Sociology Past Paper PDF

T.me/SleepyClasses www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 1 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Chapter – 2...

T.me/SleepyClasses www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 1 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Chapter – 2 Syllabus Science, Scientific method and Critique Major theoretical strands of research methodology Positivism and its critique Fact value and objectivity Non-positivist methodologies 2 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Science, Scientific methods and critique I will begin by telling you 2 stories. o One of Thomas Kuhn. o Another of Karl Popper. Kuhn in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions talks of a generic idea of ‘paradigms’, which is a world view. He defines paradigms as “universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners.” It says that how with time one world view replaces another. And that it has been considered valuable across so many areas of knowledge. Kuhn also touches on the fact that paradigms exist not only in science, but are the natural human way of comprehending the world. When a paradigm is replaced by another one, the world itself seems to change. He says that paradigms can have integrity, providing most of the answers to most of the questions asked of them in their day, and yet also be fundamentally wrong. Real discovery begins with recognition of anomalies, or nature acting in a way that it is not meant to. Scientists don’t know what to do with these facts, and so they are not ‘scientific’ until they have found a home in an existing theory. Kuhn makes a distinction between Normal and revolutionary science. ‘Normal’ science is based on the assumption that the scientific community knows what the world is like. Normal science tends to suppress anomalous facts because they are a road block in a pre- committed theoretical path. Scientific revolutions, on the other hand, Kuhn says are the “tradition shattering complements to the tradition-bound activity of normal science.” It is the type of scientific thinking or research which can cause revolutions in how we see the world. Since paradigm change is not a rational process, but rather a gulf between what different parties see, paradigms do not compete. They cannot agree on the methodology to tackle problems, or even on the language needed to describe them; the paradigms are ‘incommensurable’, Kuhn says, because they have no common standard by which to judge each other. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 3 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Karl Popper Karl Popper in 1934 wrote The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Popper believed that the purpose of philosophy or its application was to bring clarity to real-world problems; it must seek to tell us something about our place in the universe. He said, “whenever we propose a solution to a problem, we ought to try as hard as we can to overthrow our solution, rather than defend it.” In other words, philosophy and science could no longer be about finding evidence to prove a theory – this wasn’t rigorous enough. A real philosopher or scientist would work to prove themselves wrong, attempting to find the holes in any existing theory. Only then might knowledge be worthy of its name. Popper was critical of inductive thinking being used in philosophy and science. Inductivism attempts to prove something by proving something based on the observations made in favour of the statement. For example, from the observation that all the swans we have seen are white, we assert that ‘swans are white’. But Popper says that we only need one case where this is not true. As for instance, when black swans were discovered in Australia to realise that inductive reasoning is faulty. Popper says that theories are never ultimately and conclusively verifiable, they are only “provisional conjectures” which can find apparent corroboration. On Positivism He believes that positivism considered itself an ultra-empirical movement and fell for the inductive illusion by claiming that something was only true if it could be shown in a positive sense to be so. But this is not enough. Given the problems of inductive logic, to arrive at any semblance of knowledge you have to come at a problem from the negative angle, to relentlessly identify what clearly isn’t true. He notes that scientific laws tend to have credibility when it is clear where they do not apply. 4 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses David Deutsch (Book – “The Beginning of Infinity”) The Reach of Explanations: o Empiricism as a step forward from what Philosophies dominated during the Middle Ages. Flaws of inductivism: o Logical gaps following from the fact that there is no natural law of Induction. o The Future doesn't resemble the past. o Most of Science predicts how things work that no one of us has ever experienced. o The deceptiveness of the senses. Fallibilism is the recognition that there are no authoritative sources of knowledge, nor any reliable means of justifying ideas as being true or probable. o Even the best explanations contain misconceptions in addition to truth. Popper: all our observations are theory-laden. o Testability alone is not enough. Explanations are required. What is a problem: It is a situation where there is a conflict between our existing explanations and our expected explanation criterion that is not met. Solving a problem means creating an explanation that doesn't have the conflict. “Theories can contradict each other, but there are no contradictions in reality.” Even testable, explanatory theories cannot be the crucial ingredient that made the difference between no-progress and Progress. Myth are both testable and explanatory, but they are prone to the change of the explanation - without losing the ability to be testable. That freedom to make drastic changes is the fundamental flaw. “Science is what we have learned about how to keep from fooling ourselves” -Richard Feynman Along with testability and explainability, we need better explanations. o Good explanations are hard to vary. o Why this explanation and not another? o Only after this requirement is met, it makes sense to check their testability. Great explanations reach and solve the problems beyond those they were created to solve. The axis-tilt theory is originally proposed to explain the seasons on Earth but it reaches and explains (at least partly) how Temperature changes on any planet. