Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception PDF

Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception Lecture PowerPoint Interactive Psychology: People in Perspective, 2e © 2023 W. W. Norton & Company Study Unit 4.1 The Sensory Systems Receive - the Brain Perceives (1) Sensation: ??? Transduction:??? Perception:??? Study Unit 4.1 The Sen...

Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception Lecture PowerPoint Interactive Psychology: People in Perspective, 2e © 2023 W. W. Norton & Company Study Unit 4.1 The Sensory Systems Receive - the Brain Perceives (1) Sensation: ??? Transduction:??? Perception:??? Study Unit 4.1 The Sensory Systems Receive - the Brain Perceives (1) Sensation and perception are distinct, though related processes. Sensation: The process by which our sensory organs receive stimulus energies from the environment and transduce them into the electrical energy of the nervous system. > - chemical into electrical Convert < convert vibrational to electrical ! Transduction: The transformation of sensory stimulus energy from the environment into neural impulses. Perception: The neural processing of electrical signals to form an internal mental representation inside your brain of what’s on the outside. Study Unit 4.1 The Sensory Systems Receive, While the Brain Perceives (2) Although all sensory information is transduced into the same type of electrical signals, the location of their connection to the brain determines how they are perceived. Ultimately, sensations merge in the brain to produce a complete perceptual experience.  Canterior of central sulcus) * Sulcus : lines ↳ primary motor cortex - cortex * hyrus : wrinkle > - primary somatosensory sulcus) (where actual brain tissue is (posterior to the central Thigher cognitive function - Wernicke's are a personality dicision / handoretrol , making ↳ Broca's area , language control , articulation * Broca's area ! Cum ↳ dividing temporal from rest ⑭ ↳ diving parietal and occipital. G I & - temporal pole #hearing sensation  motor ↑ primary Interparital 2 ⑳roas e dis Herprimary vision cortex  Study Unit 4.2 Thresholds of Awareness: Can You Really Hear Me? (1) Absolute thresholds: The minimum amount of stimulation necessary for someone to detect a stimulus half of the time. /Signal detection theory: depends on Provides a representation of personalityation an individual’s responses under conditions of the is signal of different uncertainty considering their Astersomeon See biases. more  Your threshold is the opposite of your sensitivity—the lower - your threshold, the higher your sensitivity. - threshold inproportion to sensitivity A threshold = ↑ Sensitivety Study Unit 4.3 Difference Thresholds The brain can not only detect whether a stimulus is present, but also compare its magnitude to similar stimuli to make distinctions between them. Just-noticeable difference (JND) or difference threshold: The minimum difference required between two stimuli for an observer to detect a difference half the time.  Study Unit 4.3 Difference Thresholds: The Just-Noticeable Difference (2) Perception of a stimulus change is not dependent on a fixed absolute value of change but a relative quantity of the stimulus magnitude. more stimulation (we identify difference can colours) more = ↓ in Weber’s law: The observation that the likelihood of perceiving a stimulus change is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli. More stimulation we have , able to identify the difference less likely we are (even though there's same magnitude) same ↑ ↑ looks the difference less stimulation (the colors not identify that much Study Unit 4.4 Sensory and Perceptual Adaptation (1) Sensation and perception demonstrate substantial variability within and between people. Plasticity exists in our perceptual systems. Neurons change their sensitivity and selectivity with ↳ experience. the brain makes more stimulation , to recognize the difference in experience (sensitivity. & selectivity) Study Unit 4.4 Sensory and Perceptual Adaptation (2) Adaptation: A phenomenon whereby an individual stops noticing a stimulus that remains constant over time, resulting in enhanced detection of stimulus changes. Sensory adaption → at the level of the sensory receptors. Perceptual adaptation → at perceptual centers of the brain. sensory adaptation Perceptual adaptation ,might beweideopt at first (thermoreceptor temperature) , ↳ If you wear new glasses. to it Aftereffects are opposing sensory or perceptual distortions that occur C after adaptation. a backdownto norma and You ran treadmill for zomins go Summary area these senses go to the perception Show different stimulation interact with receptors, Sensation → Transduction → Perception.