PSY 312: Abnormal Psychology PDF

PSY 312: Abnormal Psychology functioning, or increased risk of suffering, MAIN TOPIC 1: Abnormal Behavior in death, pain, or impairment Historical Context Definition of MENTAL DISORDER According t...

PSY 312: Abnormal Psychology functioning, or increased risk of suffering, MAIN TOPIC 1: Abnormal Behavior in death, pain, or impairment Historical Context Definition of MENTAL DISORDER According to Psychological Disorder DSM-5 a psychological dysfunction within an a syndrome characterized by clinically individual that is associated with distress or significant disturbance in an individual’s impairment in functioning and a response cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that is not typical or culturally expected that reflects a dysfunction in the 4 criteria that fully defines abnormality psychological, biological, or developmental (4D’s) processes underlying mental functioning 1. Dysfunction usually associated with significant distress ○ ability to function in daily life is or disability in social, occupational, or other disrupted important activities ○ harmful dysfunction an expectable or culturally approved ○ 2 components: response to a common stressor or loss, value judgment (harmful) such as death of a loved one, is not a objective component mental disorder (dysfunction) not being able socially deviant behavior (e.g., political, to perform religious, or sexual) and conflicts that are 2. Distress or Impairment primarily between the individual and society ○ emotional or physical pain are not mental disorders unless the ○ if it causes the person great stress deviance or conflict results from a ○ characterized in many disorders dysfunction in the individual, as described including depression and anxiety above disorders Psychopathology ○ not all mental disorders cause is the scientific study of psychological distress disorders ○ not all behaviors that causes within this field are specially trained distress are disorders professionals, including clinical and 3. Danger counseling psychologists, psychiatrists, ○ potential harm to the self and others psychiatric social workers, and psychiatric 4. Deviance nurses, as well as marriage and family ○ highly unusual behavior, based on therapists and mental health counselors social/cultural norms Clinical Psychology ○ social norms - widely held standards an integration of human science, behavioral that people use consciously or science, theory, and clinical knowledge for intuitively to make judgments the purpose of understanding, preventing, ○ judgements such as: right or wrong, and relieving psychologically-based distress justified or unjustified, acceptable or or dysfunction and to promote subjective unacceptable well-being and personal development ○ behaviors that violate the norms Counseling Psychology might be classified as disorders a generalist health service (HSP) specialty An Accepted Definition of PSYCHOLOGICAL in professional psychology that uses a DISORDER broad range of culturally informed and describes behavioral, psychological, or culturally sensitive practices to help people biological dysfunctions that are unexpected improve their well-being, prevent and in their cultural context and associated with alleviate distress and maladjustment, present distress and impairment in resolve crises, and increase their ability to function better in their lives 1 Psychiatrists ○ people are also suggestible when investigate the nature and causes of they are in states of high emotion psychological disorders, often from a ○ therefore, if one person identifies a biological point of view “cause” of the problem, others will make diagnosis probably assume that their own offer treatments reactions have the same source emphasize drugs or other biological ○ in popular language, this shared treatments, although most use psychosocial response is sometimes referred to treatments as well as mob psychology Social Workers The Moon and the Stars also treat disorders, often concentrating on ○ this influential theory inspired the family problems associated with them word lunatic, which is derived from Psychiatric Nurses the Latin word ‘luna’ meaning have advanced degrees such as master’s or “moon” even a Ph.D ○ you might hear some of your friends specialize in the care and treatment of explain something crazy they did patients with psychological disorders, one night by saying, “it must have usually in hospitals as part of a treatment been the full moon” team Comments The Scientist Practitioner ○ the supernatural tradition in many mental health professionals take a psychopathology is alive and well, scientific approach to their clinical work although it is relegated, for the most Mental Health Professional part, to small religious sects in this Consumer of Science country and to primitive cultures ○ enhancing the practice of science elsewhere Evaluator The Biological ○ determining the effectiveness of the physical causes of mental disorders have practice been sought since early in history Creator of Science Hippocrates ○ conducting research that leads to ○ a disease, syphilis