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 5 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Sociology is a science or not Now when we have listened to these stories, let us try to find out if Sociology is a science or not? Sociology emerged due to challenges posed before modernity. Initial sociologists wanted to develop Sociology on basis of natural science- Saint Simon (social physics), August Comte (statistics and dynamics), Herbert Spencer (organismic analogy), Durkheim (moral density, moral volume). But it was found sociology could not stand all parameters of natural science so debate started whether ‘sociology is a science’. Conception of science has changed – enlightenment ideologies consider it as a body of knowledge (empirical (observed)/testable (verified)/uniform laws) based on natural science. Karl Popper argues that only positivism is not science because it overlooks aberration and kills the critical spirit of science. Gradually science came to be understood as method of enquiry or approach based on evidence and reason. Karl Popper says that science is not a body of knowledge but a method of approaching and studying phenomenon. Science has four preconditions Intersubjective reliability: (Intersubjectivity between people is there if they agree on a given set of meanings or a definition of the situation. It refers to shared meanings constructed by people in their interactions with each other and used as an everyday resource to interpret the meaning of elements of social and cultural life) Objectivity in research Quantifiability of the phenomenon Theoretical orientation 6 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Why Sociology can be believed to be a Science: Intersubjective reliability (class, caste, family, etc.) Objectivity (absolute not possible but training – Durkheim and Weber used scientific methods to ensure it) Quantifiability (social phenomenon can be observed albeit directly/indirectly- Durkheim social facts and Weber- Ideal types) Theoretical orientation (sociology has made theories but valid in specific socio-cultural context; Durkheim theory of religion and Parsons’ theory of social system claimed to be universal theory) But there are also arguments against that why Sociology can’t be seen as a Science: Limitations w.r.t natural science (empiricism, testability, universal theories and absolute objectivity) But if seen as method of enquiry, sociology fulfils all conditions. Natural science – astronomy is considered a science but experimentation not possible. MAX WEBER– difference in subject matter (human beings have consciousness). So, sociology is a science in itself. Natural sciences go for statement of facts while social sciences go for statements of value. Wilhelm Windelband and Heinrich Rickert (neo kantians) introduced concepts of nomothetic (based on facts/empiricism/ tendency to generalize) and idiographic (based on tendency to specify/ subjective interpretations/ suited to humanities). So, methodology, approach towards knowledge and theorizing is different for social science. Erving Goffman and GH Mead used different approach to understand social phenomenon. Science can, thus, be seen as – o Methodology (positivism/non positivism) o Spirit (critical) o Purpose (to know the truth) o Consequences (curiosity and solving the problem) www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 7 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Scientific method Method/ procedure followed while conducting a research. It has many stages: 1. Identification of problem of research 2. Review of Literature 3. Construction of Hypothesis 4. Collection of Data 5. Checking Reliability and Validity 6. Testing Hypothesis with Facts 7. Develop General Laws and Theories 8. Presentation of Data (needs to be objective and no place for prejudice and emotions) Criticism to Scientific method Method is just a means to an end Scientific method is just one method among many Glorification of one method is bad for growth of knowledge Scientific method is based on induction and it does not promote refutability Science makes relative prediction (meteorology, space) Difference between science and pseudo-science (where prediction starts e.g. Sigmund Freud theory) Thomas Kuhn (Book ‘The Structure of Scientific Revolutions’) Scientific revolution is a continuous, collective method. Even with non-scientific methods, many disciplines have grown and matured – e.g. history, philosophy. A researcher in scientific method also makes certain assumptions so don’t glorify. Today science is colonised by state or capitalist. Science should be given freedom. 8 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Theodor Adorno 17-18th century- science attempted to study nature. 19th century: science attempted to exploit nature. 20th century: warhead, destructive power of science 21st century: colonised by state and capitalists (tech- which curtails choices and freedom). So we should not celebrate science. Carl Jung (Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist) Subjective things like happiness, beauty, knowledge, pleasure etc. cannot be measured with scientific methods. So methodology should be discipline specific. Paul Feyerabend Scientific method is a form of ‘epistemology anarchism’, i.e. Science has spread anarchy that any discipline not following scientific method should not be taken seriously. Science can’t deal with human problems. Behavioural sciences researchers should be given freedom. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 9 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Major theoretical strands of Research Methodology Sociology is commonly described as one of the social sciences. Science refers to a body of systematically arranged knowledge that shows the operation of general laws. Sociology also employs the same general methods of investigation that are used in the natural sciences. Like the natural scientists, sociologists use the scientific method, a process by which a body of scientific knowledge is built through o Observation o Experimentation o Generalization o Verification. The collection of data is an important aspect of the scientific method. But facts alone do not constitute a science. To have any meaning, facts must be ordered in some way, analyzed, generalized, and related to other facts. This is known as theory construction. Theories help organize and interpret facts and relate them to previous findings of other researchers. Unlike other means of inquiry, science generally limits its investigations to things that can be observed directly or that produce directly observable events. This is known as empiricism: the view that generalizations are valid only if they rely on evidence that can be observed directly or verified through our senses. Positivism We have already discussed it in bits and pieces in our previous lessons. Let us have a look at what positivism means in greater detail. o The word positivism is derived from the French word positivisme, in turn, derived from positif. o In its philosophical sense, it means ‘Imposed on the mind by experience’. o Positivism asserts that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific. 10 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses We need to discuss it more to get greater clarity. I’d want you all to listen to this story of August Comte. Comte argued that, much as the physical world operates according to gravity and other absolute laws, so does society, and further developed positivism into a Religion of Humanity. (Just read it leisurely on Wikipedia) Auguste Comte’s Positivism Auguste Comte (1798–1857) first described the epistemological perspective of positivism in Course in Positive Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. These texts were followed by the 1844 work, A General View of Positivism. The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in existence (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasized the inevitable coming of social science. Observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and classifying the sciences in this way, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term. For him, the physical sciences had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. His View of Positivism, therefore, set out to define the empirical goals of sociological method. The most important thing to determine was the natural order in which the sciences stand—not how they can be made to stand, but how they must stand, irrespective of the wishes of anyone. This Comte accomplished by taking as the criterion of the position of each the degree of what he called “positivity”, which is: “simply the degree to which the phenomena can be exactly determined” This, as may be readily seen, is also a measure of their relative complexity, since the exactness of a science is in inverse proportion to its complexity. The degree of exactness or positivity is, moreover, that to which it can be subjected to mathematical demonstration, and therefore mathematics, which is not itself a concrete science, is the general gauge by which the position of every science is to be determined. Generalizing thus, Comte found that there were five great groups of phenomena of equal classificatory value but of successively decreasing positivity. To these he gave the names astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 11 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Auguste Comte’s Idea of Social Evolution Comte offered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general “law of three stages”. Comte intended to develop a secular-scientific ideology in the wake of European secularisation. Comte’s stages were (TMP): o The Theological o The Metaphysical o The Positive Theological Phase The theological phase of man was based on whole-hearted belief in all things with reference to God. God, Comte says, had reigned supreme over human existence pre-Enlightenment. Humanity’s place in society was governed by its association with the divine presence and with the church. The theological phase deals with humankind's accepting the doctrines of the church (or place of worship) rather than relying on its rational powers to explore basic questions about existence. It dealt with the restrictions put in place by the religious organization at the time and the total acceptance of any “fact” adduced for society to believe. Metaphysical Phase Comte describes the metaphysical phase of humanity as the time since the Enlightenment, a time steeped in logical rationalism, to the time right after the French Revolution. This second phase states that the universal rights of HUMANITY are most important. The central idea is that humanity is invested with certain rights that must be respected. In this phase, democracies and dictators rose and fell in attempts to maintain the innate rights of humanity. 12 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Positive Phase The final stage of the trilogy of Comte's universal law is the scientific, or positive stage. The central idea of this phase is that individual rights are more important than the rule of any one person. Comte stated that the idea of humanity's ability to govern itself makes this stage inherently different from the rest. There is no higher power governing the masses and the intrigue of any one person can achieve anything based on that individual's free will. Auguste Comte’s Positivism Comte calls these three phases the universal rule in relation to society and its development. Neither the second nor the third phase can be reached without the completion and understanding of the preceding stage. All stages must be completed in progress. Positivism aims at understanding the world as cause and effect relations that can be observed. Verified data (positive facts) received from the senses are known as empirical evidence; thus, positivism is based on empiricism. Positivism’s 3 Constituents Positivism draws from – o Empiricism (what is seen or observable) o Inductivism (supremacy of facts) o Naturalism (influence of external environment on actions) Positivism also holds that society, like the physical world, operates according to general laws. Introspective and intuitive knowledge is rejected. Positivism & John Locke John Locke was one of the first proponents of it. He was both an empiricist and an inductivist. He desired to understand or describe the world as a sequence of cause and effects between objects that can be observed. Positivism has had a great influence on enlightenment ideologies. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 13 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Positivism & Early Sociologists For example Saint Simon – Sociology as Social Physics. Herbert Spencer - Advocated Organismic Analogy to study Society. Auguste Comte introduced positivism in Sociology. He, in his books ‘Course in Positive Philosophy’ and ‘System of Positive Polity’ aimed at Studying Sociology as a Natural Science. He also emphasized Sociological Positivism Objects are real not by material presence but in terms of their effects also. Sociology to be studied using methodologies like: o Reductional Analysis o Causal Analysis o Comparative Analysis o Generalisations. Positivism & Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim – His bringing forth the concept of social facts further enriched Positivism as applicable to Sociology. He advocated recording even those things which are not directly observable but affect humans from outside. For example, Customs, Belief Systems, etc. o He used it in developing theories of Division of Labour (DOL), Religion, Suicide. Positivism & Merton Merton – Used in his study of Reference Group Behaviour. Collected data on American Soldiers to show Relative Deprivation. 14 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Positivism & Marx Karl Marx – His works used data from history. He is a positivist yet not a positivist. While discussing Capitalism – He is a positivist. While discussing Exploitation – He is a Revolutionary. While discussing Communism – He is a Romantic Philosopher. Elements of positivism can be summarised as Study of observable phenomena and collecting information for the same. Rejecting the study of the internal side. Use of scientific methods initially supposed to be similar to natural Sciences. But later more specific methods were devised. Example – Durkheim’s theory of suicide classical exhibition of positivist methodology conclusions drawn using multivariate analysis. Also, Durkheim – Use of data on Suicide Rates, Religious membership. Stress on Universal theories. Creation of testable knowledge, i.e., reliability Emphasising absolute objectivity, total value freedom. Criticism Obsession for positivism has been lost but it provided the initial motivation for sociology to establish. Various problems 1. Interpretative School – Weber, Dilthey – Not possible to study human behaviour using methods of natural sciences. 2. Sociology should be concerned with SU of OR (Subjective Understanding of Objective Reality) 3. Post Modernists – Derrida, Foucault – Reality can be studied in many ways. 4. Interactionist – Mead, Cooley, Blumer- Actions and Interactions result in Social Actions. 5. Phenomenologist – Peter Berger, Schutz – Generalisations not possible. Positivism is not concerned with Sociology but is concerned with making Science out of Sociology. Social realities are made, dismantled, and remade. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 15 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses 6. Ethnomethodologists – Garfinkel – Reality be studied from People’s perspective and not the Researcher’s perspective. 7. Positivists themselves divided between the use of Inductivism or deductivism. 8. Paul Feyerabend – Gave the idea of anti-methodology. 9. Alvin Gouldner – Reflexive Sociology (individual reflects on his/her own actions) 10. Anthony Giddens – Theory of Structuration 11. RK Merton – Over emphasizing Universal theories. Instead, use Middle-Ranged theories. 12. Gunnar Myrdal - Complete objectivity is not desirable. 13. Intestability of various positivist theories. Like Parsons. Jurgen Habermas – Since humans study humans, thus, complete separation of facts and values is not possible. Max Horkheimer – Positivism is engaged in ‘objective anarchism’, an obsession to study everything objectively. 16 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Non – Positivist Methodologies In order to understand non-Positivist thought, Let’s revise what is Positivist thought. Positivism Oxford Dictionary of Sociology discusses positivism as follows- o Today, positivism signifies adherence to an empiricist view of the nature of science, and the project of a scientific approach to the study of social life on the empiricist model. o Sociological Positivism- objects are real not by material presence but in terms of their effects also. o Auguste Comte introduced positivism in Sociology. To him, positivism was a philosophy of science, a framework for understanding history, a source of morality, and a solution to the social and political problems of his day. Positivism aims at understanding the world as cause-and-effect relations that can be observed. It draws from- o Empiricism (what is seen or observable) o Inductivism (supremacy of facts) o Naturalism (influence of external environment on actions) o Faith in cause and effect and the possibility to find it. Positivism has influence on enlightenment ideologies Neo-Positivism It places considerable emphasis on statistical analysis in the social sciences and tended towards falsificationism. Neo-positivism takes phenomena from physical world as models for social events and uses the laws of the former to explain the latter Dodd, Ogburn, Zipf are considered to be the leading exponents of neo-positivism www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 17 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Post-Positivism Accepts that reality is independent of our thinking about it, and that observation and measurement are at the core of a scientific endeavour. Accepts that observation is laden with theory, beliefs and values. Recognises that observation can contain error. Observation is fallible and theory revisable. That researchers are inherently biased by their cultural and social/political positioning and experience. Non – Positivist Methodologies Why the need of Non–Positivist Methodologies Positivist assumptions questioned by ‘idealists’ traditions. o Kant – Ideas are important, as they change society. o It drew from hermeneutics i.e. study of interpretation. o Society is highly subjective so the emphasis is on understanding (or interpretation) as an explanation is not possible. Martin Heidegger talks about how the interpretation of text and context will give ‘what is’ and ‘what ought to be’. Wilhelm Dilthey says that reality should be understood in three different ways o Experience o Expression (opinion of others) 18 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses o Comprehension (interpreting information) Remember how Heinrich Rickert and W. Windelband differentiated b/w nomothetic and idiographic. Georg Simmel says that reality