Music History from 1750 to the Present PDF

Class-Assembled Text 2750f: Music History from 1750 to the Present September to December, 2024 Don Wright Faculty of Music Western University Dr. K Helsen Table of Contents The Late Baroque...................................................................

Class-Assembled Text 2750f: Music History from 1750 to the Present September to December, 2024 Don Wright Faculty of Music Western University Dr. K Helsen Table of Contents The Late Baroque.............................................................................................................................8 Some Technical Terms, explained............................................................................................ 8 An aside on fugue form.......................................................................................................... 9 Suggestions for Further Reading........................................................................................... 11 Late Baroque Discussion Questions......................................................................................12 J. S. Bach’s Art of Fugue, BWV 1080 (Listening).......................................................................12 The Classical Era – Late 18th century..........................................................................................14 Genres and Terms:.....................................................................................................................15 Sonata.................................................................................................................................. 15 Symphony.................................................................................................................................. 15 Concerto.....................................................................................................................................16 Comparing the Baroque Rondo and the Classical Rondo....................................................16 String Quartet............................................................................................................................. 17 Classical Social and Artistic Context and Representative Composers...................................... 18 1750-1825, the dates of the Classical Era. Ah yes, the good ol’ Age of Enlightenment............ 18 The Father of the Classical Style, Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)....................................... 19 The Esterhaza Estate, owned by the Esterhazy Family.......................................................19 How he impacted music....................................................................................................... 20 The Classical Child Prodigy, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791)...................................21 How he impacted music....................................................................................................... 22 The Deaf yet Unbroken Spirit, Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827)....................................... 23 How he impacted music....................................................................................................... 24 Discussion Questions.................................................................................................................24 Bibliography................................................................................................................................25 Listening – Classical Era............................................................................................................ 25 Forms:........................................................................................................................................ 26 Sonata Form:..............................................................................................................................26 Rondo Form:.............................................................................................................................. 28 Sonata-Rondo Form:..................................................................................................................29 Sources:..................................................................................................................................... 30 Program Music (19th century and beyond)................................................................................. 30 Context and Ideas:..................................................................................................................... 30 Overview:............................................................................................................................. 31 A New Era: Music and Expressiveness................................................................................32 Programmatic Music + Its Connection to Literature............................................................. 32 A Loss of Imagination...........................................................................................................33 Bibliographical Resources..........................................................................................................34 Some terms and definitions:.......................................................................................................34 The Symphonic Poem(i.e., ‘Tone Poem’)............................................................................. 35 Composer of note: Franz Liszt............................................................................................. 35 Incidental music..........................................................................................................................36  Bibliographical Sources..............................................................................................................36 Program Music Listening List.......................................................................................................37 Mother Goose Suite - Maurice Ravel................................................................................... 37 Pictures at an Exhibition - Modest Mussorgsky (Orch, Ravel)............................................. 39 Lieutenant Kijé Suite - Sergei Prokofiev...............................................................................40 "Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne" - Franz Liszt................................................................. 42 Incidental Music:.........................................................................................................................43 Miraculous Mandarin - Béla Bartók...................................................................................... 43 Tone Painting:.............................................................................................................................45 Prokofiev- Peter and The Wolf............................................................................................. 45 Program Symphony:...................................................................................................................47 Hector Berlioz- Symphonie Fantastique...............................................................................47 Concert Overture:.......................................................................................................................49 Brahms' Academic Festival Overture................................................................................... 49 Further Reading:........................................................................................................................ 51 Romantic Opera............................................................................................................................. 52 Context....................................................................................................................................... 52 Sources:............................................................................................................................... 53 Description, Examples................................................................................................................53 Terms..........................................................................................................................................54 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................56 Composers................................................................................................................................. 56 Giuseppe Verdi(1813–1901)................................................................................................ 56 Gioachino Rossin(1792–1868).............................................................................................57 Giacomo Meyerbeer(1791 – 1864)...................................................................................... 58 Richard Wagner(1813–1883)............................................................................................... 60 Discussion Questions.................................................................................................................63 Set 1:.......................................................................................................................................... 63 Set 2:.................................................................................................................................... 64 Listening..................................................................................................................................... 65 La Bohème (Giacomo Puccini, 1858-1924)......................................................................... 65 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................66 La Traviata (Giuseppe Verdi, 1813-1901)............................................................................ 66 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................67 Tristan and Isolde (Richard Wagner, 1813-1883).................................................................67 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................68 Roméo et Juliette (Charles Gounod 1818 - 1893)................................................................69 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................70 The Barber of Seville (Gioachino Rossini 1792 - 1868)....................................................... 71 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................72 Carmen (Georges Bizet 1838 - 1875).................................................................................. 73 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................75 Innovations at the Turn of the 20th Century................................................................................ 76 Introduction and Context............................................................................................................ 76  Styles of Music in the Progressive Age................................................................................ 78 Styles: Some “-isms”.................................................................................................................. 78 Impressionism...................................................................................................................... 78 Brief Introduction to Dadaism in music.................................................................................79 Expressionism...................................................................................................................... 