new procedures useful in practice ○ the early consequences of believing Studying Psychological Disorders that psychological disorders are Clinical Description biologically caused Causation Syphilis Treatment and Outcome ○ behavioral and cognitive symptoms Historical Conceptions of Abnormal Behavior of what we now know as advanced the purpose of these models is to explain syphilis why someone is “acting like that” ○ a sexually transmitted disease The Supernatural caused by a bacterial microorganism Treatment entering the brain, include believing ○ exorcism,in which various religious that everyone is plotting against you rituals were performed in an effort to (delusion of persecution) or that you rid the victim of evil spirits are God (delusion of grandeur), as Mass Hysteria well as other bizarre behavior ○ may simply demonstrate the The Development of Biological phenomenon of emotion contagion, Treatments in which the experience of an ○ renewed interest in the biological emotion origin of psychological disorders led, ultimately, to greatly increased 2  understanding of biological has had a strong influence, and it is still contributions to psychopathology important to be familiar with its basic ideas; and to the development of new what follows is a brief outline of the theory treatments We focus on its three major facets: Consequences of the Biological ○ the structure of the mind and the Tradition distinct functions of personality that ○ reduced or eliminated interest in sometimes clash with one another; treating mental patients. Interest ○ the defense mechanisms with which centered on diagnosis, legal the mind defends itself from these questions concerning the clashes, or conflicts; and responsibility of patients for their ○ the stages of early psychosexual actions during periods of insanity, development that provide grist for and the study of brain pathology the mill of our inner conflicts itself The Structure of the Mind The Psychological ○ Id it is a long leap from evil spirits to brain unconscious, animalistic, pathology as the cause of psychological emotional disorders seeks pleasure - pleasure Psychosocial Treatment principle ○ approaches to the causation of ○ Ego psychopathology, which focus not rational, logical - reality only on psychological factors but principle also on social and cultural ones thinks things through Moral Therapy conscious ○ became influential, the term moral ○ Superego actually referred more to emotional morality principle or psychological factors rather than social Norms, gender role to a code of conduct partly conscious Asylum Reform and the Decline of Moral Defense Mechanisms Therapy ○ unconscious protective processes ○ after the mid-19th century, humane that keep primitive emotions treatment declined because of a associated with conflicts in check so convergence of factors that the ego can continue its ○ recognized that moral therapy coordinating function worked best when the number of ○ Denial patients in an institution was 200 or refuses to acknowledge fewer, allowing for a great deal of some aspect of objective individual attention reality or subjective ○ reason for the decline of moral experience that is apparent therapy has an unlikely source to others ○ the great crusader Dorothea Dix ○ Displacement (1802–1887) campaigned endlessly transfers a feeling about, or a for reform in the treatment of insanity response to, an object that Psychoanalytic Theory causes discomfort onto Freud took these basic observations and another, usually expanded them into the psychoanalytic less-threatening, object or model, the most comprehensive theory yet person constructed on the development and structure of our personalities 3  ○ Projection ○ the strength of the response to falsely attributes own similar objects or people is usually a unacceptable feelings, function of how similar these objects impulses, or thoughts to or people are another individual or object the natural or unlearned response to this ○ Rationalization stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) — in conceals the true motivations these cases, salivation or nausea—is called for actions, thoughts, or the unconditioned response (UCR) feelings through elaborate Edward Titchener (1867–1927) reassuring or self-serving but ○ early experimental psychologist incorrect explanations ○ emphasized the study of ○ Reaction formation introspection substitutes behavior, B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning thoughts, or feelings that are Operant Conditioning the direct opposite of ○ a type of learning in which behavior unacceptable ones changes as a function of what ○ Repression follows the behavior blocks disturbing wishes, ○ the shaping of behaviors via thoughts, or experiences reinforcers (i.e., rewards and from conscious awareness punishments) ○ Sublimation Positive Reinforcers directs potentially ○ rewards that increase the probability maladaptive feelings or of behavior impulses into socially Negative Reinforcers acceptable behavior ○ the removal of aversive stimuli that Psychosexual Stages of Development increase the probability