↳ change from stimulation to electrical one signal Absolute Thresholds: Minimum stimulus detected 50% of the time. ↳ how much identify we need to that specific (always stimulay there Signal Detection Theory: Evaluates responses under uncertainty, factoring in biases. (Also your personality) depends on Sensitivity is inversely related to threshold. Just-noticeable Difference (JND): Minimum difference between stimuli detected 50% of the time. Inversely - Weber's Law: Detection of change is proportional to stimulus magnitude. Stronger stimulation less likely identify difference between =. we the the two stimulation we evaluating Neural systems adjust sensitivity and selectivity with experience, demonstrating variability in sensation and perception. VISION Light is electromagnetic energy that is transformed into neural energy, which produces sight. Humans can visually sense only a small range of the spectrum of electromagnetic energy. Photons are the basic unit of all forms of electromagnetic energy. Photons have wavelike properties that vary to produce our various visual experiences. The three physical properties of light include wavelength, amplitude, and purity. um able to ionized cells. 6 Wavelength: The distance between any two consecutive crests or troughs of a wave. Variations determine the quality/color we perceive. -- Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a wave. o Relates to wavelength. o Higher frequencies = shorter wavelength. ↳ Amplitude: The height of the crests of a wave. Variations determine the quantity/intensity/brightnes now intense. s of color. - bright how The Eye and the Retina: Visual Transduction mu The Eye The major structures of the eye serve different functions and are organized to produce the sensation of sight. compare the wavelength/amplitude and letto - Retina see. G Cornea: The transparent covering at the front of the eye. - - C Pupil: A hole in the iris where light enters the eye. Chollow space) O Iris: The colored muscle circling Esmooth the pupil. (Find melinal site. muscle - we cannot control. o The iris can increase or decrease the size of the pupil - to adjust how much light - enters the eye. - -  Exterior- > Interior ③ Osclera-choroid- , retna (middle) (blood vessel ② choroid Lens: A membrane at the blood) S ① Sclera filteration of CSF (good front of the eye that focuses the incoming light on the provide ystructureas ⑨ ① andmetal nerve ↓ (II) retina. o Accommodation: O-accommodation Adjustments of the lens’s thickness by specialized muscles in order to change the degree to able to change. which it bends light.. ⑤ Cherve) the most outer memberence of the eyes * Sclera-cover choroid (find lots of of scleral Under sclera (interior - * blood vessel) ↳ provid nutriend/blood , etc.  interior ofthea Retina Choroid #more - ↓ Retina: A surface on the back of the eye that contains the photoreceptor cells, which contain photopigments that are sensitive to light. o When light reaches the photoreceptors, chemical reactions change their shape and generates electricity. transduction o Rod: Photoreceptor cell that primarily supports nighttime vision. Rod activated there's when is , light no o G Cone: Photoreceptor cell that is C responsible for high-resolution color vision. charge (when there light) of color !! is Cone ! * is used ! In dark Clow Stimulate) : Rod will activate  Retina Ganglia (PNS) = * * We are in Peripheral = call as "nerve" (bundle of axons - ↳ Optic nerve ! i transmit electronic impulse ↳ go to the brain. ⑪ Optic nerve: A bundle of E axons that converge from the retina and transmit action potentials to the brain. Enter the middle cranial fossa of the Foll skull. O Blind Spot Blind spot: An area in the 6 (not detect middle of the visual field light) due to where there are no absence of receptors. photoreceptors and no Ithas bundle only of information can be received. axons ! The Rods and Cones: One Eye, Two Types of Vision Rods and cones differ in important ways that relate to their functions. - First light when there's Eactivates no Rods all have the same type of photopigment photosigment thata Cones contain one of three varieties of - - photopigments o The multiple photopigments of the cones allows us to see color. Cones a Rods All photoreceptors have a special molecule called retinal. - mesn't matter it's cones or rods special molecul in photoreceptors but it's a  G so (whenthere's ↳ lazy Isleep moleule Cawake !!) sea dark Chotoreceptor * when it going bright (ight) area to area , back Retinal to the rods And Rod will stimulate the enzyme will bring. From: https://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/retinal/retinaljs.htm low stimulation (because they are really sensative  In daylight At night * The longer the wavelength , the red they are cones ! rods ↑ ↓ ↳ use all the vision in cones use primarly N Focus L-Cones (Red Color) L - M-Cones (green color) - S-Cones ↳(blue color) - Second They differ in their quantity and distribution across the retina. Ratio of 20:1, rods to cones - Fovea: A small pit in the & center of the retina that is lots of comes ) ! (see densely packed with cones. No rods !!  * we can see from the optic nerve X blind spot , how all the blood vessels are converginga emerging. lots of comes (so it's dark) (surround ) Forea !!!  Choroid Third, cones have more direct -bipolar cells connections to neural cells than ↓ rods do, whereas rods converge - more before communicating with the brain. -activates when there's light Fourth, E cones have higher acuity (sharpness and specificity), lights whereas rods have higher * Rod not 19 = sensitivity (ability to simply detect · stimuli). rods areensative low stimula * sensitive (than cones) = more Coptic nerves) chance dark because rod activiates when morelight moreneygeteach = visual cortex lig primary Fifth, cones receive more cortical - (more occipetal = In lobe representation, which allows cones in the fovea to convey higher levels of detail to the rest of the brain. * More areas of the cortex = better representation * Cones has better representation than the rods.  https://www.anatomy.tv/anatomytv/html5uihap_2018/#/product/specialsenses/type/Topics /displayType/showAnimation/id/343 * Why do you need glasses ? ↳ shorter eye Cimage cannot converge as it supposed to ↳ longer eye ( * If we close or open the receptor , we can deplorize or hypoplorize depending on light or no light and these cones (light) and rods (no light) will be able or not to release the glutamate receptors (less glutamate used * Closing light !) * Glutamate (neurotransmitter) -less inhibition (glutamate) - > deplorizing (send signal to the brain when there's ↳ Inhibitory (opposite of brain !1) to the electrosignal ) !! How light transfor sinhibition More light > = - ; - Color Vision  Trichromatic theory: A theory of color perception stating that three types of cone cells work together to produce our (-cones perception of a multicolored world. (red) , M-cones (green) , S-Cones (blue) Opponent-process theory: A theory of color perception stating that information from the cones is separated into three sets of opposing or opponent channels in the ganglion cell layer. Colors on opposing sides of the color Wheel of circe wheel are perceived as opposites: red/green, blue/yellow, black/white. 6 "red", If we see we cannot see "green" (opposite color) at the same time. “Opposite” colors are perceived as more contrasting. "red" while see for a , If we and look away we will see "green" > , - theopposite Staring at a color will produce an color afterimage of its complimentary color when you look away because cones adapt to the visualized color (perception of that color is reduced) and the cone’s ability to inhibit the opposing color is decreased. Higher-Level Vision: Object Identification and Localization  Connection e stimulating different region Making how information travel from high to low Increasingly higher levels of the brain create increasingly more Clower regin) complete representations of what is sensed. (the axons are formed (cross oppositee ) to the ⑭ ② (in CNS) ③ - (within CNS) - information ! ↓ processing ⑤ thalamusX (cell bodies are Chas lots of celdies) found - (within Thalamus) G 3 & ⑥ (interneurons (brainster ! - s In Thalamus make connection - interneurons. (high regin) release informationwith I ⑦ primary Visual cortex  Right side of ruler O O will detected by the of nasal halves. left side Tetside of ruler will detected by of the right side nasal halves doesnt- 1 I doesn't theyloss cross optic Midterm will be after ! (field) * Temporal half chiasma thesamesidea - - with picture what part of Visual cortex is - , on stay detected by. the left nasal half Optic After - Is it cross or not ? (cross !! the nasal nerve ) ! Interneon interna &B Interneurons From the optic chasm, to the thalamus, to the primary visual cortex Here, an# image is recreated from what is presented on the retinas. Feature detectors: Specialized cells in the visual cortex that respond to basic features such as lines, edges, and angles. - From the primary visual cortex to the visual association cortex Visual association cortex: The regions of the brain where objects are reconstructed from prior knowledge and information collected by the feature detectors. (closer to back) There are two major pathways in our visual system to process the “what” and “where.” Inferior temporal ! gyrus [closer to belly  (inferior temporal gyrus) - connect to temporal cortex pathway thing Ifsomething happeninthis a ne &Pathway) /What Ventral Stream ("What" # # Recognize object Function: Object recognition and visual perception (identifying "what" something is). - Pathway: From the primary visual cortex (V1) to the inferotemporal cortex (in the temporal lobe). Processes: Form, color, texture, and detail. Role: Recognizes objects, faces, and scenes. In temporal lobe Hippocampus Connection: Interacts with the - hippocampus for memory formation and object recognition. ↳ create new memory,  #Parietal lobe ⑧ Pathway) Dorsal Stream ("Where" Function: Spatial awareness and motion detection (identifying "where" something is). Pathway: From the primary visual cortex (V1) to the posterior parietal cortex (in the parietal lobe). - Processes: Motion, depth, spatial relationships, and guiding actions. Visual senses Role: Helps with spatial orientation, movement, and navigation. - Hippocampus Connection: Assists with spatial memory and navigation, interacting for tasks like remembering locations and guiding movements.  Summary (most interior Rods & Cones: Photoreceptors in the retina. Rods: Sensitive to low light, important for night vision (bleaching in intense light, reactivates in the dark). Cones: Detect color, active in bright light (trichromatic theory for color detection, sensitive to red, green, and blue). transformation of light to electrical sign, ~ gate ! Phototransduction: closing the (Nat channel close In light: Retinal isomerizes from cis to trans → Sodium channels close → Decreased (inhibitory) glutamate release → Activation of bipolar=> cells. More the signal to neurons In darkness: Sodium channels open → Glutamate (inhibitory) is released → Bipolar cells "cis" in form. are inhibited.(inhibiting ganglian cells) Optic Nerve: Originates at the retina and inserts into the - optic chiasm. Transmits visual info to the brain. sites and nerves in nasal make a connection in they cross !! Thalamus Visual Pathways: Ventral Stream ("What" Pathway): Identifies objects, faces; connects to hippocampus for memory. Dorsal Stream ("Where" Pathway): Processes motion, spatial location; connects to parietal cortex for spatial awareness.  Primary corteo Somatosensory cortex -sociation a (shape perception) ↑ (3D vision) functionaton Y ↳ higher = posterior (parietal lobe) · Mary auditory cortex Hearing The Properties of Sound (1) G Sound is derived from tiny vibrations that are produced when an - object moves and vibrates. u Compressed and expanded air molecules create waves that travel - through the air and other substances to reach our ears, where they are transduced in neural energy. The Properties of Sound Frequency of the soundwaves per second are perceived by our special senses as pitch. of energy ↑ frequency high pitch (quality Measured in hertz (Hz) =. Pitch: The perceptual quality of sound that makes a sound high or low. o Variations in pitch depend on a change in quality, not quantity, of energy. Study Unit 4.13 energy The Properties of Sound (3) # amplitud = ↑ loudness (higher volume) (quantity of The amplitude of the soundwaves is perceived as loudness. Measured in decibel (dB) units Variations in loudness depend on a change in quantity of energy.  low pitch (base) ↑ frequency = ↑ pitch ↓ wavelength) high pitch (soprano) https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/sound- waves/latest/sound-waves_all.html Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Ear The human ear is separated into: ① The outer ear (collection vibration) of The middle ear Camplification of vibrations The inner ear ② contain These work together to collect, & Linse ③ Ear Drum amplify, and transduce (tympanic membrane vibrations into neural energy. 1.- The outer ear (the pinna) is designed to Gcapture and funnel soundwaves through the ear canal to the middle ear. - Start from "Ear drum" - barrier btw outer physical and middle ear. · pathogen protection there's (making wax) secretory cells -  - amplifying vibration (no perception yet) 2. Middle ear: The portion of the ear containing the eardrum and ossicles. The -eardrum (the tympanic S membrane)I responds to soundwaves by moving - in and - - out with corresponding F vibrational pressure changes. / avil - drum) vibrate. stirrup sound waves cause "Tympanic membrane" Cear hammer Ossicles: (middle) Three tiny bones most lateral > lateral medial in the ear—the hammer, anvil, and stirrup—that act most medial as levers to amplify incoming sound waves.  Hammer (most lateral Anvil (middle) covering Oval window Stirrup (most medial) articulate with - membrane , cleads to cochlea hammer Gar& namer stirrup -more medial - connects outer a middle ear !!  