79 Serialism...............................................................................................................................80 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................80 Composers..................................................................................................................................... 82 Claude Debussy (1862 - 1918).................................................................................................. 82 Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951)................................................................................................ 82 Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)....................................................................................................... 85 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................85 Discussion Questions.......................................................................................................................86 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................88 Listening...........................................................................................................................................88 Erwartung (1909) - Schoenberg........................................................................................... 88 The Soldier’s tale (1918) - Stravinsky.................................................................................. 89 Padoges (1903)- Debussy....................................................................................................89 Finlandia (1899) - Sibelius....................................................................................................90 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................90 The Influence of Jazz and Music Theatre on Western Art Music (and vice versa).................. 93 Introduction.................................................................................................................................93 Jazz Terminology........................................................................................................................93 Noteworthy Jazz Subgenres................................................................................................ 95 Works Cited.......................................................................................................................... 96 Jazz Musicians of Note.............................................................................................................. 97 Bibliography..................................................................................................................... 101 Music Theatre...........................................................................................................................102 History of Musical Theatre..................................................................................................102 Composers......................................................................................................................... 103 Bibliography........................................................................................................................107 Gilbert and Sullivan Biography........................................................................................... 109 Music, politics and activism................................................................................................ 110 Musical Theatre Numbers.................................................................................................. 112 The modern day: (2000-present)........................................................................................ 113 Bibliography........................................................................................................................ 113 Jazz and Music Theatre Intersections...................................................................................... 114 Jazz / Music Theatre Discussion Questions.............................................................................118 Jazz / Music Theatre Listening List.......................................................................................... 119 To Be Young, Gifted, and Black - Nina Simone.................................................................. 120 Live performance:...............................................................................................................121 Spotify link:......................................................................................................................... 121 Giant Steps - John Coltrane............................................................................................... 121 Live performance (arranged by Frank Foster):...................................................................122  Spotify link:......................................................................................................................... 122 Hamilton - Satisfied (Lin Manuel Miranda)......................................................................... 122 Video clip:........................................................................................................................... 123 Spotify link:......................................................................................................................... 123 West Side Story - Somewhere - L. Bernstein..................................................................... 124 Video clip (1961 film):......................................................................................................... 124 Spotify link (1961 film):....................................................................................................... 124 Spotify link (2021 film):....................................................................................................... 125 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................125 Modernism in the Music of the Mid-20th Century..................................................................... 129 History of Atonality and Notable Composers........................................................................... 130 1. Free Tonality...................................................................................................................130 2. Arnold Schoenberg and the 12-Tone Technique............................................................ 130 3. Extensions of Serial Music............................................................................................. 130 Other Modernist Schools..........................................................................................................131 The Darmstadt School........................................................................................................131 Latin American Modernist Music........................................................................................ 131 Exploring New Styles............................................................................................................... 131 Big Ideas of Modernism............................................................................................................132 1. Theosophy:.....................................................................................................................132 2. Maximalism:................................................................................................................... 132 3. Musical Nationalism:...................................................................................................... 132 4. Neoclassicism.............................................................................................................. 132 US /Western Europe v. Eastern Europe...................................................................................133 Discussion Questions...............................................................................................................134 Bibliography..............................................................................................................................135 Avant-Garde Music in the Mid-to-Late 20th Century.................................................................137 Major Themes in Mid-to-Late 20th Century Avant-Garde Music.............................................. 138 Composers and Works.............................................................................................................141 Listening:.................................................................................................................................. 143 John Cage - First Construction (in metal) (1939)............................................................... 143 John Cage – Music of Changes (1951)..............................................................................143 Karlheinz Stockhausen – Gesang der Jünglinge (1955–56).............................................. 144 Luciano Berio – Sinfonia (1968)......................................................................................... 144 Further Reading....................................................................................................................... 145 Rock & Folk.................................................................................................................................. 146 Rock:........................................................................................................................................ 146 Rockabilly........................................................................................................................... 147 British invasion................................................................................................................... 147 Folk Rock........................................................................................................................... 147 Psychedelic Rock............................................................................................................... 147 Hard Rock.......................................................................................................................... 147 Heavy Metal....................................................................................................................... 148 Blues rock...........................................................................................................................148  Country rock....................................................................................................................... 148 Punk/new wave/hardcore rock........................................................................................... 148 Art/progressive rock........................................................................................................... 148 Alternative rock...................................................................................................................148 End Notes...........................................................................................................................149 Folk...........................................................................................................................................149 Characteristics....................................................................................................................149 Historical Context............................................................................................................... 