of behavior the stages—oral, anal, phallic, latency, and Punishment genital— represent distinctive patterns of ○ consequences that decrease the gratifying our basic needs and satisfying our probability of behavior drive for physical pleasure Skinner coined the term operant castration anxiety conditioning because behavior operates on ○ strong fears develop that the father the environment and changes it in some may punish that lust by removing the way son’s penis—thus, the phenomenon Skinner preferred the term reinforcement to of “reward” because it connotes the effect on Oedipus complex the behavior ○ the battle of the lustful impulses on Shaping the one hand and castration anxiety ○ a process of reinforcing successive on the other creates a conflict that is approximations to a final behavior or internal, or intrapsychic, called the set of behaviors ○ the counterpart conflict in girls, MAIN TOPIC 2: An Integrative Approach to called the Electra complex Psychopathology Pavlov and Classical Conditioning One Dimensional Model Classical Conditioning to trace the origins of behavior to a single ○ a type of learning in which a neutral cause stimulus is paired with a response Multidimensional Model until it elicits that response looking for a systemic cause stimulus generalization What caused Judy’s Phobia from a multidimensional perspective? 4  environment that trigger genetic vulnerability or “turn on” specific genes The Interaction of Genes and the Environment Diathesis-Stress Model ○ individuals inherit tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors, which may then be activated under conditions of stress Biopsychosocial Model The Gene–Environment Correlation Biological Influences Model ○ views disorders as the result of ○ people might have genetically abnormal genes or neurobiological determined tendency to create the dysfunction environment risk factors that trigger Psychological Influences a genetic vulnerability ○ views disorders as the result of our genetic endowment does contribute to thinking processes, personality style our behavior, our emotions, and our and conditioning cognitive processes and constrains the Socio-Cultural Influences influence of environmental factors, such as ○ views disorders as the result of upbringing, on our later behavior environmental conditions and strong environmental influences alone may cultural norms be sufficient to override genetic diathesis Genetic Contributions to Psychopathology thus, neither nature (genes) nor nurture Genes (environmental events) alone, but rather a ○ long molecules of deoxyribonucleic complex interaction of the two, influences acid (DNA) at various locations on the development of our behavior and chromosomes, within the cell personalities nucleus Neuroscience and Its Contribution to ○ some of our characteristics are Psychopathology strongly determined by one or more how the brain works is central to any genes, including natural hair color understanding of our behavior, emotions, and eye color and cognitive processes normal human cell has 46 chromosomes this is the focus of neuroscience arranged in 23 pairs the human nervous system includes the much of our development and, interestingly, central nervous system and the peripheral most of our behavior, our personality, and nervous system even our intelligence quotient (IQ) score are The Central Nervous System probably polygenic — that is, influenced by the central nervous system processes all many genes information received from our sense organs New Developments in the Study of and reacts as necessary Genes and Behavior the typical neuron contains a central cell ○ for psychological disorders, the body with two kinds of branches evidence indicates that genetic one kind of branch is called a dendrite and factors make some contribution to all the other one is axon disorders but account for less than The Peripheral Nervous System half of the explanation the peripheral nervous system coordinates ○ genetic contributions cannot be with the brain stem to make sure the body is studied in the absence of working properly interactions with events in the 5  its two major components are the somatic Neurotransmitters nervous system and the autonomic nervous that carry messages from one neuron to system another continue to receive intense The Structure of the Brain attention one way to view the brain is to see it in two TWO TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS parts - the brain stem and the forebrain 1. Monoamine Brain Stem Serotonin ○ the lowest part of the brain stem, the ○ regulates our behavior, moods, and hindbrain, thought processes contains the medulla, the ○ mood pons, and the cerebellum Norepinephrine ○ Hindbrain ○ seems to stimulate at least two regulates many autonomic groups (and probably several more) activities, such as breathing, of receptors called alpha-adrenergic the pumping action of the and beta-adrenergic receptors heart (heartbeat), and ○ concentration digestion. Dopamine ○ Midbrain ○ implicated in the pathophysiology of coordinates movements with schizophrenia and disorders of sensory input and