is objective but knowledge about reality is subjective. Cause-consequence relationship is not constant in behavioral science. It depends on mood, intentions, situation. Max Weber (interpretative) Symbolic interactionism (GH Mead) Phenomenology (Alfred Schutz – Peter Berger) Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel) (Louis Dumont in India) General Elements of Non–Positivist Methodologies Emphasis on Internal sides Scientific methods as natural science cannot be used in social science No general theory Futility of objective approach. Vague methods (verstehen) Dependence on the ability of the investigator Time consuming and costly Contradictory explanations (various Ideal types for the same phenomenon) Reliability and validity cannot be achieved. Conclusion Ray Pawson: 60s hangover. Alan Bryman: choice of methodology depends on the type of research. Emphasis is on purposive research. Post-modernist: No knowledge is untrue, voices of diverse groups be encouraged, meta- narratives. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 19 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses More Details on Non–Positivist Methodologies Ethnomethodology It seeks to understand the method by which individuals o Construct o Negotiate and o Agree upon reality It questions the possibility of an objective science of the subjective human condition. People are seen as accomplishing their everyday lives through a variety of artful practices. Ethnomethodology is the study of the everyday practices used by ordinary members of society in order to deal with their day-to-day lives. Heritage, Linstead Define it as: The study of “the body of common-sense knowledge and the range of procedures and considerations by means of which the ordinary members of society make sense of, find their way about in, and act on the circumstances in which they find themselves.” Ethnomethodology is certainly not a macrosociology in the sense intended by Durkheim with his concept of a social fact, but its adherents do not see it as a microsociology either. Ethnomethodologists are interested in neither micro structures nor macro structures. They are concerned with the artful practices that produce both types of structures. Hilbert argues that ethnomethodology “transcends” the micro-macro issue because it is concerned “with social practices” [membership practices]. These are the methods of producing both: microstructure and macrostructure as well as any presumed ‘linkage’ between these two. Zimmerman writes: Ethnomethodology, like sociology itself, encompasses a number of more or less distinct and sometimes incompatible lines of inquiry. Various Problems with Ethnomethodology Its continued exclusion from mainstream sociology- o Sociologists view it as focusing on trivial matters and ignoring the crucially important issues confronting society today. The accusation that it has lost sight of cognitive processes. The inability to deal adequately with social structures. 20 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses The loss of its original radical quality. The tension between ethnomethodologists and conversation analysts. Ethnomethodology – Concluding Lines This body of knowledge is “analytically primary to any theory of social action” and “consideration of these issues can be made an integral part of the theory of action” and constitutes significant research questions. Garfinkel’s approach is “to detect some expectancies that lend commonplace scenes their familiar, life-as-usual character, and to relate these to the stable social structures of everyday activities” Phenomenology Rejection of positivism by phenomenologists Phenomenologists argue that the subject matter of the social and natural sciences is fundamentally different. As a result, the methods and assumptions of the natural sciences are inappropriate to the study of man. While natural sciences deal with matter and to understand and explain the behavior of matter, it is sufficient to observe it from the outside. Unlike matter, man has consciousness- thoughts, feelings, meanings, intentions and an awareness of being. Man cannot simply observe action from the outside and impose an external logic upon it. He must interpret the internal logic which directs the actions of the actor. The naturalistic paradigm, the countermovement of the positivist paradigm, presumed that reality was not fixed but based on individual and subjective realities. The philosophy of phenomenology allied closely with the naturalistic paradigm. Phenomenologists assumed that knowledge was achieved through interactions between researchers and participants. Therefore, phenomenological research was considered subjective, inductive, and dynamic. Phenomenology will be seen to play the role of constantly modifying the ‘discoveries’ of positivism: o According to Edmund Husserl, objectivity or mind is never value-free or disembodied. o All objectivity is value-laden or occurs as worldly, social, cultural. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 21 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses o This view contrasts with the positivist notion that objectivity is the sole reality, and value-free. o Further, Husserl believed in mind-body continuum, hence rejecting two extremes: thinking alone or objectivism, and mere embodiment or subjectivism. Peter Berger argues that society has often been viewed as a puppet theatre with its members portrayed as ‘little puppets jumping about on the ends of their invisible strings, cheerfully acting out the parts that have been assigned to them.’ However, from a phenomenological perspective man does not merely react and respond to an external society, he is not simply acted upon, he acts. In human’s interaction with others, he creates his own meanings and constructs his own reality and therefore directs his own actions. The phenomenologists attack an ontological basis which the positivists do not believe exists. (Ontological basis means that basis which deals with our existence). Phenomenologists claim that acceptance of the basis of their theories entails rejection of causal explanation. Alfred Schutz comes from the perspective of applied phenomenology. He considers sociology as the study of “lived history,” or human institutions within which we find chronological or day to day history. He points out that human beings see, hear, and move within value parameters. Social structures comprise “lived history,” and are the context within which “chronological history” makes sense. Phenomenology Phenomenology is a research approach aimed at the study of the variability of human experience of social phenomenon. A key concern of the phenomenologist is to capture a subject’s immediate pre-reflexive experience of a phenomenon that is before it is conceptualized, theorized, categorized, or reflected upon. The objective of phenomenology is to describe the barest contents of human experience, “the things themselves.” The body is the access to the world and the means by which experience occurs. Lived experience is layered with meanings, and description in phenomenology aims to peel away the layers. Phenomenology can provide social researchers with a deeper understanding of the meaning of social phenomena. 