150 Key Changes in the Folk Revival....................................................................................... 150 Early Influences..................................................................................................................151 Couple key musical changes that transformed their sound................................................151 Composers............................................................................................................................... 151 Joan Chandos Baez........................................................................................................... 152 Joni Mitchell (1943 -).......................................................................................................... 154 Discussion:............................................................................................................................... 155 Rock:.................................................................................................................................. 155 Folk:....................................................................................................................................156 Listenings:................................................................................................................................ 156 Rock:.................................................................................................................................. 156 Bibliography........................................................................................................................157 Folk:....................................................................................................................................159 Bibliography........................................................................................................................161 Minimalism (and ‘universalism’) – mid-20th century and beyond...........................................163 Introduction and Description.....................................................................................................163 Origins of Minimalism:........................................................................................................ 163 MINIMALISM DURING AND AFTER 1976:....................................................................... 164 Terms........................................................................................................................................166 Three Components of Minimalist Music: Repetition, Small Units, and Slow...................... 167 Minimalist Composers.............................................................................................................. 167 Steve Reich (1936-Present)............................................................................................... 168 Terry Riley (1935-Present)................................................................................................. 169 La Monte Young (1935-Present)........................................................................................ 170 Arvo Pärt:........................................................................................................................... 170 Phillip Glass:.......................................................................................................................171 Minimalism’s Influence............................................................................................................. 172 Krautrock............................................................................................................................ 172 Religious music.................................................................................................................. 173 Film Music.......................................................................................................................... 173 EDM................................................................................................................................... 173 Influence from Other Cultures (India, Bali, and West Africa)..............................................173 Discussion Questions...............................................................................................................175 Listening................................................................................................................................... 176 Further Reading and Source Material (in order of submissions, not alphabetical.)................. 176 Film and Videogame Music......................................................................................................... 180  Film:..........................................................................................................................................180 Terms / Keywords.....................................................................................................................182 Composers............................................................................................................................... 183 Works Cited List................................................................................................................. 185 Videogame Music.....................................................................................................................185 Composers............................................................................................................................... 189 Bibliography........................................................................................................................190 Discussion Questions...............................................................................................................191 Listening................................................................................................................................... 191 Contemporary Western Art Music.............................................................................................. 198 Overview of Content:................................................................................................................198 1. Introduction: The End of Traditional Harmony................................................................198 2. Spectralism.....................................................................................................................199 3. Minimalism and Post-Minimalism................................................................................... 199 4. Microtonality and New Harmonic Systems.....................................................................199 5. Extended Techniques and Electroacoustics...................................................................200 6. Personal Music Systems and Innovation....................................................................... 200 Musical Examples:................................................................................................................... 200 The Late Baroque The late Baroque period, generally understood to be the first half of the 18th century (1700 – 1750), was marked by changes and inventiveness in musical form, style, and structure, laying the groundwork for much of Western art music in the future. Composers such as Antonio Vivaldi (1678 – 1741), Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 – 1750), George Frideric Handel (1685 – 1759), Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683 – 1764), and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714 – 1788) wrote the works that we still look to, as models of the compositional standards of their time and they also – as artists - pushed the social and cultural boundaries from time to time. This period is especially known for the connection – and sometimes, tension – between ‘strict’ structure and emotional expression, seen in various genres like the concerto, fugue, opera seria, and cantata. The term ‘affect’ (pronounced ‘AH-fect’) is often used to refer to the idea of ‘conjuring’ a particular emotion through the calculated and specific use of music, during the Baroque period. Can you mathematically calculate drama? The Baroque composers, performers, and listeners certainly thought so. Some Technical Terms, explained Ritornello form, as exemplified by Vivaldi in his famous Four Seasons violin concerto, plays a major role in shaping the musical ‘story’ that concertos tend to ‘tell’, during this time period. This form features a recurring orchestral theme interspersed with contrasting episodes by soloists, and creates both unity and contrast within movements. This alternation (between the ensemble and soloist) also reflects broader Baroque ideals of contrast and opposition, and these musical ideas would go on to characterize the emerging solo concerto form. Unlike the earlier concerto grosso, the solo concerto, (i.e., J.S. Bach's violin1 and harpsichord concertos are excellent examples) put the spotlight on the solitary virtuoso player, elevating the role of the individual, but still contextualizing him/her within the orchestral framework. The elevation of the soloist reflects broader cultural trends of the Baroque period, including the rising importance of individual expression. (At this time in history, we are getting close to... Democracy!) Another important form of the era was the French overture, which Rameau used extensively in his operas and ballets, and which Handel would pick up for his oratorios and operas, later on. They have a stable form: a stately opening with dotted rhythms followed by a lively fugue. This is understood to reflect both sides (the refined and the calculated) of the power of courtly culture in France, particularly under the reign of Louis XIV (1638 – 1715). Its majestic opening can be heard as a reflection of the political and cultural emphasis on order and control, and then its fugal sections allowed composers to demonstrate their technical mastery in counterpoint. Possibly the most quintessential Baroque composition is the fugue, a form that epitomized the Baroque fascination with intricate, intellectual structures. Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier and Art of Fugue show both the technical prowess and the expressive power of the form. The fugue challenges both composers and performers to this day, demanding serious contrapuntal craftsmanship and allowing for deep emotional expression. An aside on fugue form A fugue has three main sections, or four if you count the ‘coda’. They are the Exposition, the Episodes, and the Recapitulation (plus Coda.) There are also a few ‘techniques’ that get used consistently enough to have earned their own names, too, such as ‘Middle Entries’. Below is an explanation of each of these ideas: 1. Exposition The beginning of the fugue introduces the main theme (ie: the ‘subject’). This subject is stated by one voice, typically in a single melodic line, without accompaniment. As this voice finishes, a second voice enters, imitating the subject, but at a different pitch level, typically a fifth above or a fourth below the original key—this is called the ‘answer’. The answer can either be ‘real’ (an exact transposition) or ‘tonal’ (adjusted slightly to accommodate harmonic differences between the tonic and dominant keys). 