3. Inner ear: The innermost part of the ear, where the cochlea resides. mobile O not 6Bony Labyrinth and- membranous Detect ( labyrinth. - - avoid the unnecessary movement (not to get dizzy) head movements Cochlea: A spiral structure in -bony Balance !! the inner ear, which contains auditory sensory neurons (BM). -pecial receptors impeded BMbasilar membranous in membrane ⑳hear Bone (flexible) most f liquid lar membrane Sapper wares It mph) esti tes respond to pressure perily the ,. perilymph wavesenters traveling up the x( contain transmitted through · y this vibration Staspresse I going middle (hearing) endolymph to basal membrane endolymph) (contain media scala of corti organ & E haircellsinitiatethe soundwasa transduction) movement of stereocilia - sound cells hair ⑳ are integrated by the brain , this impulses -. into perception of sound bottom most asilar membrane tympani enterance to · scala ContaPlym Scala vestibuli exist - > - window the liquid to round - - secretory epithelium membrane - cochlear Nerves (connect to the middle part !! -- First sound !! releasing energy wave - exist of scala tympani !!  to round goingdownwindow - ↳ filled with endolymph oval window Gat - &start X- - > -move down / ~ / ro ↳ sound waves releasey roundnow camplifying ends Dye Tracking Following Posterior Semicircular Canal or Round Window Membrane Injections Suggests a Role for the Cochlea Aqueduct in Modulating Distribution - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-of-the-mouse-inner-ear-with-coiled-A-and- uncoiled-B-configurations-of-the_fig1_336907657 [accessed 15 Oct 2024]  membrane Questibular - Basilar membrane - _  Basilar membrane: A structure in the - cochlea where the auditory cilia, or auditory sensory neurons (“hair cells”), are located. stectorial membraneChairy csea Stereoci l i a from middle ear Amplified soundwaves are delivered to the cochlea by the ossicles through a membrane s called the oval window. Inner I -entrance The axons of the auditory cilia are hair cells bundled together to form the Cresponsible for auditory nerve, which travels to the transduction) herve sound Basilar membrane. - brain. (cranial nerve 8) : https://www.anatomy.tv/anatomytv/html5uihap_2018/#/product/specialsenses/type/Topics/displayType/displayFlash/id/9  Transduction > primary - nerve that detects vibration cilid z Basilar membrane vibration → Hair cells movement → Stereocilia (detecting mechanical movement-vibration ( moves → Mechanically-gated protein → Tension → > Tension? = -2Depolarized, < Tension = Hyperpolarization by voltage-gated j calcium channels → Nerve transduction. change voltage on the cilia hair cells open in response to movement within the cell * depending on how these protein channels/mechanic receptors caused by sound Crelease neurotransmitter (glutamate) - are wave closing or opening (depending vibration , the cell depolarize hyperpolarize ! , on can or ↑ tension the channels basilar membrane moves downwards opening mechanically-gated ion = = cations enters the inner hair cells (cilia) = reduce tension (↓ tension) = depolarization = mechanically-gated ion channels close (Cations can't enter cells) levels) hyperpolarized Voltage-gated Catt channel opens ( ↑ = = calcium = release neurotransmitter = voltage-gated calcium channels close (calcium can't enter hair cell) (fire action potentials) = STOP release neurotransmitters (NO glutamate) ↳ through Vestibulocochlear nerve, to the brain (afferent pathway (No action potential  - - afferent  going up !!! * afferent pathway ↳ connected by "interneurons" connections !! ↳ In the brainster (medulla pons midbrain) , , Cof temporal lobe , superior gyrus) t I connection of these senses hearing cup-superior (middle) O-connection (some of them (cell bodies) in brainstem are crossing) cranial nerveg - - (more inferior) -cellbody  * we have Cears ↳ we have vibration through air a bones. (to feel sound waves) - making movements * hearing from the ear vs hearing through the bones ↳ better ! best hearing ↳ bone conduction air conduction Conly conduction can hear half of air conduction bone F - ⑧⑳ prove "air conduction" is better than bone conduction  auditory nerve primary auditory cortex (temporal lobe). & semi-circular (thalamus - structure for balance & O (midbrain) cochlear & (pons) goinga (medulla) What Do You Hear Perception? Our auditory perception can distinguish variations in frequency (pitch) and amplitude (loudness). Frequency theory: A theory of pitch perception stating that the brain uses the frequency of auditory sensory neuron firing to indicate pitch. o Best explains the perception of low-pitched sounds due to max. limitations. Place theory: A theory of pitch perception stating that different pitches arise from stimulation at different places along the basilar membrane. o Best explains the perception of high-pitched sounds  Higher-amplitude vibrations → greater stimulation in the basilar membrane → higher frequency of hair cell firing. o A louder sound is perceived.  