22 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), a German mathematician, founded the philosophical movement of phenomenology. o Husserl believed that phenomenology suspended all suppositions, was related to consciousness, and was based on the meaning of the individual’s experience. o It involves the systematic investigation of consciousness. Husserl rejected the belief that objects in the external world exist independently and that the information about objects is reliable. He argued that people can be certain about how things appear in, or present themselves to, their consciousness. To arrive at certainty, anything outside immediate experience must be ignored, and in this way the external world is reduced to the contents of personal consciousness. Realities are thus treated as pure ‘phenomena’ and the only absolute data from where to begin. Husserl named his philosophical method ‘phenomenology’, the science of pure ‘phenomena’. Important Phenomenologists – Peter Berger, Alfred Schutz Symbolic Interactionism It is a theoretical framework that assumes that one’s self-concept is created through interpretation of – o Symbolic gestures o Words o Actions and o Appearances of others as observed during social interactions. The name was coined by Herbert Blumer of the Chicago school, following the lead given by Mead. In essence, Blumer (1969) identified four basic tenets of symbolic interactionism. 1. Individual actions take place in response to the meanings that gestures or objects have for them. For example, if the sign of red means danger in any particular setting, then individuals will act accordingly. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 23 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses 2. All interactions take place within already defined and categorized social contexts. In other words, all social situations are already provided with meaning in terms of a shared classification that is well understood by all who share that common social setting. Like if something is sacred in a society, then all members would be already aware of it and will act accordingly. 3. These meanings emerge from the continued interactions that persons in a society have with each other and with society at large. For example, a child may learn that the temple is sacred from his parents, but this particular meaning will be confirmed for him by other members of the society so that later it will become a part of the generalised system of meanings that he or she holds. 4. Meanings are not static, and new meanings may be imparted and old ones discarded as a part of social interaction with others. Like if a new object emerges that is considered sacred by some, then over time the meaning can be accepted or even rejected by more members, and a change can occur or be nipped in the bud, depending upon the circumstances. Thus following Mead, Blumer considered individuals and society as enmeshed and not separate from each other. o Blumer considered symbolic interaction as the particular form of interaction that can only take place between human beings as they interact according to the meanings that they impart to objects and gestures (including language). o He was particularly critical of the efficacy of positivist scientific methods for the study of social behavior. Thus, an investigator of human behaviour must get to an in depth understanding of that behaviour. That can only be achieved by qualitative methods, what Blumer has referred to as , ‘sympathetic introspection’. Which requires an analyst to put himself or herself in the place of the other person to understand his or her behaviour. Thus, the three basic premises of symbolic interactionism as summarized by Blumer are: 1. All humans act towards other things (objects or symbols) in accordance with the meaning these objects have to them. These meanings vary according to context, both individual and collective. 2. These meanings arise out of the social interactions that one has had with other members of the society. 24 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses 3. These meanings arise in an interpretative way that is they are not inherent to the object but are an outcome of the mental process by which they assume significance. For example, a particular tree, stone or building may assume significance beyond their basic structure, which may be due to the historical or sacred meaning assigned to them by members of a community. Discourses vs Deconstruction Is Murder just killing of a human being or is Murder a flaw in Human character? Did God create humans or did humans create God? Deconstruction means to break down the subject into very small parts to know the context and the history related with it. Deconstruction is defined as a way of analyzing literature that assumes that text cannot have a fixed meaning. An example of deconstruction is reading a novel twice, 20 years apart, and seeing how it has a different meaning each time. A philosophical theory of textual criticism; a form of critical analysis. Like ‘Men at work’ sign is used for the construction sites, this shows that when this sign was invented, only men workers were preferred than women. Now we use ‘Work in process’ this shows that how the things changed with respect to times as the rise and involvement of women in the working society. Discourse, as defined by Foucault, refers to: Ways of constituting knowledge, together with the social practices, forms of subjectivity and power relations which inhere in such knowledges and relations between them. Discourses are more than ways of thinking and producing meaning. They constitute the 'nature' of the body, unconscious and conscious mind and emotional life of the subjects they seek to govern. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 25 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Positivism and its Critique Fact value and Objectivity Fact value and objectivity Some terms before we move on Objectivity means freedom from personal biases. Fact – Empirically verifiable. Value – Desirable. Objectivity Always remember these 3 ideas about objectivity: Faithfulness to facts Absence of personal bias Absence of normative commitments and value-freedom The View from Nowhere: Idea of Thomas Nagel Humans experience the world from a perspective. The contents of an individual’s experiences vary greatly with his perspective, which is affected by his personal situation, and the details of his perceptual apparatus, language and culture. While the experiences vary, there seems to be something that remains constant. The appearance of a tree will change as one approaches it but—according to common sense and most philosophers—the tree itself doesn’t. A room may feel hot or cold for different persons, but its temperature is independent of their experiences. The object in front of me does not disappear just because the lights are turned off. Thomas Nagel’s 3 steps to arrive at the idea of objective qualities: 1. Realize that our perceptions are caused by the actions of things around us, through their effects on our bodies. 2. Realize that since the same qualities that cause perceptions in us also have effects on other things and can exist without causing any perceptions at all, their true nature must be detachable from their perspectival appearance and need not resemble it. 3. Form a conception of that “true nature” independently of any perspective. 26 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Nagel calls that conception the “view from nowhere”. Bernard Williams calls it the “absolute conception”. It represents the world as it is, unmediated by human minds and other “distortions”. Thomas Kuhn’s famous idea that “observations are theory-laden”. That is they depend on a body of theoretical assumptions through which they are perceived and conceptualized, also called Paradigm. Here are some examples to understand it better: 1. The meaning of observational concepts is influenced by theoretical assumptions and presuppositions. For example, the concepts “mass” and “length” have different meanings in Newtonian and relativistic mechanics. So does the concept of “POVERTY” in absolute and relative terms. In other words, Kuhn denies that there is a theory-independent observation language. 2. Not only the observational concepts, but also the perception of a scientist depends on the paradigm she is working in. Practicing in different worlds, the two groups of scientists who work in different paradigms, see different things when they look from the same point in the same direction. Where a Ptolemaic astronomer like Tycho Brahe sees a sun setting behind the horizon, a Copernican astronomer like Johannes Kepler sees the horizon moving up to a stationary sun. Or a Marxist scholar will witness antagonism between various classes of a society, whereas a Functionalist will see cooperation. Value Freedom Weber in 1917 wrote that there are four stages at which values may affect science. They are: (i) The choice of a scientific research problem (ii) The gathering of evidence in relation to the problem (iii) The acceptance of a scientific hypothesis or theory as an adequate answer to the problem on the basis of the evidence (iv) The proliferation and application of scientific research results www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 27 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses It is almost universally accepted that the choice of a research problem is often influenced by interests of individual scientists, funding parties, and society as a whole. This influence may make science more shallow and slow down its long-run progress. But it has benefits, too: o Scientists will focus on providing solutions to those intellectual problems that are considered urgent by society and they may actually improve people’s lives. o The proliferation and application of scientific research results is evidently affected by the personal values of journal editors and end users, and little can be done about this. The real debate is about whether or not: o the “core” of scientific reasoning—the gathering of evidence o the assessment and acceptance scientific theories— is, and should be, value-free. Value Free Ideal Scientists should strive to minimize the influence of contextual values on scientific reasoning, e.g., in gathering evidence and assessing/accepting scientific theories. According to the VFI, scientific objectivity is characterized by absence of contextual values and by exclusive commitment to cognitive values in stages (ii) and (iii) of the scientific process. Cognitive Values These are taken to be indicative of the truth of a theory and therefore provide reasons for preferring one theory over another. These are: o Predictive accuracy o Scope o Unification o Explanatory power o Simplicity o Coherence with other accepted theories 28 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Kuhn even claims that cognitive values define the shared commitments of science, that is, the standards of theory assessment that characterize the scientific approach as a whole. Please note that not every philosopher entertains the same list of cognitive values. There are subjective differences in ranking and applying cognitive values do not vanish. Value-Neutrality Thesis Scientists can—at least in principle—gather evidence and assess theories without making contextual value judgments. Hugh Lacey distinguishes 3 principal components or aspects of value-free science: o Impartiality o Neutrality o Autonomy Impartiality means that theories are solely accepted or appraised in virtue of their contribution to the cognitive values of science, such as truth, accuracy or explanatory power. o This excludes the influence of contextual values, as stated above. Neutrality means that scientific theories make no value statements about the world: they are concerned with what there is, not with what there should be. Scientific autonomy means that the scientific agenda is shaped by the desire to increase scientific knowledge, and that contextual values have no place in scientific method. Now let’s quickly see: Fact, Value and Objectivity Objectivity means freedom from personal biases. Fact – Empirically verifiable. Value – Desirable. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 29 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Value Neutrality Indifference to the matter at hand. No opinions or values about the matter. Which might be unrealistic or unnecessary if we are objective. That is, whatever be the conclusion, nothing is prescribed as such. Objectivity It allows Sociologists to have positions or opinions if it is based on scientific methods, evidence- based reasoning, logic, etc. The focus is on means, that is, the methods. Values or Personal bias come from Race, caste, language, religion, culture, etc. Source of value is, thus, through Socialisation. These values influence human thoughts and actions. Perspectives on Fact Value and Objectivity Premise of Positivism – Fact and value are in a dichotomous relationship. Jurgen Habermas – Since humans study humans, thus, complete separation of facts and values is not possible. Vilfredo Pareto – Sociology should study ‘what is’ rather than ‘what ought to be’. Problem of loss of objectivity appears at different stages: 1. Choice of subject matter 2. Formulation of the problem 3. Accumulation of data 4. Data analysis 5. Hypothesis building 6. Testing of theory 30 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses 1. Choice of the topic is not considered a problem of subjectivity Max Weber - Distinguish between value freedom and value reference. Value reference can be made while doing the investigation. Value reference has to be ensured. Merton – The very choice of topic is influenced by the personal preferences and ideological biases of the researcher. Also, the topic of suicide has received a disproportionate amount of attention in Sociology after Durkheim’s study. 2. Formulation of problem Formulation of problem depends on prevailing choice of investigators debates and this issue is considered objective. 3. Accumulation of data Accumulation of data faces the problem of objectivity. Andre Beteille – Brahmins did not let him visit the Untouchables’ locality; hence subjectivity can also creep in because of field limitations. Interview method influenced by subjectivity of interviewer and interviewee. William Whyte – the study of Italian criminals concluded. “I started as a Non-participant observer but ended as participant non-observer” 4. Interpretation of facts Interpretation of facts also colored by viewpoints of the investigator. Robert Redfield (functionalist) and Oscar Lewis (Marxist) studied the same village in Mexico around the same time but their interpretations differed vastly. 5. Theories also suffer from biases Durkheim gave the functional theory of religion. Whereas Marx gave conflict theory of religion 6.Testing is subjected to the researcher’s bias As the tendency would be to produce the same results. Durkheim’s Study of Suicide is accused of this. www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 31 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Degree of objectivity desired in Sociology Objectivity has been found to be neither possible nor desirable. It is an elusive goal. As Alvin Gouldner says that Fact and Value cannot be separated in empirical research. Gunnar Myrdal- Total objectivity is an illusion. It amounts to falsifying history and loss of basic purpose of the discipline which is of reformist agenda. Social problems cannot be and should not be studied objectively. They become meaningful only within a specific cultural context. Suggesting solutions with reference to society is essential. He says that “Chaos cannot organize itself into Cosmos we need viewpoints” Book - The Asian drama. How objectivity can be ensured 1. Comte - Suggested using positivist methods and studying macro aspects. 2. Durkheim preferred inductive methodology and Statistical Techniques. Weber also suggested scientific methods (Verstehen, Ideal Types) to ensure objectivity. 3. Weber - Training the investigator. 4. Stating one’s own bias 5. Organising criticism through Peer Review. 6. By refraining from advocating preference of any view point. 7. Using testing techniques to ensure reliability and validity 8. Stating field limitations. 9. Triangulation – Using various methods to cross-check the outcome. 10. Durkheim – Book: Rules of Sociological Method. For the study of Social Facts – 4 Rules: Observation, Classification, Distinction, Explanation. 11. Herbert Marcuse – Objectivity in Sociology is a limitation of the discipline. 12. Max Horkheimer – Contemporary Sociology demands plural theories. 13. Theodor Adorno – Positivism is negative dialectics, that something bad can also emerge from the process of dialectics. No need to attach nay value to the process of dialectics. 32 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043  T.me/SleepyClasses Quiz Question 1. Which thinker is credited for Introducing positivism in Sociology? A. Auguste Comte B. Saint Simon Question 2. Who gave the concept of Verstehen and Ideal Types to bring objectivity in research? A. Max Weber B. Emile Durkheim Question3. Sociology should be concerned with a subjective understanding of objective reality as per: A. Positivist School B. Interpretative School Question 4. An American sociologist, first to propose and systematise Ethnomethodology was: A. Harold Garfinkel B. Herbert Blumer Question 5. Alfred Schutz is associated with which sociological conception? A. Symbolic Interactionism B. Phenomenology Question 6. Who gave the following four methods for the study of Sociology - Observation, Experimentation, Historical and Comparative? A. Durkheim B. Auguste Comte Question7. An anarchy as per which any discipline not following scientific method should not be taken seriously, is called as: A. Objective anarchism B. Epistemology anarchism www.sleepyclasses.com Available on App Store 33 Call 1800 – 890 - 3043 and Play Store  T.me/SleepyClasses Question 8. Functionalist and Conflict theorists fall under the category of Positivism: A. True B. False Question9. Who said Positivism vs Non-Positivism debate is a 60s hangover? A. Karl Popper B. Ray Pawson Question 10. Mead, Cooley, Blumer are some of the influential scholars belonging to the following perspective: A. Post-modernism B. Interactionism 34 Available on App Store www.sleepyclasses.com and Play Store Call 1800 – 890 - 3043