1 Pieter Dirksen, "J. S. Bach's Violin Concerto in G Minor", in Gregory Butler (ed.), J. S. Bach's Concerted Ensemble Music: The Concerto, Bach Perspectives, vol. 7, University of Illinois Press, 2008. While the second voice presents the answer, the first voice may continue with a ‘countersubject’, a new line that complements the subject, if consistently repeated alongside the subject in future entries. The process continues with the remaining voices (in a three- or four-voice fugue) entering with the subject or answer, until all voices are in. 2. Episode After the exposition come the Episodes: passages that do not feature a full statement of the subject or answer, but use fragments of the subject or countersubject, often in sequences or patterns, to create harmonic modulation and transitions. They are contrasting interludes between entries of the subject, providing something other than the dense of the rest of the counterpoint. 3. Middle Entries When the subject reappears in one or more voices, usually in a different key than the original these times are called middle entries, and they appear in various voices and keys. The composer may employ ‘stretto’, where entries of the subject overlap one another, increasing the density and intensity of the texture. Episodes and middle entries may modulate through different keys. The subject may be altered through techniques such as ‘inversion’ (direction of intervals), ‘augmentation’ (lengthening the note values), or ‘diminution’ (shortening the note values). 5. Recapitulation The final section has the subject return in its original form, most likely in the home key. This is the recapitulation or ‘final statement’, bringing resolution to the tonal journey. Some fugues increase the drama here by adding a climactic stretto or an elaborate version of the subject at the end. 6. Coda Some fugues conclude with a coda, a brief section that reinforces the final key and brings closure to the piece. (In other cases, the fugue ends after the final statement of the subject.) Two more fugue-related terms:  Pedal Point: A sustained note, usually in the bass, over which the other voices build harmonic tension before resolving. False Entry: A fragmented version of the subject that is cut short, used in episodes and as potential ‘middle entries’. Opera seria, another major area of late Baroque music brought high drama (and structured formality) to the operatic stage, particularly in Handel’s case. With its rigid division between recitative and aria, and the use of da capo arias, opera seria allowed the singer to show off their virtuosity and highlighted the emotional intensity of the plot line. Handel’s operas, such as Giulio Cesare, are examples of the dramatic and technical possibilities of the form of the da capo aria, (A B A1) where the repeated A section (the A1) provides opportunities for singers to display their acrobatic ornamentation and embellishment skills, (once the audience has heard the music the first time, sung without those additions.) The cantata is another kind of vocal composition that features drama as a story-telling device, but less obviously, perhaps, than opera seria. It typically consists of several movements, featuring recitatives, arias, and occasionally choruses, telling a story through music alone, instead of music + acting + staging (like opera.) A cantata is generally shorter and more intimate than an oratorio, often written for a smaller ensemble and performed in both secular and sacred contexts, typically within church services or for private audiences. The oratorio, by contrast, is a large-scale, dramatic composition for orchestra, choir, and soloists, usually focused on sacred (i.e., religious) story lines or themes, and performed in concert settings, but without acting. Oratorios are usually longer, with more extensive use of choruses and narrative, whereas cantatas tend to emphasize individual expression and are shorter. By the mid-18th century, a musical transition toward what we will eventually call ‘the Classical era’ began to be felt, with composers like Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach embracing the empfindsamer Stil (Sentimental Style), emphasizing emotional expressiveness and sensitivity. This new direction is defined by its abrupt contrasts and more fluid compositional structures and represents a move away from the complexity of late Baroque styles like the fugue and towards a more emotionally communicative musical language. Suggestions for Further Reading Buelow, George J. A History of Baroque Music. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. 2004. Carter, Tim. Baroque Music [Electronic Resource]. New York: Oxford University Press.2011. Davison, Archibald T, Willi Apel. Historical Anthology of Music. Volume II, Baroque, Rococo, and Pre-Classical Music. Reprint 2014. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674335448. Swain, Joseph Peter. Historical Dictionary of Baroque Music. 1st ed. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press. 2013. Late Baroque Discussion Questions 1. What are we talking about, when we talk about ritornello form? Why is this important? Are there connections between this form and other kinds of music (more ‘modern’ ones?) 2. The ‘drama’ of the Baroque era can be seen in a couple of the terms highlighted in the description of the musical context, including the emergence of the solo concerto, the popularity of opera seria, the emphasis on da capo arias, French overture style, and Empfindsamer Stil. What is ‘dramatic’ about these forms, and how can we relate these things to other kinds of music? 3. Several of the genres popular in the late Baroque are ‘story-telling’ genres. How do these compare to what we do today, in terms of telling stories through music? (Think about areas like Music Education, as well as the stage. What about advertising? Cultural events?) 4. Do you like a good fugue? Why / why not? Ever tried to write one? 5. The impulse to improvise or ‘riff’ to show off your musicianship is still alive and well in lots of areas of music-making today. What happened to it in classical music? What do you do when you get to a part of your studio repertoire when you have to ‘ornament’? 6. What do you think of the ‘turn’ around the middle of the century, away from heavy counterpoint and towards ‘easy listening’ like empfindsamer Stil flowing melodies and emotional zigzags? Why does music turn from being ‘mathy’ to being ‘emo’? Can you think of examples of this in your own musical words? J. S. Bach’s Art of Fugue, BWV 1080 (Listening) Johann Sebastian Bach’s Art of Fugue (Die Kunst der Fuge), BWV 10180, composed in the final decade of his life (i.e., the 1740s), has been held up as one of the most impressive pieces of the late Baroque period. It is a compendium of fugues and canons all based on a single musical subject, and it serves as both a technical exercise in counterpoint and a deep expression of artistry. The Art of Fugue is more introspective and theoretical, distinguishing it from the more publicly-oriented types of works like concertos, operas, cantatas, etc., in the Baroque period. It was not necessarily intended for public performance but rather as an exploration of the possibilities of the fugue form, demonstrating the complexities and variations that can emerge from a single theme. In this sense, The Art of Fugue can be seen as different from much of the ‘showy’, virtuosity of the time, and features more of an inward-looking approach, which is no less complex or demanding. However, its scoring (open score) might indicate that it was meant for keyboard, as Gustav Leonhardt argued.2 At a time when composers like Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, (J.S. Bach’s son) and others were moving toward the simplicity and elegance of the empfindsamer styles, J.S. Bach remained a living symbol of the dense, intricate polyphony that had defined much of earlier Baroque music. In this way, BWV 10180 also symbolizes the end of an era, as it was one of Bach's last compositions and one of the final monumental works of the Baroque period. It can be viewed as both a personal statement by Bach and a kind of summation of the Baroque era’s focus on structured forms, contrapuntal complexity, and intellectual prowess, before the coming age of Classical ideal such as symmetry and balance, ‘natural-sounding’ melodic lines, and ‘easier’ listening. The final page of the Fuga a 3 Soggetti fragment; note by C.P.E. Bach that J.S. Bach died at this point. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Fugue#/media/File:Bach-unfinishedfugue.jpg 2 Gustav Leonardt, The Art of Fugue: Bach’s Last Harpischord Work, an argument, Martinus Nijnhoff, The Hague, 1952. Further Reading Demeyere, Ewald. Johann Sebastian Bach’s Art of Fugue : Performance Practice Based on German Eighteenth-Century Theory. 1st ed. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press. 2013. Dirst, Matthew. Bach’s Art of Fugue and Musical Offering. 1st ed. New York: Oxford University Press. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197536636.001.0001. Eggebrecht, Hans Heinrich. J.S. Bach’s The Art of Fugue : The Work and Its Interpretation. 1st ed. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 1993. The Classical Era – Late 18th century Genres and Terms: In the late 18th century, Western music from Baroque moved on to the Classical style. Music from this period is characterized by clarity, balance, and well-defined structure. Classical music emphasizes elegant melodies, simple harmonies, and formal structures such as sonata , symphonies, concerto and string quartet. Som well-known composers of the Classical Era who composed in these genres were Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Sonata divided into three main parts: an Exposition, a Development, and a Recapitulation Exposition – where the main themes and harmonies are introduced. Development – where these themes and harmonies are explored and contrasted. Recapitulation – where the themes and harmonies are brought back and resolved. Sometimes, there might also be an introduction at the beginning and a coda at the end. Each part can have its own sub-sections or specific methods to achieve its role in the overall structure. Examples: - Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata No. 11 in A Major, K. 331 (notable for its third movement, the "Rondo alla Turca") - Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata No. 14 in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 2 (commonly known as the "Moonlight Sonata") - Joseph Haydn, Piano Sonata No. 59 in E-flat Major, Hob. XVI/49 Symphony A symphony is written for an orchestra of wind and string instruments, usually with 50 to 80 people. It was composed in four movements. 1. Allegro in sonata-allegro form, sometimes preceded by a slow introduction 2. A slow movement in A-B-A or theme and variations form 3. Minuet and trio in triple meter 4. Finale, a vivacious allegro molto or presto in rondo or sonata-allegro form Examples: - Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550 (1788) - Ludwig van Beethoven, Symphony No. 5 in C minor (1808) Concerto A classical music piece where a soloist performs with an orchestra. There are three movements in a Classical concerto. The first movement is a quick-paced movement. The second movement is a slow lyrical movement. The third movement is another fast movement. I. Allegro The soloist will play two contrasting themes, a feature of a standard Sonata form. Near the end of the first movement, the soloist will play a “cadenza” or an extended solo passage without the orchestra. II. Adagio It provides contrast to the other movements and gives the soloist a chance to showcase their expressive abilities and the beauty of their performance. III. Allegro/Rondo Lets the soloist show off one last time. This movement often features a section that the music returns to. It’s like a rondo. Comparing the Baroque Rondo and the Classical Rondo Both periods keep the "fast-slow-fast" three-movement structure for concertos. In the Classical era, each individual movement is treated similarly to the instrumental sonata: the first movement is often in sonata form, the middle movement is slow and can be in any form and the last movement is usually in rondo form. The orchestra in the Classical Era is larger than in the Baroque period and the harpsichord is no longer used replaced with keyboard, and the orchestra now includes strings, woodwinds, brass, and some percussion instruments. Baroque Concerto: Melodic lines were often more ornamental and less focused on thematic development. The music was more oriented towards intricate counterpoint and elaborate ornamentation.  