theories – propose that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness. Non-state theories – argue for role theory, proposing that hypnosis does not create an altered state of consciousness; its a role people play. Dissociation – has it that hypnosis is not a specific state but a general condition in which our normal control of thoughts and actions is temporarily reorganised or broken down Applications Has been used as a memory aid, used in relation to managing pain, used in research, it allows insights into cognitive processes Psychoactive drugs Psychoactive drug – a substance that acts on the brain to cause some psychological effect Psychopharmacology – the study of psychoactive drugs and their effects Blood brain barrier – a feature of blood vessels supplying the brain that allows only certain substances to leave the blood and interact with brain tissue Agonist – a drug that mimics the effects of the neurotransmitter that normally binds to a neural receptor Antagonist – a drug that binds to a receptor and prevents the normal neurotransmitter from binding CNS depressant drug – inhibit the functioning of the central nervous system - Affect GABA by increasing it Barbiturates – downers CNS stimulating drugs – psychoactive drugs that have the ability to increase behavioural and mental activity. - Reduce GABA Opiates – psychoactive drugs such as opium, morphine and heroin that produce sleep inducing and pain relieving effects Hallucinogenic drugs – psychoactive drug that alter consciousness by producing a temporary loss of contact with reality and changes in emotion, perception and thought QUESTIONS Hypnosis has traditionally been defined as an altered state of consciousness. In general, studies show that about 10-20% of adults are difficult or impossible to hypnotize When people cannot remember what they did after being hypnotized, it is likely they have posthypnotic amnesia Physical dependence on a drug is a condition more commonly known as addiction. Drugs that act as antagonists block or inhibit the interaction of neurotransmitters and receptor WEEK 9 – EMOTION - Emotion is usually temporary, alters thought processes and triggers action tendency to act in certain ways Emotion – transitory positive or negative experiences that are felt as happening to the self, are generated in part of cognitive appraisal of a situation, and are accompanied by both learnt and innate physical responses. Activity in the limbic system, particularly the amygdala is central to emotion. Thalamus & cerebral cortex also. Emotions can activate either the sympathetic nervous system or parasympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic nervous system relates to fight or flight response William James peripheral theory – activity in the peripheral nervous system is the cause of emotional experience. Eg. See a snake and run but are scared because you ran not because you saw a snake. First a perception affects the cerebral cortex. Brain interprets a situation and automatically directs a particular set of peripheral physiological changes. Canons central theory – opposite to peripheral theory, emotional experience starts in the CNS; specifically in the thalamus. Experience of emotion appears directly in the brain, with or without feedback from peripheral responses. Thalamus received information, sends to Autonomic nervous system & cerebral cortex. Cognitive theories of emotion Schachter-singer theory – emotions emerge from a combination of feedback from peripheral responses and our cognitive interpretation of the nature and cause of those responses. The same physiological responses might be given different labels depedning on how you interpret those responses. Involves attribution and excitation transfer theory Attribution – the process of explaining the causes of an event or of peoples behaviour including your own. Excitation transfer theory – the theory that physiological arousal stemming from one situation carried over to and enhances emotional experience in an independent situation. Eg. People who have just exercised will become angrier when provoked Lazarus’ cognitive appraisal theory – the process of cognitive appaisal/evaluation beginss when we decide whether or not an event is relevant to our wellbeing. Eg. Do we even care about it Theory Source of emotions Example Cannon - central The brain generates direct Stimulation of certain brain experiences of emotion areas can create pleasant or unpleasant emotions James- Lange peripheral Emotions are created by Anger is associated with awareness of specific increased blood flow in the patterns of peripheral hands and feet; fear is (autonomic) responses associated with decreased blood flow in these areas Cognitive – Schachter- Cognitive interpretations of Autonomic arousal can be Singer; Lazarus events and of physiological experienced as anxiety or excitement, depending on  reactions to them shape how it is labelled. A single emotional experiences. event can lead to different Emotions emerge from a emotions, depending on combination of feedback whether it is perceived as from peripheral responses threatening or challenging and our cognitive interpretation of the nature and cause of those responses Communicating emotion Expression of emotion Theory Key findings Innate expressions of Darwin argues for Infants show evidence of emotions universality of facial emotions in facial expression; that is, that expressions. Cultural emotional expressions are evidence also suggests that genetically determined and there are basic facial passed on biologically from emotional expressions one generation to the next across different groups of people Social and cultural It is argued that not all While some emotional influences on emotional emotional expressions are expressions are the same expression innate