contains addiction parts of reticular activating ○ pleasure system (contributes to sleep, 2. Amino-Acid arousal and tension) Gluta ○ Thalamus and Hypothalamus ○ an excitatory transmitter that “turns involves in regulating on” many different neurons, leading behavior, emotions, and to action hormones ○ memory Forebrain Gamma-aminobutyric acid, or GABA ○ Limbic System ○ to inhibit (or regulate) the this system helps regulate transmission of information and our emotional experiences action potentials and expressions and, to ○ calming some extent, our ability to Main Inhibitory Main Excitatory learn and to control our impulses Glycine Aspartate ○ Cerebral Cortex this part of the brain provides Dopamine Nitric Oxide us with our distinctly human qualities, allowing us to look Serotonin to the future and plan, to Acetylcholine reason, and to create ○ learning Levels Neurotransmitt Psychological ers (DANGS) Disorders (SAMAO) HIGH Dopamine Schizophrenia LOW Acetylcholine Alzheimer’s Disease 6  psychological experience affects the HIGH Norepinephrin Mania development of the nervous system and e thus determines vulnerability to LOW GABA Anxiety psychological disorders later in life it seems that the very structure of the LOW Serotonin Depression nervous system is constantly changing as a result of learning and experience, even into LOW Dopamine and Parkinson’s old age, and that some of these changes Acetylcholine Disease become permanent this plasticity of the central nervous system LOW Serotonin and Anxiety helps us adapt more readily to our GABA environment HIGH Norepinephrin Behavioral and Cognitive Science e Classical Conditioning ○ a variety of judgements and Temporal Lobe cognitive processes combine to Problem Dementia determine the final outcome Learned Helplessness LOW Atrophy and ○ tendency to become depressed if Acetylcholine they “decide” or “think” they can do little about the stress in their lives Frontal Cortex even if it seems that there is ADHD LOW Dopamine and something they could do Norepinephrin Learned Optimism e ○ people are more likely to function better psychologically and physically if they display an optimistic, upbeat Equifinality attitude even if faced with stress and ○ different situations difficulties ○ same outcome Social Learning Multifinality ○ learning by observing what happens ○ same situation to someone else in a given situation ○ different outcome Cognitive Science and the Unconscious Interactions of Psychosocial Factors and Blindsight or unconscious vision Neurotransmitter Systems ○ ability of people who are cortically psychosocial influences directly affect the blind to respond to visual stimuli functioning and perhaps even the structure Stroop Color-Naming Paradigm of the central nervous system ○ a method for studying the scientists have observed that psychosocial unobservable unconscious factors routinely change the activity levels of Emotions vs. Mood many of our neurotransmitter systems Emotion several experiments illustrate the interaction ○ short-lived, temporary states lasting of psychosocial factors and brain function from several minutes to several on neurotransmitter activity, with hours, occurring in response to an implications for the development of external event disorders Mood Psychosocial Effects on the Development of ○ more persistent period of affect or Brain Structure and Function emotionality 7  Affect ○ bulimia nervosa occurs almost ○ refers to the valence dimension of entirely in young females an emotion (i.e. Pleasant positive vs. social unpleasant negative) ○ greater number of relationships = Affective style longer you are likely to live ○ used to summarize commonalities MAIN TOPIC 3: Clinical Assessment and among emotional states Diagnosis characteristic of an individual Assessing Psychological Disorders (positive affective style and negative the processes of clinical assessment and affective style) diagnosis are central to the study of The Components of Emotion psychopathology and, ultimately, to the Emotion and Behavior treatment of psychological disorders ○ basic patterns of emotional behavior Clinical Assessment that differ in fundamental ways the systematic evaluation and measurement ○ emotional behavior is a means of of psychological, biological, and social communication factors in an individual presenting with a Cognitive Aspects of Emotion possible psychological disorder ○ appraisals, attributions, and other Goals of Assessment ways of processing the world around Classification you that are fundamental to Description emotional experience Prediction Physiology of Emotion Diagnosis ○ emotion is a brain function involving the process of determining whether the the more primitive brain areas particular problem afflicting the individual ○ direct connection between these meets all criteria for a psychological areas and the eyes may allow disorder, as set forth in the fifth edition of emotional processing to bypass the the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of influence of higher cognitive Mental Disorders, or DSM-5 (American processes Psychiatric Association, 