The focus was on the contrast between the concertino and the ripieno, with an emphasis on textural variety. Classical Concerto: Melodies were clearer, more structured, and thematic development was more central to the concerto’s design. Themes were typically more memorable and were developed through repetition and variation. Emphasized a more interactive and dialogic relationship between the soloist and the orchestra. In summary, the change from Baroque to Classical concertos shows a shift from focusing on contrasting groups and complex counterpoint to a style where a single soloist interacts more directly with the orchestra, emphasizing themes and showcasing virtuosity. String Quartet It was the most popular genre of chamber music in classical era. Normally it was composed for two violins, one viola, and one cello. The string quartet was developed into its current form by the Austrian composer, Joseph Haydn. Quartets written in the classical period usually have four movements with a large-scale structure similar to a symphony. - 1st movement: Sonata form, Allegro, in the tonic key - 2nd movement: Slow, in the subdominant key - 3rd movement: Minuet and Trio, in the tonic key - 4th movement: Rondo form or Sonata rondo form, in the tonic key - Example: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: String Quartet No. 19 in C Major, K. 465 (known as the "Dissonance" quartet) Ludwig van Beethoven: String Quartet No. 4 in C Minor, Op. 18, No. 4 (part of Beethoven’s early quartets); String Quartet No. 13 in B-flat Major, Op. 130 (notable for its late quartets and includes the Grosse Fuge as its final movement) Joseph Haydn: String Quartet Op. 33, No. 2 in E-flat Major (known as the "Joke" quartet); String Quartet Op. 76, No. 3 in C Major (known as the "Emperor" quartet) Classical Social and Artistic Context and Representative Composers Important terms: Classicism – it is a musical style based around symmetry, and overall balance in pieces. The term itself refers to the art of ancient Rome and Greece, the buildings and architecture, the art, and it too refers to the music of the late 18th century. Viennese School – Not actually a school itself, but a term that describes three (give or take) main composers of the classical era, those being Haydn, Beethoven, and Mozart. It’s a way of summarizing a musical style that those main three brought about, going from Baroque to a new era: Classical. Absolute Music – Basically JUST music. Doesn’t have any association with anything outside of music. Typically only had titles that reflected stuff like; the genre, tempo, what form, etc. It was also known under another name, “Pure Music”. Sonata Form – Aka, “Sonata Allegro Form”. Has your typical exposition (first exposure to two or more themes that go against each other), your development (takes your themes, and messes with them, developing it into something else), and your recapitulation (has both themes restated, but in the tonic key this time). Coda – Literally translated from Latin: “Tail”. Basically a short section that really pushes that YOU’RE IN THE TONIC BY THE WAY. Sonata Cycle – A new structure that appeared in the Classical Era. It was a multi-movement piece that was used in concertos, symphonies, and in sonatas. (This could use some more description :]) 1750-1825, the dates of the Classical Era. Ah yes, the good ol’ Age of Enlightenment. Known by the sudden surge of activity in Vienna from 3 important old white men who didn’t even grow up in Vienna funny enough. Those 3 men were Beethoven, Mozart, and of course Haydn; the creators of the Viennese School. This era focused mostly on knowledge, symmetry, and equality. Basically, this era rediscovered nice, smart, but simple art from ancient Greece and Rome. Thus the composers went from ornate and decorated music, to a more structurally thought out and balanced piece of music. That’s how the Classical Era was born. The Father of the Classical Style, Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) Haydn was born in Rohrau, Austria. Him and his two brothers, Michael and Johann, were all into music. Haydn however was asked to join choir at St. Stephen’s in Vienna, which he did. He learnt music there from both himself, and an Italian singer named Nicolo Porpora. Eventually though, Haydn grew up, and his voice changed. St. Stephen’s Cathedral no longer wanted him anymore, so, he became a freelance musician. Haydn was trying to make a living off what most freelance musicians do. He taught music to others, he would perform every now and then, compose, accompany, all of that. Thankfully, his efforts didn’t go unnoticed. Around 1759, he became the music director to Count Ferdinand von Morzin, where Haydn would continue to compose, perform, and conduct. Not only did he now have a stable income, but only 1 year later, in 1760, he got married to Maria Anna Keller! Good for him! A year later, he got another job offer from a well know, and rich family known as the Esterhazy family. He worked with them as an assistant music director, and moved into the Esterhaza Estate in 1766 The Esterhaza Estate, owned by the Esterhazy Family Of course, having worked with them for 5 years, and moving in, he was given more duties. He now had a dress code, and a list of musical stuff that was expected of him. He had to train instrumentalists, compose for the family, conduct performances, and perform. So, not much of a difference, but it was more focused toward the family he worked for now. He decided to start dabbling in something growing in popularity: symphony, opera, and what he’s known best for, the string quartet. By writing all this music, teaching, performing, and doing it in new and popular genres, he was really gaining traction and word was spreading about him. Soon, he would find himself becoming friends with Mozart, and the two, despite their difference in age, would go on to write a few string quartets to each other. 1790, Haydn would find himself being relieved of all his duties, excluding the annual mass, as Prince Anton came into power. So, Haydn moved to Vienna. Haydn would then find himself going to London to perform a few concerts, where he crafted his first “London” symphony. He too would receive an honorary doctorate from Oxford University. A short excursion back to Vienna led him to teaching Beethoven briefly in 1792. Of course, only two years later he would be back in London, composing 5 more of his “London” symphonies, as the first one was extremely well received. 1795, one year later, he would decide to permanently reside in Vienna, where he would go on to create “The Creation” and “The Seasons”, two oratorios, along with six masses for Prince Nicholas II, and of course, plenty more string quartets. Unfortunately, due to his health rapidly declining, Haydn retired in 1802. He would still attend performances every now and then, but eventually May 31st, 1809, he would pass away. How he impacted music Haydn, although staying true to his traditionalist roots, was not opposed to trying the trends out of his time. He would often toy with “style galant”, a way of writing more focused on elegance, rather than the complexities of a melody. He too would dabble in “Sturm und Drang”, literally translated being Storm and Stress, and of course, he made use of the style previously mentioned in the Baroque Era, Empfindsamer Stil. Now, because of the contributions he gave to that of the symphony and string quartet, he was deemed by many as “The Father” of both types of composition. Haydn also helped to further the development of Sonata Form, in terms of the melody and harmony. He would typically start with a slow introduction that was completely ambiguous in a tonal center creating suspenseful atmospheres for his piece. And, on top of this, he was fond of using chromatic harmony. In terms of style, his expositions tended to be monothematic, which contained both the 1st and 2nd themes that were practically (or exactly) identical, just in differing keys. His style of music doesn’t end here however. He used simple, narrow ranged (very small), diatonic melodies from folk songs he had been inspired by. He would also use funny sound effects to represent different instruments from other cultures, for example, he would use pedal points to imitate bagpipes, or pizzicato strings to imitate a guitar. He also loved using sudden changes in dynamics and chords, or just straight up silences to make his themes more playful in general. Overall, Haydn was a really experimental composer of the classical era, who loved to just dabble in trends here and there to spice up his music. And in his life, he ended up being a big influence to others, being called “The Father” of symphony and string quartet. The Classical Child Prodigy, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born to Leopold Mozart in 1756, Salzburg, Austria, was a child prodigy. As just a child, he had been tutored in the ways of virtuosity on harpsichord, piano, organ, violin, and in composition, all from a father whom had previously written “A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing”. Needless to say, young Mozart picked up a few things from his dad. In fact, he had picked up enough that his dad was taking him on long tours across Europe, just to show off his abilities. Mozart, at the age of 6, was playing as entertainment for Empress Maria Theresa, and at the age of 8, was introduced to Johann Christian Bach, who ended up influencing the young Mozart. Of course, we can’t forget that at the age of 12, Mozart had also written his first opera, “La Finta Semplice”. At least when performing growing up, he wasn’t completely alone. He would typically perform with his older sister, Maria Anna, “Nannerl”, who too was a gifted musician As he grew up, in 1769, he was appointed to be the concert master in the same court his father worked at… However, he went unpaid. That changed when a new archbishop took his place in the court. Archbishop Hieronymus von Colloredo, hired in 1771, gave Mozart his well deserved salary. If only things had stayed that way. Mozart and the archbishop would find themselves butting heads more often than not, leading to Mozart’s dismissal, and reinstatement. Mozart would eventually decide to make 3 long trips to Italy, where he would perform plenty of concerts, and write a plethora of operas. While in Italy, Mozart would find himself in possession of two diplomas from Accademia Filarmonica. Along with his trips to Italy, Mozart would go on tour to other places such as Munich, Augsburg, Manheim, and of course, Paris. On his trip to Paris however, his mother tragically passed away. However, while on tour, seeing the success of his piece “Idomeneo”, he was fired up, and ready to write even more operas. Of course, in 1779, he was unhappy with his work in Salzburg, and so he asked permission to be dismissed from the archbishop. He would then, in 1781, move to Vienna, where he aspired to work at the imperial court of Joseph II. In the meantime though, he worked as a freelance pianist, a teacher, and a composer, but of