Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

Lecture Exercises 1) Ray studies very hard for his spelling test and earns a B+. His dad says “great job” and Raymond studies even harder for the next test. a) Target behavior: studying b) Is it reinforcement or punishment: it resulted in increasing (reinforcement)...

Lecture Exercises 1) Ray studies very hard for his spelling test and earns a B+. His dad says “great job” and Raymond studies even harder for the next test. a) Target behavior: studying b) Is it reinforcement or punishment: it resulted in increasing (reinforcement) c) Was the consequence added or taken away: Positive i) It is positive reinforcement 2) A person addicted to heroin starts to go through withdrawal and experiences tremors and pain. He continues to use heroin to remove the pain of withdrawals a) Target Behavior: use of heroin b) Is it reinforcement or punishment: tremors and pain/ the use of heroin takes it away (reinforcement) c) Was the consequence added or taken away: the punishment was taken away i) Negative reinforcement 3) Shawn has a headache. They take an aspirin and their pain goes away. They now take an aspirin every time they have a headache to get rid of their pain. a) Target Behavior: taking aspirin b) Reinforcement or punishment: reinforcement (increased the use of aspirin to get rid of headaches ) c) Positive or negative: negative-taking away the headaches i) Negative Reinforcement 4) You are late getting home from your date. Your parents take away your dating privileges. a) Target behavior: being late b) Reinforcement or punishment: Punishment because they are trying to decrease the amount of times you arrive late c) Negative or positive: negative, because they are taking a wanted privilege away from you i) Negative Punishment Lecture Notes: - Unit 7 Operant Conditioning: learning through voluntary behavior and its subsequent consequences - Reinforcement - Something that increases behavior - Punishment - Something the decreases behavior - Ex. time outs Edward Thorndike Frequency of a behavior is controlled by its consequences Law of Effect ○ Responses that produce a satisfying effect or more likely to occur again ○ Responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again Thorndike's puzzle box ○ Cats in a box where if they pressed the pedal it would open the door so that they could get to the food B.F Skinner Focused on observable behaviors and responses (not subjective elements like feelings) reinforcement= something that increases behavior ○ Primary Reinforcers Unlearned/ innate Food, water, sex, connection, endorphins ○ Secondary Reinforcers Learned Money, video game quests, stickers/tokens punishment= something that decreases behavior ○ Primary Punishers unlearne/ innate Pain, deprivation ○ Secondary Punishers Learned Legal consequences, fines, low grades Positive vs Negative - Positive: adding a stimulus - Negative: taking away a stimulus Questions to ask yourself when trying to figure out what type of operant conditioning it is? 1) What is the target behaviors 2) Was it increasing or decreasing behavior?  3) Are we adding or taking away something? 4) Is the stimulus wanted or unwanted? Positive Negative Reinforcement Adding something wanted Removing a stimulus the is ( the arrival of delicious food) not wanted ( removal of cold) Punishment Adding unwanted stimulus Removing a wanted stimulus (yelling, or physical or thing punishment, fines) ( revoking someone's privileges) Classical vs operant conditioning Classical conditioning is based on what happens before we involuntarily response ○ Something happens to use we learn a new response Operant conditioning is based on what happens after we voluntarily perform a behavior ○ We do something and learn from the consequences Effective Use of reinforcement and punishment Provide clear directions and feedback Use appropriate timing and order of presentation Be consistent ○ If a parent starts out saying “no” to whining, but then gives in what has been negatively reinforced and what is positively reinforced Combine key learning principles ○ Reinforced appropriate behavior extinguish inappropriate behavior, punish extreme inappropriate behavior Operant conditioning: principles 1 and 2 ( same a classical conditioning) Acquisition ○ An organism voluntarily links a response with a consequence (such as a reward) Generalization ○ An organism voluntarily responds to a new stimulus as if it were the previously conditioned stimulus Dis rumination ○ The learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and to respond accordingly Extinction ○ A gradual diminishing of a response when it is no longer reinforced Principles #5 & 6 (dif from classical conditioning) Shaping ○ Rewarding successive approximations of a task Schedules of reinforcement ○ Specific patterns of reinforcement that determine when a behavior will be reinforced may be fixed or variable Ratio schedules (response based) Fixed ratio: buy 9 get the 10th free Variable ratio: gambling (don't know how many times you have to pull a lever to win) Interval schedules (time based) Fixed interval: paycheck Variable interval: pop quizzes Lecture Notes- Unit 7 Learning 1) Classical condition (salivating) a) Automatic/involuntary behaviors b) Pairing 2) Operant Conditioning (sitting) a) Voluntary behaviors b) Reinforcement and punishment Classical Conditioning 1) Pavlov's dog a) Unconditional stimulus i) food b) Unconditional