2013) Cultural, Social, and Interpersonal Factors Aspects of a Clinical Assessment cultural factors influence the form and Presenting problem content of psychopathology and may differ ○ Characteristic patterns of behavior even among cultures ○ Excesses Susto from Latin America ○ Deficits ○ black magic or witchcraft with ○ Appropriateness anxiety-based symptoms ○ Strengths voodoo ○ Weaknesses ○ a religion that is based on African Areas of Functioning ancestor worship and practiced ○ Intellectual Functioning chiefly in Haiti ○ Personality or Social and Emotional ○ a person who deals in spells and ○ Coping Resources magic Diagnostic Formulation evil eye Hypothesis → Diagnosis → Treatment ○ used to ward off variations of evil Key Concepts in Assessment intentions Reliability gender ○ the degree to which a measurement ○ males more likely to develop is consistent alcoholism 8  Inter-rater reliability ○ this type of observation occurs when ○ ensures that two different raters are any one person interacts with consistent in their assessment of another patients 1. Appearance and behavior Test-retest reliability 2. Thought processes ○ the consistency in the test results 3. Mood and affect given on different occasions 4. Intellectual functioning Validity 5. Sensorium ○ the degree to which a technique Semi Structured Clinical Interviews measures what it is designed to ○ are made up of questions that have measure been carefully phrased and tested to Face Validity elicit useful information in a ○ when assessment tool looks valid consistent manner so that clinicians Predictive Validity can be sure they have inquired ○ how well your assessment tells you about the most important aspects of what will happen in the future particular disorders (Galletta, 2013; Standardization Summerfeldt, Kloosterman, & ○ the process by which a certain set of Antony, 2010). standards or norms is determined for 3. Physical Examination a technique to make its use 4. Behavioral Assessment consistent across different The ABCs of Observation measurements ○ usually focused on the here and now ○ the standards might apply to the ○ Antecedents procedures of testing, scoring, and ○ Behavior evaluating data ○ Consequences Methods of Assessment Self-Monitoring 1. Observation ○ people can also observe their own Naturalistic Observation behavior to find patterns ○ observation in the natural setting 5. Psychological Testing Laboratory Observation Projective Testing ○ conducted in a more controlled or ○ include a variety of methods in which artificial setting ambiguous stimuli, such as pictures ○ uses sophisticated equipment such of people or things, are presented to as videotape and one-way mirror people who are asked to describe possible limitation in doing observation: what they see ○ Reactivity Personality Inventories change in behavior because ○ Personality Inventory and the they know they are being NEO-PI-R observed. a concise measure of the five 2. The Clinical Interview major domains of personality. the core of most clinical work, is used by Neuroticism, Extroversion, psychologists, psychiatrists, and other Openness, Agreeableness, mental health professionals and Conscientiousness The Mental Status Exam Psychological Tests ○ in essence, the mental status exam ○ assess the client’s personality, social involves the systematic observation skills, cognitive abilities, emotions, of an individual’s behavior behavioral responses, or interests. 9  Neurological Tests Diagnosis ○ tests are used to diagnose cognitive the process of determining whether a impairments caused by brain particular problem afflicting the individual damage due to tumors, infections, or meets all criteria for a psychological head injuries;or changes in brain disorder activity Prognosis ○ Positron Emission Tomography or ○ refers to the likely future course of a PET disorder under certain conditions used to study the functioning Idiographic Strategy of the brain. ○ determine an individual’s personality, ○ Magnetic Resonance Imaging or cultural background or MRI circumstances; we tailor our provides 3D images of the treatment to the person brain or other body structures Nomothetic Strategy using magnetic fields and ○ taking advantage of the information computers already accumulated on a particular can detect brain and spinal problem or disorder, we must be cord tumors or nervous able to determine a general class of system disorders such as problems to which the presenting multiple sclerosis problem belongs Intelligence Tests Classification System ○ determines the patient’s level of a set of definitions of syndromes and rules cognitive functioning and consists of for determining when a person’s symptoms a series of tasks asking the patient are part of each syndrome to use both verbal and nonverbal effort to construct group or categories and skills to assign objects or people to these Elements of a Diagnosis categories on their basis of their shared diagnostic criteria are the guidelines for attributes or relations making a diagnosis International Statistical Classification of Principal Diagnosis Diseases and Related Health Problems – ICD-10 ○ used when more than one diagnosis (WHO) is given for an individual clinical descriptions and diagnostic ○ it is the reason for the admission in guidelines an inpatient setting or the basis for a published in 1992, provides for each visit resulting in ambulatory care category in Chapter V of ICD-10 (Mental medical services in outpatient and behavioral disorders) a general settings description and guidelines concerning the ○ the principal diagnosis is generally diagnosis the focus of treatment it also provides comments about differential Provisional Diagnosis diagnosis and a listing of synonyms and ○ if not enough information is available exclusion terms for a mental health professional to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental make a definitive diagnosis, but Disorders – DSM-5 (APA) there is a strong presumption that standard classification of mental disorders the full criteria will be met with used by mental health professionals in the additional information or time, and United States then the provisional specifier can be intended to be used in all clinical settings by used clinicians of different theoretical orientations 10  can be used by mental health and other Good consumer of research health professionals, including psychiatrists Research Methodology and other physicians, psychologists, social Important Concepts workers, nurses, occupational and 1. What problems cause distress and impair rehabilitation therapists, and counselors functioning? The DSM consists of three major components: 2. Why do people behave in unusual ways? Diagnostic Classification 3. How do we help them behave in more ○ the official list of mental disorders adaptive ways? recognized in DSM each diagnosis Basic Components of a Research Study includes a diagnostic code, which is Hypothesis typically used by individual an educated guess or statement to be providers, institutions, and agencies supported by data for data collection and billing Research Design purposes the plan for testing the hypothesis Diagnostic Classification affected by the question addressed by the ○ criteria indicate symptoms that must hypothesis, and by practical considerations be present (and for how long) as Independent Variable well as a list of other symptoms, some aspect of the phenomenon that is disorders, and conditions that must measured and is expected to be changed or first be ruled out to qualify for a influenced by the independent variable. particular diagnosis Dependent Variable ○ it is important to remember that the aspect manipulated or thought to these criteria are meant to be used influence the change in the dependent by trained professionals using variable clinical judgment, they are not meant Internal Validity to be used by the general public in a the extent to which the results of the study cookbook fashion can be attributed to the independent Descriptive Text variable ○ Provides information about each External Validity disorder under the following the extent to which the results of the study headings can be generalized or applied outside the Diagnostic Features immediate study Associated Features Randomization Supporting Diagnosis each person is given an equal chance of Subtypes and/or Specifiers being placed in any group Prevalence Placebo Development and Course participants’ expectations that impact the Risk and Prognostic Factors result of the experiment Diagnostic Measures Statistical versus Clinical Significance Functional Consequences Statistical Significance Culture-Related Diagnostic the probability of obtaining the observed Issues effect by chance is small Gender-Related Diagnostic a mathematical calculation about the Issues difference between groups Differential Diagnosis Clinical significance Recording Procedures whether or not the difference was MAIN TOPIC 4: Research Methods meaningful for those affected Examining Abnormal Behavior effect size Use of the Scientific Method ○ how large these differences are 11 The “Average” Client Positive correlation Patient Uniformity Myth great strength or quantity in one variable is ○ tendency to see all participants as associated with great strength or quantity in one homogenous group the other variable ○ leads researchers to make Negative correlation inaccurate generalizations -1.00, a perfect inverse relationship in which ○ should understand the heterogeneity one variable goes up as the other goes of clients down Types of Research Methods 1. case studies 2. correlational research 3. experimental research 4. single-case experimental studies Studying Individual Cases 1. case study method investigating intensively one or more individuals who display the behavioral and physical patterns Correlation coefficient case study method relies on a clinician’s strength of the relationship ranges between observations of differences among one 0.00 and +1.00 (0.00 means no relationship person or one group with a disorder, people exists; plus sign means there is a positive with other disorders, and people with no relationship, and the 1.00 means that it is a psychological disorders “perfect” relationship) Case