course, he was known to live life like there was no tomorrow. Funny enough, despite all his jobs in his freelance career, he was still quite poor at the end of the day. Mozart around this time would become good friends with Haydn, and as stated earlier, Mozart would make many string quartet pieces dedicated to Haydn. Of course, he still was working on commissions at the time, such as the comedic opera “The Abduction from the Seraglio” for court. In 1782, he would marry, against his father’s wishes, Constanze Weber, who was an opera singer. The two would have many, MANY children, 6 in total, but without the technology we have today, unfortunately only 2 of the 6 children survived. In the same year, Mozart would find himself to be a part of a secret society with his father and Haydn: The Order of Freemasons, a society meant only for “enlightened thinkers” (People who thought outside of the traditional norms). Only a few years later, 1786, Mozart would premiere “The Marriage of Figaro”, and that piece alongside Don Giovanni would go on to have plenty of successful performances. Eventually, just as he had wished 5 years earlier, Mozart was named Imperial Court Chamber Music Composer to Emperor Joseph II. His aspirations were finally complete. Unfortunately, things would only go downhill from here. Mozart’s health and finances started rapidly declining in 1791. Little did he know, this would be his final year. He was commissioned by Count Franz von Walsegg to work on a mass for the dead, who had intended to claim the piece as his own work. Mozart would also work on “The Magic Flute” with Emanuel Schikaneder, “The Clemency of Titus” for Leopold II’s coronation as King of Bohemia, and a final requiem he wouldn’t be able to finish. December 5th, 1791, Mozart would pass away, leaving his requiem sketches to his student, Franz Xavier Sussmayr to complete it. How he impacted music He improved upon the Viennese classical ideals of elegance, balance, refinement, sophistication, poise, and the likes. Almost if not every genre of classical music was advanced and refined in some way. Mozart liked to use symmetrical phrase structures (4-measure phrases) in his music. He was an important figure in developing sonata form. Johann Christian Bach influenced Mozart to develop piano concertos. Mozart basically solidified what the piano style of the 18th century was thanks to his concertos and solo works. He helped develop the concerto structure by having a double exposition in the 1st movement. In terms of writing, it was more-so balanced harmonically and diatonically, with a few chromatic elements sprinkled around. And thanks to the Mannheim orchestra, Mozart was inspired to increase his use of wind instruments. Of course, Mozart also helped develop opera seria, buffa, and singspiel with pieces he’s still known for today such as “Idomeneo”, “The Marriage of Figaro”, and “The Magic Flute” respectively. Mozart’s characters were musically, and dramatically compelling, and felt so real. And, in his instrumentation, he took lyricism and applied it to some of the instruments, especially in slower parts, making it even more emotional. Overall, Mozart was a child prodigy who didn’t have long to live, but made the most of his life with how he lived it, and how he advanced music. The Deaf yet Unbroken Spirit, Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827) Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany to a family of musicians. While he was 3 years old, he had saw what his grandfather Ludwig did (he was a Kapellmeister at an Electoral Court). Despite his grandfather dying when Beethoven was this age, his grandfather served to be one of Beethoven’s biggest inspirations to him. Beethoven’s father, a singer and instrumentalist at the Electoral Court, was not exactly the best suited to be raising a child. He treated Beethoven very poorly, and became an alcoholic. He did however teach Beethoven in his early years, but Beethoven would switch to a new teacher, and learn counterpoint from Christian Neefe, a court organist in Bonn. Beethoven would go on to become a court organist and violinist in Bonn in his earlier years. In 1787, he would travel to Vienna, in the hopes of studying with Mozart, but his mother’s health was not doing too well, so he returned to Bonn shortly. Unfortunately, his mother died, and he became financially responsible in place of her, having to provide for his brothers Kaspar and Nikolaus as the head of the household. He would eventually move to Vienna and find a job quickly thanks to the close relationship Bonn and Vienna’s courts had in 1792. Now in Vienna, he would find himself studying with Haydn, and he dedicated his first 3 piano sonatas to him. It didn’t take long before Beethoven attracted the attention of the patronage of Viennese nobility. This had him financially supported, and got him into commissions. His most influential patrons included Prince Lobkowitz, Prince Lichnowsky, and Count Rasumovsky. Of course, Beethoven did have a bit of a temper, being known to take offense occasionally to his patrons’ demands, but he worked through it, and kept his career. In 1795, his first solo concerto appeared in Vienna, followed closely by his concerts in Prague, Dresden, Leipzig, and of course Berlin. Now, despite having many romantic interactions with a few women, Beethoven would remain single. In his 20s, Beethoven began to lose his hearing. He tried to treat it, but all attempts were futile. He wrote a letter to his brothers, stating his inner struggles. He contemplated committing suicide, but thankfully decided against it. In 1802, he found himself admiring Napoleon, but then became less admiring, and disillusioned with him, so he removed Napoleon’s name from the 3rd symphony he dedicated to him, “Eroica”. This is because Napoleon, after taking down royalty and such, declared himself Emperor, which went against everything the French were fighting for. In 1814, he would make his last concert appearance, performing the “Archduke” on piano. In 1820, he would find himself fighting his sister-in-law over custody of his nephew Karl after his brother Kaspar died. He would win, but soon after became completely deaf, having any visitor write to him in conversation books. He spent his final years becoming more withdrawn, and antisocial living in isolation. His nephew Karl attempted suicide in 1826, and this devastated Beethoven, and soon after, he fell gravely ill. Only one year later, 1827, March 26th, he passed away from what was determined to be pneumonia. How he impacted music He was extremely original in his pieces, and a bold innovator. He planned all his works and revised them in a musical sketchbook. His themes typically grew out of short motifs. He ended up developing and expanding the classical genres of sonata, concerto, symphony, and string quartet. He was known to transform every genre he would touch upon. He would innovate things, such as taking the minuet and trio, and replacing the graceful beginning with a scherzo and trio, for a more dramatic opening. He would use cyclical structure in pieces, include programmatic elements, and include choruses and soloists in symphony. He was a fan of using explosive accents, and extreme contrasts dynamically, from extremely loud, to extremely quiet. He would go on to add the piccolo, trombone, and contrabassoon in his pieces. He would also go on to exploit new features, and improvements for pianos. For example, he expanded the range. Overall, despite having lived a difficult life, he really had an impact on how we write music to this day. Discussion Questions How did the Classical era use of sonata form influence the structure of symphonies and concertos? What new orchestral techniques and instruments became prominent during this period? How did the rise of the middle class and changes in patronage during the Classical era affect composers' careers and their music? How did focusing on clear themes and harmony in the Classical era change music theory? How did experimenting with styles such as “style galant” and “Sturm und Drang” influence Haydn’s compositions? How did Mozart’s career as a freelance musician shape his life and music? How do you think Beethoven’s music shows us his personal struggles and or triumphs? How did Beethoven’s struggles such as hearing loss, and responsibility over his family impact his music? Beethoven was both in the Classical, and Romantic Eras. How do you think he bridged his compositions from one to the other? The Baroque and Classical eras relied heavily on form but also had a significant usage of improvisatory-style writing through the cadenza or a prelude. Despite this, many classical musicians struggle with improvising. Why is that? Many of the Classical forms evolved from baroque musical devices such as the ritornello form, basso continuo and figured bass into rondo form, Alberti bass and basso continuo. Could we say that musical tastes had greatly changed in comparison as to what they were in the Baroque era or is the change more minor? Why is that? How is the subject in a fugue treated differently from the refrain in a rondo form piece or the main theme in a sonata form piece? What does this say about the difference in the musical ideals of the Classical and Baroque eras? Bibliography Sloan, Alison, and Andrew Fitzpatrick. “The Classical Era.” Essay. In 9, 9:50–81. 273 Bloor Street West, Toronto: Frederick Harris, 2016. Cartwright, Mark. “Ludwig van Beethoven.” World History Encyclopedia, July 5, 2023. https://www.worldhistory.org/Ludwig_van_Beethoven/. Cartwright, Mark. “Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.” World History Encyclopedia, June 20, 2023. https://www.worldhistory.org/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart/. Geiringer, Karl. “Joseph Haydn.” Encyclopædia Britannica, August 14, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Haydn. Listening – Classical Era General Terms: - Alberti Bass: A form in the bass developed in the baroque era but would rise to prominence in the Classical Era. An evolution of the Baroque practice of the basso continuo and figured bass. - Period: The basic phrase unit for many classical compositions. They are made up of an antecedent phrase and a consequent phrase. - Theme: a recurring musical idea in Classical era forms such as the sonata form. Forms: Forms in the classical era: The forms of the classical era revolve around the idea of musical continuity, or simply put, the importance of ensuring that each the pieces have a unifying motivic thread connecting. These unifying musical ideas are referred to as themes and in classical forms, they often return after sections of original material (in rondo form) or the development of the presented themes and new material(sonata form). Sonata Form: One of the most common forms in the classical era. It is a synthesis of the principles of binary and ternary forms and is generally made up of three sections, the exposition, development and the recapitulation with an optional coda at the end. It is important to understand that the sonata form does not have a strict set of rules that must be followed. It is possible for a piece written in sonata form to only have a partial recapitulation or a development that does not actually develop the thematic material introduced in the exposition. It is better to describe the sonata form as a series of patterns observed in many compositions during the classical era unlike another form such as the Rondo which developed separately and has a stricter hold on how the refrain and episodes are used. This form was originally developed through a fusion of the ternary and binary forms to streamline them with