Primary auditory cortex: The region of the temporal lobe where sound is processed. o Tonotopic organization: The arrangement of the auditory cortex such that nearby frequencies are processed near each other in the brain, resulting in a sound map. depending on pitch , where the cochlea is the cell stimulating of the stimulation , * depending specifically to - it's the connection depending on which region of cochlea is stimulating, in the map we compare it's also map the exact location/frequency. lobe temporal (more inferior) Sound Localization: Hearing Where Having two ears allows us to localize sound sources. Our brain compares information coming from each ear to determine relative timing (which ear receives first) and - intensity (which ear receives more). stimulation * Mainly in pons, the axons are crossing Sound Localization: Hearing Where which ear detects stimulation first. Comparing timing - Sounds coming from our right side will enter our right ear before our left ear (and vice versa). Comparing intensity Our head creates a “sound shadow” by blocking some of the sound, thus reducing the intensity of sound in the left ear when it comes from the right side (and vice versa) These minute differences in what the two ears sense allow for general localization of the sound source. Olfaction and gustation (chemical · senses (chemoreceptors) not makes connection to thalamus. · has multiple nerves involved. · chemical moves from mouth to nose (that's why the food is not good when you are sick) · most exposed to environment compare to othe senses. Olfaction Olfaction: The sense of smell. A chemical sense. Chemoreceptors) Designed to absorb airborne molecules via receptor proteins embedded in olfactory cilia on the olfactory receptor neurons. Odor molecules bind to receptors on the - - cilia like a lock-and-key system → - triggers action potentials through the bundle of receptor neuron axons → the olfactory nerve. itself.  Olfaction most exterior Epithelium: A mucous membrane in the nasal cavity. Which one contains the olfactory ↳ receptor neurons? Olfactory Epithelium (at the top of the nose) There is no clear organization of olfactory receptors neurons in the epithelium. Bourganis, V., Kammona, O., Alexopoulos, A., & Kiparissides, C. (2018). Recent advances in carrier mediated nose-to-brain delivery of pharmaceutics. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 128, 337-362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2018.05.009 Olfaction Olfactory bulb: A structure just above the nasal cavity where information is communicated to the primary olfactory cortex via the olfactory tract. Glomeruli: A spherical cluster of synapse neurons in the - olfactory bulb. - (superior to the bone) - - - - Olfactory receptor/sensory 4 neuron colfactoryreceptorsa Olfactory Transduction (in the nasal mucaus) Odorant molecule dissolves → binds to a plasma membrane protein that is coupled to another protein called G protein → activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase → chain of events producing cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) → 2nd messenger → Activates ion channels → depolarization. ↑ It - activate -Sodiumchannesens cateNatenters activates ion channels the activates the enzyme, , adenylate cylase - einteract - ↓ more ~ bring sodium into the cell ! Boccaccio, A., Menini, A. & Pifferi, S. The cyclic AMP signaling pathway in the rodent main olfactory system. Cell Tissue Res 383, 429–443 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-020-03391-7  Neuronal Types in the Olfactory Bulb: Juxtaglomerular (JG) Cells: -(in- Surround glomeruli in the glomerular layer ↳ L cells (GL). & Three distinct types: projection cells (modulate input) ~ Periglomerular (PG) cells: Interneurons S that modulate input to mitral and tufted controlling information cells. surrounded External tufted (ET) cells: (Not shown) Play a role in synchronizing olfactory signals. Superficial short-axon (sSA) cells: Involved in lateral inhibition between glomeruli. Neuronal organization of olfactory bulb circuits - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Basic-model-of-the-olfactory-bulb-network-The-illustrated-olfactory-bulb-network-is_fig1_265792442 [accessed 16 Oct 2024]  Projection Neurons: Mitral Cells: Located in the mitral cell layer (MCL). Receive input from olfactory sensory neurons. Send axons to the olfactory cortex. to olfactory tract Tufted Cells: Similar to mitral cells: project dendrites into glomeruli and form reciprocal synapses in the External Plexiform Layer with granule cells. Also project axons to the olfactory cortex. Granule Cells: Found in the granule cell layer (GCL). Axon-less interneurons with dendrites extending into projection neuron the EPL. Modulate activity