response i) The action of salivating when smelling food c) Neutral stimulus i) The bell d) Conditioned stimulus i) The bell with the food e) Conditioned response i) Salivating to the sound of the bell indicating that food will be coming Lecture Notes- Unit 6 States of Consciousness - Melatonin: a hormone that is released for sleep - Released around 10pm for adults - Released around 1am for teenagers - Sleep deprivation - Reduced cognitive functioning - Lessened motor functioning - Irritability and other mood alterations - Increased cortisol levels - Greater risk for illness and disease - Reduces your immune function - Higher rate of obesity - Stages of Sleep - Various stages - 90 minute cyclical pattern - 4 cycles of light to deep to light sleep - REM vs nonREM sleep - rem = rapid eye movement/dream sleep - NREM: non rapid eye movement- 3 stages Stages 1) Awake: low voltage, high frequency beta waves 2) Drowsy: Alpha waves prominent 3) NREM Stage 1 SLeep: theta waves prominent 4) NREM Stage 2: sleep spindles and mixed EEG activity 5) NREM stage 3 sleep: slow wave deepest sleep progressively more delta waves 6) REM sleep: low voltage, high frequency waves a) Muscle antonia: muscles are paralyzed (to protect us) Sleep theories 1) adaptation/protection theory a) Conserve energy and protect from predators 2) Repair/restoration theory a) Recuperate from daily activities 3) Growth/development theory a) More sleep during stages of brain growth 4) Learning/memory theory a) More REM sleep during peak learning stages Dream Theories 1) Wish fulfillment: unacceptable desired that are normally repressed emerge in dreams a) Manifest content: storyline of the dream b) Latent content: what the dream represents 2) Activation synthesis: dreams are the brain's way of making sense of random electrical stimulation occurring during REM 3) Cognitive: dreams organize and interpret information from waking experience into memories Common Dream themes - Being attacked or pursued - Falling - Sexual experiences - Being lost - Being paralyzed - Flying - Being naked in public - School teachers studying - Arriving too late - Death of a love one or dead people as being alive Dreaming and age - Infants sleep around 14 hours and 40% in REM - An adult sleeps about 7.5 hours with 20% of that in REM - Old age of 70 and up sleeps only 6 hours with 14% of that in REM Dream Facts 1) Everyone dreams (2 hours); 95% of dreams forgotten 2) Some people dream only in black and white 3) Animals most likely dream 4) Lucid dreaming: 50% endorse at least one instance 5) REM atonia: paralysis of voluntary muscles a) Can carry over to sleep paralysis Lecture Notes- Week 6 - Balancing academic and athletics - Perfectionism and athlete identity influence mental health - Outline of mental health concerns and intervention strategies - Athletic participation can positively affect mental health  - Reduce risk of depression Dual identity stress 1) Travel and training demands 2) Academic challenges and the team player dilemma 3) Criticism of NCAA for lack of academic support Social Challenges and Relationship dynamics 1) Student athletes face complex relationships 2) Power imbalances Opportunities for intervention 1) Transition from high school to college 2) Injury recovery and rehabilitation 3) Transition out of sports upon graduation Frances - Illustrating mental health challenges in a student athlete - Transition to injury isolation from team - Developed of depressive symptoms - Successful intervention with counseling and support groups LGBTQ+ Psychology - Faces higher risks for mental health conditions than the heterosexual and cisgender population - Stigma and discrimination create stress which makes it difficult to seek treatment - Individuals are more than twice as likely to experience mental health conditions - Transgender and non binary are 4x as likely to have suicidal thoughts - Individuals avoid medical care due to fear of discrimination - Lack of adequate mental health care/ necessary training (even compassionate clinicians) - Substance misuses is higher, as a way to cope with mental health stress - Can lead to addiction, job loss, and higher risk of STDs Lecture Notes- Week 6 States of Consciousness (forgetting) Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve - Forgetting definition: the inability to remember information that was previously available  - Forgetting curve - We begin to forget immediately after learning something and it continues to decrease as time goes on Adaptive aspects of forgetting - Weeding out unimportant information - No way to prioritize important information - Forgetting traumatic events Forgetting theories 1) Decay theory a) use it or lose it i) Memory is stored in the form of connections between neurons (physical) 2) Interference theory a) Competing memories i) Retroactive interference: new information makes you forget old information ii) Proactive interference: old information interferes with ability to remember new information 3) Motivated forgetting theory a) Forgetting on purpose i) People forget unpleasant or anxiety producing information either consciously or unconsciously (Freud) 4) Encoding failure theory a) The information was never recorded i) Sensory information traveled into STM but didn't get encoded into LTM ii) Failure to attend to details may result in partial encoding 5) Retrieval Failure a) Its there but it's just not available i) Tip of the tongue phenomenon: the