ternary form especially being noted as being incredibly rigid. The ternary elements can be seen in the three main sections of exposition, development and recapitulation. The binary influence can be seen through the exposition having two (possibly more but often two) main groups with one being in the tonic and the being in the dominant key. Introduction: a brief opening phrase or a theme that establishes the main key before it he exposition. This was not always used in sonata form pieces. The Exposition: The first large section of the sonata form presents the main thematic material of the song. It is usually divided into two sections, one in the tonic key and one in the dominant with each presenting the main theme in a different key. The first group presents the main theme in the tonic key and the second groups presents it in the dominant. This material may be repeated to build familiarity in the audience in what is referred to as a “Double Exposition”. First Half/part 1: Theorists have not assigned a formal name to the first half of the exposition In the tonic key Ends in a half cadence in the tonic key Sometimes leads into a dominant preparation to facilitate a modulation into the key of the second half. Transition: A musical passage which ensures that the music smoothly transitions from the tonic key to the dominant or to the relative major if the initial key is a minor key. May be a dominant preparation Will have a Medial Caesura (a small half cadence used to indicate that the transition has modulated into the new key. Less common, the Medial Caesura is a half cadence in the home key meaning that the transition does not modulate Even less common, the Medial Caesura is a PAC in the new key Second Half/part 2:  In the dominant key or relative major if the initial key is minor Ends in an authentic cadence May present an adaption of the main theme in the dominant key or its own thematic material. Primary Theme: The main motivic idea of the movement. Is presented in both the tonic and the dominant key. In the tonic key in the first group section and the Secondary theme: Presented during the second group. In the dominant key. May be an adaption of the first theme or could be original material. Essential Exposition Closure: the first Perfect Authentic Cadence that is in the subordinate key. It often comes before the codetta or any other closing section in the exposition. This is an essential part of the sonata form exposition and solidifies the secondary key. Codetta: An optional addition intended to provide an ending as well as facilitate the transition into the development. The Development: The development section of the sonata form largely serves to expand previously introduced material, one or multiple of the themes introduced in the exposition. Will be in the dominant if the tonic is a major key or the relative major if the tonic is a minor key. It usually begins with a reiteration of the main theme in the dominant. Often written in an improvisatory style Develops at least one of the main themes introduced in the exposition often through employing practices such as: Fragmentation Modulation Sequences Leads directly into the recapitulation The Recapitulation: reiterates the material presented in the exposition and returns the piece to the tonic key where it will generally stay. This includes material that was presented in another key earlier in the exposition. Coda: an optional addition to the end of the recapitulation, written in improvisatory style and often in the tonic key. Listening: 1. Sonata Form, Eine Kleine Nachtmusik Mov.1, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MeaQ595tzxQ a. Exposition: i. Introduction (1-4) ii. Theme A (5-9) iii. Theme B (11-17) iv. Transition (18-27) v. Theme A in the dominant key (28-35) vi. Theme B in the dominant key (35-49) vii. Codetta (49-55) viii. Development (56-75) ix. Recapitulation (76-126) x. Coda (127-137) [Sheet Music of Eine Kleine Nachtmusik with form analysis done by Alex Poru is attached as Jpeg on OWL Brightspace.] As one of the most recognisable pieces of the classical era, Eine Kleine Nachtmusik’s first movement also serves as a good example of what could be considered “standard” sonata form. One important section to look at is the development and how Mozart uses sequences and fragmentation to develop the thematic material of the first theme from bars 60 to beat two of bar 70. Generally, the development would only development one of the themes though it is possible for the development to develop multiple themes or have completely original material. In addition, one important feature to note of Eine Kleine’s development is how it initially starts in the dominant key of D major then modulates to C major. Though most developments would stay in the dominant or a relative key, modulations to other closely-related keys were also observed in some variations in the sonata form. Rondo Form: The rondo form evolved from the ritornello of the Baroque era. What differentiates rondo from ritornello is that the refrain in the rondo always comes pack in its entirety and is rarely paraphrased in some manner like a ritornello often is. o It was frequently employed in smaller scale works such as sonatas and chamber music though would also be used in chamber music and symphonies and sometimes in concertos. o It was often employed in the second movement of pieces for most genres though was often employed as the form of the last movement in the concerto. o Several different variations of the for had 5 (ABACA or ABABA) or 7 parts (ABACABA) though these were by no means the only ones. A rondo at its core is defined by repeated returns of the refrain after each episode. o Refrain: A musical segment from the beginning of the piece which periodically returns after episodes. o Episodes: New material which separates iterations of the refrain. Often labeled as B o Transition: Musical passage used to shift from the refrain to the episodes Listening Component Rondo Form: Piece: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKp50_mb_kg The rondo form was often employed in the second and third movements in larger works such as concertos and symphonies and Beethoven employed it in his fourth piano concerto. While he would abandon the general rondo form in later works, his early piano concertos follow standard classical traditions. In piano concerto No. 4, Beethoven follows the typical rondo formula with episodes the refrain, which is introduced at the very beginning, appearing after each episode. The refrain creates a unifying thread between the new material presented in each episode ensuring that the piece maintains continuity. This principle is also seen not only in the form but also in the contents of each episode. Many of the episodes contain scales which ensure that the piece always feels as if it is moving forward. An additional important detail to observe is that the solo piano often plays during the episodes. While this does not exhibit much about the form, structurally, it does demonstrate how Beethoven was able to utilize the characteristics of the rondo form to allow the piano to shine. By ensuring that the soloist takes the centre during the Episodes, this ensures that the soloist is largely the one that presents the original material while the orchestra mostly focusses on reinforcing the refrain and providing brief interjections to highlight each section to the audience. [Sheet music is attached as JPEG on Brightspace] The sheet music pages show how Beethoven gave the solo piano priority in the Episodes. Observe how sparse the orchestral accompaniment is. The orchestra only provides some minor accompaniment that mostly consists of repeated notes contrasting with the long and technically-challenging passages in the solo piano. Sonata-Rondo Form: The Sonata-Rondo form is a variation of the standard rondo form that is exclusively used for finales that was developed to inject some variety into a form that believed had become standardized. The most common variation was to introduce an additional episode using similar material or to include other sections from a sonata such as a development. These additions gave the finale more variety since it was very common for sonata form to be used for the first movement and for rondo form to be used in interior movements, mainly the second movement. o 9 section sonata-rondo (ABACADAB1A) o 6 section rondo (ABACB1A) Listening piece choice: Sonata "Pathetique" Op. 13 - III. Rondo. Allegro - Ludwig Van Beethoven https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ifj8dwuAzAQ [Sheet Music with analysis attached as JPEG on Brightspace] The finale of Beethoven's Pinao Sonata No. 8 in C minor dubbed “Pathetique” is considered by many to be a model example of a sonata-rondo since it expertly combines traits from both forms and serves as a good template to choose when examining the characteristics of this form. Being one of Beethoven’s earlier works, being composed when he was 27, the Pathetique is a lot more traditional than his later works and is noted to share many characteristics with pieces by his older contemporaries, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Franz Joseph Haydn. The piece follows the rondo format of ABACABA and a coda at the end with the A section as the Refrain, the B section as an Episode and the C section functioning as both a development section and another Episode. The piece’s last three sections could also be considered a Recapitulation since the key does not change from the Refrain (A) to the Episode (B). An additional thing to note is that the Episodes have their own thematic material that returns in the recapitulation. This movement demonstrates how composers would nest the sonata form in the larger rondo form and how different traits such as the recapitulation were combined with the alternation of Refrain and Episode. This structure was also commonly employed by Haydn who was noted too often employed symmetrical forms in many of his compositions. Sources: Pauly, R. G. (1988). Sonata Form. In Music in the Classical Period (pp. 37–43). essay, Prentice Hall a Division of Simon and Schuster. Rosen, C. (1976). Theories of Form. In The Classical Style Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven (pp. 30–42). essay, The Alden Press. Rosen, C. (1976). Dramatic character of the classical style. In The Classical Style Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven (pp. 43-43). essay, The Alden Press. Webster, J. (2001). Sonata form. Grove Music Online. Retrieved 16 Sep. 2024, from https://www-oxfordmusiconline-com.proxy1.lib.uwo.ca/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592 630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000026197. Cole, M. (2001). Rondo. Grove Music Online. Retrieved 16 Sep. 2024, from https://www-oxfordmusiconline-com.proxy1.lib.uwo.ca/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592 630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000023787. Program Music (19th century and beyond) Context and Ideas: Overview: Program music is a form of instrumental composition intended to evoke a particular story, scene, or emotion, often drawing on non-musical themes such as literature, visual art, or nature. Through elements like melody, harmony, and rhythm, composers aim to depict a narrative or concept, encouraging listeners to engage beyond just the sound itself. The origins of program music are closely linked to the Romantic era, when composers became deeply interested in connecting music to external ideas and emotions. This period saw the creation of many notable works that sought to convey specific stories or scenes. For example, some compositions were