of mitral and tufted cells via dendrodendritic synapses. Neuronal organization of olfactory bulb circuits - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Basic-model-of-the-olfactory-bulb-network-The-illustrated-olfactory-bulb-network-is_fig1_265792442 [accessed 16 Oct 2024]  Functions: Mitral and Tufted Cells: Primary projection neurons that carry olfactory information from the olfactory bulb to the cortex. Periglomerular Cells: Modulate input and - be help fine-tune olfactory signals at the glomerular level. (so be specific activate Granule Cells: Provide inhibitory feedback. brain can more to mitral and tufted cells, refining signal processing via dendrodendritic synapses. Neuronal organization of olfactory bulb circuits - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Basic-model-of-the-olfactory-bulb-network-The-illustrated-olfactory-bulb-network-is_fig1_265792442 [accessed 16 Oct 2024]  Olfaction found in pre-frontal cortex + anterior parts of temporal lobe ↑ it's Primary olfactory cortex: The region of the brain, located in the anterior temporal lobe, where smell is processed. (make many connection with hippocampus eamgydala) ↳ stimulate memory formation Olfactory neuropathology in Alzheimer's disease: a sign of ongoing neurodegeneration - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Scheme-of-the-olfactory-system-Left-Scheme-of-olfactory-sensory-neuron-projections_fig1_352852013 [accessed 16 Oct 2024]  -In Frontal Lobe Olfaction association cortex: is located on the underside of the frontal lobes and integrates olfactory, behavioural, cognitive, and contextual information Connections to the amygdala and hippocampus link olfaction to emotion and memory. G more to making surrounding z ↑ (glemali) (closer to (NS) Cassociation cortex) ↳ that's why  connections thalamus #No y of hippocampus - amygdala Canterior hippocampus ↑ lobe temporal ~ prefrontal cortex Gustation - Gustation -can has 3 nerves involved the part that's contactingtical Gustation: The sense of taste. - papillae A chemical sense directly - stimulated by food particles caught by tiny pores on the tongue. chemicala ↳ cell that does - - transduction.  Papillae → taste buds → tiny pores that catch food particles. o Within each pore, 50–100 taste receptors are clustered o Each respond to one of five kinds of taste molecules: Sweet S o Salty 5kindsoes o Sour o Bitter o Savory (also called umami). Each taste has an individual method of transduction: direct passage (gated ion channels), or using secondary messengers → all methods result in depolarization of the gustatory receptor cell and neurotransmitter release. Direct passage - gated ion channel. Second messenger (G protein coupled receptor) ↳ just enters use the second messenger to open the channel. Salty (sodium ions) Sweet into cells. Sour (hydrogen ions) Bitter Umami the G protein separates → activates enzymes also present on the plasma membrane (phospholipase-C or adenylate cyclase) → complex cascades → release of secondary chemical messengers → increasing calcium ion inflow or reducing potassium ion outflow.  release chemical - - 3 → Synapse with neurons of _______________ nerve = the gustatory - pathway cranial nerve 9(gla ) 17 10 (vagus nerve _ , , depends where they are From: https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/cranial-nerve-palsies  lots of nerves. tongue is receiving info from → Synapse with neurons of CN facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus nerves (X) = the gustatory pathway Trenerrate- can vomit. Jefferent) - most posteriora gue vagus nerve 10) , happening in brainster (medulla connection connected Femotion to memory (insular cortex) From: https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/cranial-nerve-palsies (in charge of olfactory) C (controlling motor function of eye) Calso eye) (controlling sensation offace) leye movement) eye motor - function nerve) (smell , taste , gustation) (facial (hearing balance , staste) nerves system). Staste, controlling sympathetic (movement of neck) (tongue  Thalamus & ↑ cellati 10 [ofbrainster. different. ↳ connect everything. * 3 ganglians. with other neurons ! Gustation The brain identifies a particular taste by the pattern of activation across receptor types. (bunch chemicals) of The primary gustatory cortex is located in the insular cortex (an extension of the somatosensory cortex that represents internal body states). Gustation Taste preferences and aversions have evolutionary foundations to promote increased nutrition and prevent intake of poison or disease. by vagus nerve. The perception of taste is a multisensory experience: Temperature, texture, olfaction, and vision all participate. Both what we expect and our cultural experience affect our experience of taste.