Study Directionality used to study one or more individuals in a correlation allows us to see whether a depth based on careful observation. relationship exists between two variables one difficulty with depending heavily on but not to draw conclusions about whether individual cases is that sometimes either variable causes the effects coincidences occur that are irrelevant to the Advantage condition under study can correlate anything coincidences often lead to incorrect Disadvantage conclusions about the causes of certain you can correlate anything; including conditions and effective treatments. variables that do not have any relationship Advantage with one another can arrive at a detailed description of the Epidemiology investigated behavior can have a greater study of the incidence, distribution, and understanding on the causes of infrequent consequences of particular problem or set unusual condition of problems in one or more populations Disadvantage epidemiological research can’t tell us lacking generalizability, as findings may be conclusively what causes a particular unrepresentative of the larger population phenomenon subject Strategy to find important clues as why the disorder 2. Research by Correlation exists: Correlation Prevalence a statistical relationship between two ○ the number of people with a disorder variables but it does not tell us if that at any one time relationship is a causal one Incidence result of a correlational study ○ the estimated number of new cases ○ whether variables occur together during a specific period 12 3. Research by Experiment Comparative Treatment Research Experiment alternative to using no-treatment control involves the manipulation of an independent groups to help evaluate results variable and the observation of its effects in this design, the researcher gives different experiment involves the manipulation of an treatments to two or more comparable independent variable and the observation of groups of people with a particular disorder its effects two important issues to be considered when test of a hypothesis in which a researcher different approaches are studied: manipulates one variable (IV) and measures treatment process involves finding out why its effect on another variable (DV) or how your treatment works Group Experimental Designs treatment outcome involves finding out researchers actually change an what changes occur after treatment independent variable to see how the 4. Single-Case Experimental Designs behavior of the people in the group is Single-case experimental designs affected involves the systematic study of individuals Clinical trial under a variety of experimental conditions; experiment used to determine the B.F. Skinner effectiveness and safety of a treatment or Strategies used in single-case experimental design: treatments. repeated measurement randomized clinical trials ○ behavior is measured several times ○ employ randomization of participants before you change the independent into each experimental group. variable and once afterward controlled clinical trials withdrawal design ○ used to describe experiments that ○ tries to determine whether the rely on control conditions to be used independent variable is responsible for comparison purposes for changes in behavior Control Groups multiple baseline people who are similar to the experimental ○ the researcher starts treatment at group in every way except they are not different times across settings (home exposed to the independent variable versus school), behaviors (yelling at Placebo effect spouse/partner or boss), or people when a person's behavior changes due to 5. Other Research Methods their expectation of change, rather than Naturalistic Observation manipulation by an experimenter. studies human behavior in natural settings, Placebo control groups such as home, school, or work the placebo is given to members of the Advantages control group to make them believe they are ○ the behavior is seen as it happens getting treatment Disadvantages Double-blind control ○ if the researcher is detected, it may variant of the placebo control group take time for the behavior to occur, procedure which may impact the behavior of single blind those being observed ○ unaware of what group they are in or Laboratory Observation what treatment they are given involves observing people or animals in a double blind laboratory setting ○ the researchers or therapists Advantages providing treatment ○ experimenter can use sophisticated equipment to record the session and examine it later 13  Disadvantages ○ since the subjects know the experimenter is watching them, their behavior could become artificial Surveys/Self- Report data a questionnaire consisting of at least one scale with some questions used to assess a Family Studies psychological construct scientists simply examine a behavioral Advantages pattern or emotional trait in the context of ○ may be administered by paper and the family pencil or computer the family member with the trait singled out ○ allow for the collection of large for study is called the proband amounts of data quickly Adoption