information has been encoding but temporarily cant be retrieved 6) Misinformation Effect a) Results from misleading information being presented after an event i) This alters the memories of the event ii) Study (1) What color was the telephone (98% remembered a phone) vs “Was there a telephone in the room?” (10% remembered a phone) 7) Serial Position Effect a) Primary: information at the beginning of the list is easier to recall  b) Recency: information at the end of the list (more recent exposure) is easier to recall Factors that influence forgetting 1) Culture: in cultures with strong oral traditions children have better memories for information in stories Biological bases of Memory 1) Traumatic brain injury (TBI) a) A main cause of neurological disorders in those 15-25 2) Amnesia (disordered form of forgetting) a) A generalized difficulty retrieving more widespread and general old memories or forming new one b) Two main types i) Retrograde (1) Difficulty in retrieving old memories (consolidation failure) (2) Alzehimers disease (AD) (a) A progressive mental deterioration that occurs most commonly in old age (i) Symptoms 1. Disturbance in memory 2. Is explicit or implicit memory more affected 3. Especially affects explicit/declarative memory, including facts, information and personal life experiences ii) Anterograde (1) Difficulty forming new memories Ways eyewitness errors can occur 1) Collaboration of witnesses after a crime 2) Leading questions a) Can create false memories b) These can multiply over time and last for years States of consciousness 1) Consciousness: the state of awareness of ourselves and our environment 2) Altered state of consciousness a) Temporary state b) Occurs during sleep and dreaming  c) May be the result of psychoactive drug use or hypnosis Levels of awareness 1) Controlled processes a) Require focused attention b) Can interfere with other activities 2) Automatic processes a) Required minimal attention 3) Subconscious 4) Unconscious a) Fully unconscious when in a coma or under anesthesia Lecture Notes- Week 5 Memory: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval Model Steps in Memory 1) Encoding: process information into our brains initial memory system 2) Storage: store the information in our brain just as computer stores information on a hard drive 3) Retrieval: We can recover and view stored information in our brain later on> Similarly files on a computer and brought to the screen for viewing Three Stage Memory Model 1) Sensory a) Information that enters through the five senses b) Remains only long enough for relevant pieces to be transferred to the next memory stage c) Remaining sensory information degrades to make room for newer stimuli Iconic Visual Memory Test: - Lasts up to ½ a second Echoic (auditory) memory - Lasts up to 2-4 seconds 2) Short term memory/ working memory a) Active processing and temporary storage b) Sends and receives information to and from the long term memory c) Limited capacity (7 unique pieces of information) i) Can be expanded through chunking (grouping pieces of information together) d) Short duration(30 seconds)  i) Can be extended through maintenance rehearsal 3) Long term memory a) Stores information for long periods of time b) Capacity is virtually unlimited c) Duration is relatively permanent d) Divided into various memory types i) explicit/declarative (1) declare/describe what's going on (2) Two subtypes (a) Semantic memory (facts, general knowledge) (i) Mental encyclopedia or dictionary (b) episodic memory (autobiographical events and contexts) (i) Like a mental diary ii) implicit/nondeclarative (1) Memory without conscious recall (2) Three sub types (a) Procedural memory (how to do certain things) (b) Classically conditioned memory (phobias) (c) Priming (predisposed to remember retrieval facilitated by earlier exposure) Improving long term memory 1) Organization a) The use of hierarchies/categories/subsets 2) Rehearsal a) Elaborative rehearsal (deeper processing focus on understanding not memorizing) 3) Retrieval a) The use of cues 4) Encoding specificity 5) Using the memory in the same context in which it was learned 6) State dependent retrieval a) Your mood state( drunk related learning) i) Happy when learning something (1) Able to elicit it when your happy 7) Mnemonic a) Strategy device using familiar information during encoding to assist recall Forgetting  - Definition: the inability to remember information that was previously available - Ebbinghaus research: forgetting occurs soon after we learn something, forgetting then gradually tapers off, relearning takes less time than the initial learning took Lecture Exercise 1) Earliest Memory: When I was 4 years old I remember watching Mary Poppins and the scene where she flew away with the umbrella freaked me out. Later that week my mom and I went on a walk and got caught in a storm and our umbrella flew away during a lightning storm so now I get freaked out whenever I’m outside in windy weather with an umbrella. ( This would be classically conditioned memory or priming) Semantic Memory: Procedural Memory: I know how to make chocolate chip cookies without a recipe since I’ve made them so many times Classically Conditioned Memory: the one above Priming: Whenever I listen to one specific song it always brings me back to a presentation that I made in 6th grade because I would listen to it on repeat for about 5 days straight as I was working on it.