or universal. Some across cultures, they can are learnt and some change be interpreted differently. depending on social People learn about cultural situations and interactions rules of emotion expression QUESTIONS Emotions are temporary experiences with positive, negative, or mixed qualities The autonomic nervous system is involved in many of the physiological changes that accompany emotions The sympathetic nervous system helps prepare the body to combat or run from a threat The process of attribution is most important to cognitive theories of emotions The use of polygraphs in lie detection is based on the physiological theory of emotions. Research showing that there are pleasure centers in the brain has been cited in support of the biological theory of emotions. The emotions of sadness, anger, and happiness have all been shown to have universal facial expressions to specific emotional stimuli. WEEK 10 – HEALTH, STRESS AND COPING Learning objectives general understanding of the General Adaptation Model of Stress be familiar with the behavioural, cognitive and emotional responses to stress understand the relationship between stress and performance have a clear understanding of the relationship between mental health and wellbeing Identify the wellbeing challenges of prison officers Health psychology – a field in which psychologists conduct and apply research aimed at promoting human health and preventing illness. Goal is to help people understand the role they can play in controlling their own health Stress – the internal processes that occur as people try to adjust to events and situations, especially those that they perceive to be beyond their coping capacity Process of stress: Stressors -> stress mediators -> stress responses General Adaptation Model of Stress General Adaptation Syndrome – a three stage pattern of responses triggered by the effort to adapt to any stressor. Three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion Alarm – some version of the fight or flight syndrome. Controlled by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system Resistance – signs of the initial alarm reation fade as the body settles in to resist the stressor on a long term basis Exhaustion – slowly uses up the bodys reserves of adaptive energy. Psychological responses Emotional – physical stress responses are commonly accompanied by emotional ones Cognitive – reductions to be able to think clearly or remember. Ruminative thoughts and catastrophising. Overarousal can lead to a narrowing of attention and impair judgement and decision making Behavioural – strained facial expressions, a shaky voice or jumpiness are common behavioural responses Response Description Physical General Adaptation Syndrome – a pattern of responses triggered by the effort to adapt to any stressor. Consists of three stages: Alarm reaction – some version of the fight-flight reaction, which can involve increased heart rate, respiration and muscle tension Resistance – initial alarm reaction fades as the body works hard to resist the stressor on a long term basis Exhaustion – organ systems involved in prolonged resistence to stressors eventually break down Psychological Emotional changes – anger, anxiety, depression; emotional stress responses tend to subside quickly after the stressor is reduced but will persist if the stressor remains Cognitive changes – inability to concentrate or think logically, ruminative thinking, catastrophising; overarousal can also lead to narrowing of attention Behavioural changes – onset of aggression and escape/avoidance tactics and health risk behaviours Promoting healthy behaviour Method for coping with Examples stress Cognitive Thinking of stressors as challenges rather than as threats Emotional Seeking social support Behavioural Implementing a time management plan and making life changes to eliminate stressors Physical Progressive relaxation training QUESTIONS The field of research on the interaction of psychological, social, behavioral, neural, hormonal, and immune system processes that affect the body's defenses against disease is psychoneuroimmunology WEEK 11 – PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER Define psychopathology and explain its cultural context Define mental health, mental health problems and disorders Differentiate between contemporary approaches to psychopathology Understand the classification and diagnostic categories outlined in the DSM Outline the key symptoms of the major psychopathological syndomes Describe the key principles of psychodynamic, cognitive behavioural, humanistic, group and family therapies Discuss research that has evaluated pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy in terms of effectiveness and efficiency Psychopathology – patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that are maladaptive, disruptive or uncomfortable for those who are affected or for those with whom they come into contact Sociocultural context Sociocultural perspective – a way of looking at mental disorders in relation to gener, age, ethinicty and other social and cultural factors Sociocultural factors – social identity and other background factors such as gender, culture and social class. Sociocultural factors influence the form that abnormality takes Abnormal – deviance, distress, dysfunction Biopsychosocial approach – a view of mental disorders as caused by a combination of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors Medical model (neurobiological model – psychological disorders reflect disturbances in the anatomy and chemisty of the brain and other biological processes Psychological processes – a view in which mental disorder is seen as arising from psychological processes Diathesis-stress model – the notion that psychological disorders arise when a predisposition for