Studies Disadvantages scientists identify adoptees who have a ○ actual survey could be tedious for particular behavioral pattern or the participant social desirability psychological disorder and attempt to locate ○ when a participant answers first-degree relatives who were raised in questions dishonestly so that he/she different family settings is seen in a more favorable light Twin Studies could be an issue nature presents an elegant experiment that Genetics and Behavior across Time and gives behavioral geneticists their closest Cultures possible look at the role of genes in determining any inherited influences, how development behavior will change or remain the same Michael Lyons and his colleagues (1995) over time, and the effects of culture conducted a study of antisocial behavior Studying Genetics among members of the Vietnam Era Twin the goal of behavioral geneticists (people Registry who study the genetics of behavior) is to Genetic Linkage and Association Studies tease out the role of genetics in these the basic principle of genetic linkage interactions analysis is simple beginning in 1990, scientists around the when a family disorder is studied, other world, in a coordinated effort, began the inherited characteristics are assessed at the human genome project (genome means “all same time the genes of an organism”) the second strategy for locating specific phenotypes genes, association studies, also uses ○ the observable characteristics or genetic markers behavior of the individual Studying Behavior over Time genotypes “How will a disorder or behavior pattern ○ the unique genetic makeup of change (or remain the same) over time?” individual people This question is important for several endophenotypes reasons. ○ the genetic mechanisms that ○ important to understand the ultimately contribute to the developmental changes in abnormal underlying problems causing the behavior symptoms and difficulties Prevention research experienced by people with reason for studying clinical problems over psychological disorders (Greenwood time is that we may be able to design et al., 2016). interventions and services to prevent these problems 14 Different Methods: several decades of research on this Health promotion or positive treatment (called functional communication development strategies training) demonstrates its value in ○ involve efforts to blanket entire significantly improving the lives of people populations of people—even those with these once severe behavior problems who may not be at risk—to prevent by reducing the severity of the misbehavior later problems and promote through improving communication skills protective behaviors (Durand, 2012) Universal prevention strategies two factors to be the most important indicators ○ focus on entire populations and of severe behavior problems in the children: target certain specific risk factors. the parents were pessimistic about their Selective prevention ability to help their child ○ specifically targets whole groups at the parents were program of research can risk help researchers explore various aspects of Cross-Sectional Designs abnormal behavior a variation of correlation research is to Replication compare different people at different ages the strength of a research program is in its the participants in each age group are ability to replicate findings in different ways called cohorts to build confidence in the results Longitudinal Designs replicating findings is what makes researchers may follow one group over time researchers confident that what they are and assess change in its members directly observing isn’t a coincidence the advantages of longitudinal designs are the more times researchers repeat a that they do not suffer from cohort effect process (and the behavior they are studying problems and they allow the researchers to changes as expected), the more sure they assess individual change are about what caused the changes Sequential design Research Ethics psychopathologists combine longitudinal Informed consent and cross-sectional designs; involves ○ a research participant’s formal repeated study of different cohorts over time agreement to cooperate in a study Studying Behavior across Cultures following full disclosure of the nature some researchers view the effects of of the research and the participant’s different cultures as though they were role in it different treatments (López & Guarnaccia, a final and important development in the 2012) field that will help to “keep the face” on the characteristics of different cultures can psychological disorders is the involvement also complicate research efforts of consumers in important aspects of this symptoms, or descriptions of symptoms, research—referred to as participatory can be dissimilar in different societies action research (Paniagua & Yamada, 2013) complicating factor is varying tolerances, or thresholds, for abnormal behavior Power of a Program of Research significant issues often are resolved not by one perfectly designed study but rather by a series of studies that examine different aspects of the problem in a program of research 15