a disorder combines with sufficient amounts of stress to trigger symptoms Psychoanalysis – a method of psychotherapy that seeks to help clients gain insight by recognising and understanding unconcious thoughts and emotions Humanistic psychologists – people are capable of consciously controlling their own actions and taking responsibility for their own decisions. Most humanistic therapists believe that human behaviour is not motivated by inner conflicts but by an innate drive toward growth Cognitive behaviour therapy – learning based treatment methods that help clients change the way they think as well as the way they behave QUESTIONS In understanding behavior, researchers and practitioners think of the three D's: deviance, distress, and dysfunction DSM stands for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders WEEK 12 – NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Describe neuropsychology and outline the different methods of investigating and assessing brain function Describe the different causes of brain dysfunction Compare and contrast the symptoms associated with different neuropsychological disorders Neuropsychology – the subfield of psychology whose goal is to explore and understand the relationships among brain processes, human behaviour and psychological functioning. Neuropsychologists are interested in how brain systems and disruptions of those systems affect a wide range of human abilities, including cognitive functioning Clinical neuropsychologists – neuropsychologists who use tests and other methods to try to understand neuropsychological problems and intact functions in individual patients. Localisation of function – the idea that specific psychological functions can be affected by damage to specific brain areas Stoke – the loss of blood supply to some part of the brain, resulting in disruption of some aspect of behaviour or mental processes Lesion - an area of damaged tissue in the brain Modules – regions of the brain that perform their own unique kind of analysis of the information they receive Neuropsychological assessment – testing a patients intelligence, memory, reading, motor coordination and other cognitive and sensory functions in an effort to locate problems in the brain responsible for neuropsychological symptoms Principle Main figure or era Key ideas Localisation of Franz Gall – 1800s The idea that a specific psychological function function Paul Broca - 1800s could depend on a specific brain area  Modularity Late 1900s A revision of localisation in which each brain area performs different, unique computations that contribute to various psychological functions Networks Late 1900s A perspective suggesting that different complex psychological functions rely on unique combinations of brain modules Lesion analysis 1800s to present An approach to experimental neuropsychology in which psychological functions are linked to particular brain areas by studying patients with damage to those areas and comparing these people with people who have damage elsewhere or no damage Mechanisms of brain dysfunction Brain problem Underlying process Symptoms Cerebrovasular Blood flow is blocked in Specific to the area of the brain that is accident (stroke) some part of the brain destroyed Traumatic brain Brain moves back and Often non specific injury forth inside the skull Neurodegenerative A subset of neuron cell Specific to the types of brain cells disease types becomes diseased affected and stops working properly Neuropsychological disorders Amnestic disorders – loss of memory, consciousness disturbances, perceptual disturbances, movement disorders Traumatic brain injury – an impact on the brain caused by a blow or a sudden, violent movement of the head. When the brain bounces back and forth bumping against bone, causes nerve fibres to stretch and tear Cerebrospinal fluid – a clear liquid that surrounds and buffers the brain against vibration. Neurodegenerative diseases – conditions in the brain that result in a gradual loss of nerve cells and of the cognitive or other function in which those cells are normally involved. Perceptual disturbances – neuropsychological disorders in which there are impairments in the ability to organise, recognise, interpret and make sense of incoming sensory information Aphasia – neuropsychological disorders in which there are disruptions in the ability to speak, read, write and understand language Broca aphasia – language disorder in which there is a loss of fluent speech Wernickes aphasia – a language disorder in the loss of ability to understand written or spoken language and to produce sensible speech Movement disorder (Apraxia) - neuropsychological disorders in which there are impairments in the ability to perform or coordinate previously normal motor skill Dementia – neuropsychological disorders in which there are significant and disruptive impairments in memory, as well as in perceptual ability, language or leant motor skills Vascular dementia – a form of dementia caused by multiple restrictions of the brains blood supply Hemineglect, also known as unilateral neglect or spatial neglect, is a neurological condition in which a person is unable to attend to or respond to stimuli on one side of their environment, typically the left side. Syndrome Type of difficulty Apraxia Making learnt skilled movements even if not weak or confused Visual agnosia Attaching meaning to visual sensations Anosognosia Become aware of the loss of neurological function Hemineglect Paying attention to one side of space Aphasia Using language as a communication system Aprosodia Using tone of voice as a communication tool Dementia Memory and at least one other psychological ability that are severe enough to impair functioning QUESTIONS The brain floats in a bath of cerebrospinal fluid inside the skull