inspired by philosophical texts, while others portrayed visual art or even mythological themes. Program music frequently takes the shape of symphonic poems, overtures, or suites, each designed to communicate a particular theme. During the 19th century, composers like Hector Berlioz and Franz Liszt played influential roles in shaping the genre. Some works from this time illustrate vivid narratives, with movements that reflect a range of emotions, places, or events. While program music is admired for its ability to conjure imagery and stories, it can also be appreciated for its musical structure alone. Listeners can enjoy the music without being familiar with the specific program, allowing for a purely auditory experience. Although program music was particularly popular in the 19th century, its influence can still be felt today. Many modern film scores, for instance, are rooted in the idea of using music to accompany visual storytelling, continuing the tradition of fusing sound with narrative. Program music remains a versatile and powerful way for composers to blend artistic expression with storytelling. A New Era: Music and Expressiveness In the nineteenth century, during a period of intellectual prioritization, the “music of the future" and "musicians of the future" was becoming a large debate especially in the German musical circle. While Franz Liszt entered the field of orchestral composition, Wilhelm Richard Wagner was outlining the "artwork of the future" combining music with drama and other arts. During this time, many composers began to strive for greater freedom, ease, lucidity, and suppleness in their music, and aimed towards a greater expressiveness. This became evident with the emergence of programmatic repertoire and the desire for interpretation among listeners and critics. Heinrich Christoph Koch, a German music theorist of the 18th and 19th centuries, voiced doubt in the ability of program symphonies to express musical sentiments without the assistance of the poetic arts. However, around the nineteenth century, Beethoven’s instrumental works sparked greater imaginative freedom in comparison to vocal music. Nearly a century prior to programmatic composers like Mahler, Beethoven pushed the boundaries of music’s emotional range and evolved and expanded on earlier melancholic and dramatic themes. While much of the programmatic repertoire increased significantly throughout the years by composers such as Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Hector Berlioz, as well as Franz Berwald, Louis Spohr, Neils Gade, Carl Loewe, numerous scholars and composers believed the integrity of music was endangered. Programmatic Music + Its Connection to Literature By around 1830, music and literature formed a stronger connection and composers such as Fryderyk Chopin were often interpreted through this lens. For Liszt, program music included the connection between musical and non-musical forms whereby the “return, alternation, change, and modulation of motives” are all caused by their relationship to a poetic idea. He believed that programmatic repertoire helped to articulate the inner workings of a composer’s piece; the experiences that led to the creation of the piece, and the ideas the composer wanted to convey. From 1854-1855, Liszt shifted his focus from poetry as text to poetry as stimulus, viewing the text as a source of inspiration and creative stimulus rather than a textual basis for one’s music. Conversely, conservatives challenged Liszt and denied the novelty of the idea of instrumental poetry altogether. Music theorists, Joan Grimault and Lauri Suurpaa, have highlighted that narration need not be based on literary models. Rather, they argue that absolute music, instrumental music without any specific programmatic or extramusical associations, possesses an equal capacity for expressing narratives through its utilization of “unorthodox structures, unusual melodies, surprising modulations, long-range recall or unexpected orchestration.” A Loss of Imagination While some assert that programmatic music and its representational qualities enables listeners to experience a sense of likeness or affinity, many others believe program music diminishes the capacity for human imagination. Musicologist, Jonathan Kroeger, highlights the consequence of programmatic music and its mandate to imitate, noting that it has caused listeners to focus on the technical aspects of the piece - such as how a composer has orchestrated their material and employed themes - in an effort to achieve the intended imitation. This emphasis on technical aspects within a work may impede listeners from deriving their own interpretations and using their imagination. Similarly, in the initial edition of Sir George Grove’s A Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Frederick Corder, a Mendelssohn scholar, sought to simplify the history of aesthetic and poetic program music by highlighting how early programmatic musicians began with imitating sounds. Corder believes this to be a “silly notion” and criticizes modern composers who continue to imitate rather than muse on their subjects. He argues that simple replication or imitation of sounds lacks depth and significance, and urges one to employ a more profound artistic approach. Bibliographical Resources Kroeger, Jonathan. 2015. Program Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kroeger, Jonathan, ed. 2018. “Nineteenth-Century Programme Music : Creation, Negotiations, Reception.” In. Turnhout: Brepols. Some terms and definitions: Symphony Program Music: A composer who applies the concept of program music to the symphony form produces a program symphony. A program symphony would have several movements, typically four or five, and most likely keep to some of the traditional conventions of symphonic structure, much like any other work in that genre. For instance, the third movement would be dance based, while the second movement would probably be slower than the first. Essentially, the fifth movement would be the grand finale. A program symphony is best exemplified by Hector Berlioz's Symphony Fantastique. Concert Overture: The concert overture originated in the 19th century as a standalone, one movement composition inspired by opera overtures. These pieces either had a simpler, orchestral poem like structure, as in Brahms' Academic Festival Overture or Mendelssohn's Hebrides Overture, or they simply clung to the traditional sonata form. Some were written as introductions to spoken dramas, such as Beethoven's Egmont Overture. Absolute Music: Absolute music is instrumental music that has no particular message or narrative and is only made for the sake of its own beauty. melodies, rhythms, and structure are the only things that matter in absolute music; program music seeks to explain things or tell a story. It enables individual interpretation and feeling of the music by the listeners. Famous composers such as Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven composed a great deal of absolute music, which is free of external ideas or messages and focuses only on sound and musical creativity. The Symphonic Poem(i.e., ‘Tone Poem’) The term tone poem is said to be crafted by Franz Liszt. Similar to the Concert Overture, it is a one movement piece. However, compositions were not exclusive to literature. They could be about historical events, scenery, individuals, etc.Liszt’s criteria for a tone poem includes characteristic motives (religion, sensual, etc.) and to be arranged to have meaningful contrast. Composer of note: Franz Liszt In 1848, Liszt became the Kapellmeister (the orchestra/choir director) in Weimar, Germany. By that point, he had performed over a thousand concerts and had established a reputation as a piano virtuoso. During his time as a Kapellmeister, he worked closely with Wagner. During their time together, Wagner’s ideals and opinions heavily influenced Liszt. Wagner noticed and defined the aesthetical change in overtures between the classical era and the romantic era, which Liszt used to create a criteria for symphonic/tone poem. Examples: · Claude Debussy’s Prélude de l’après-midi d’un faune · George Gershwin’s American in Paris Incidental music Incidental music is similar to background music. It is there to support what is in the spotlight. Often used for operas, incidental music was composed for what was happening on stage. If two characters were having an argument, the music playing during their argument would be angry. Articulations may be sharper, dynamic louder, there may be more moving parts or the piece may be in a minor key. Each musical element in the composition would be cultivated to reflect the scene. Examples: · Edvard Greig’s incidental music for Peer Gynt. · A modern day example of incidental music is Radiohead’s Exit Music (For A Film) written for Baz Luhrmann’s 1996 film adaptation of Romeo and Juliet. This shows how important and relevant incidental music still is today. Key composers (names and dates) ○ Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) Beethoven had a large influence on concert overtures. He was known for composing dramatic overtures, which influenced concert overture composers like Richard Wagner. Beethoven wrote eleven overtures. Infusing elements of “Namensfeier” Overture (Name-Day) into his work, Beethoven wrote his most influential overtures between 1805 and 1810. This was during what was called his “heroic” period where his compositions at this time were triumphant, energetic, expressive, dramatic and powerful. Bibliographical Sources https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ledg3A1b7vo https://sianjacksonblog.wordpress.com/2014/04/23/concert-overture-romeo-and-juliet/ “Absolute Music: Definition & Meaning.” M5 Music, August 28, 2023. https://www.m5music.hk/en/dictionary/absolute-music/?srsltid=AfmBOoozhYzh08K esRou2QfWiI5FHJgi2U-Yh80JBK4RjL-nlve_T5C_. “Music 101.” Program Music and the Program Symphony | Music 101. Accessed September 19, 2024. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-musicapp-medieval-modern/chapter/program -music-and-the-program-symphony/#:~:text=Hector%20Berlioz’s%20Symphony%20 Fantastique%20is,examples%20of%20a%20program%20symphony. “Overture.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed September 19, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/art/overture-music#ref30316. “Program Music: Definition & Meaning.” M5 Music, August 26, 2023. https://www.m5music.hk/en/dictionary/program-music/?srsltid=AfmBOorgl2z2jzCtr- 7sSsqXexy9VoIKs-LsQC_Qk6w5FlfyAYr6cdcw. Program Music Listening List Symphonic Poem: Mother Goose Suite - Maurice Ravel Spotify Link: https://open.spotify.com/album/3HkYxTdk02DbfExR7Af6jd?si=xLJ2ju5GRP-g1RO-SMqX NQ Maurice Ravel originally wrote Mother Goose Suite as a piano duet in 1908, which he eventually orchestrated in 1911. Ravel took inspiration for this piece from Perrault’s Collection and other fairytales. The suite was intended to be a gift to his friends Cipa and Ida Godebski’s children, Mimi and Jean. This piece was orchestrated for one flute, one piccolo, one oboe, one English horn, two clarinets, one bassoon, one contra bassoon, timpani, bass drum, cymbals, glockenspiel, tam-tam, triangle, xylophone, harp, celeste, and strings. The first performance was in January of 1912 at the Théâtre des Arts, Paris. Movement one, Pavan of Sleeping Beauty, is a very atmospherical setting. It is a tableau. Movement two, Hop-o-My Tom Thumb, consists of the storyline of the character Tom Thumb who trails into the forest to find his way out, but then birds eat the crumbs. The birds eating the crumbs are represented in the oboe. Movement three, Laideronette, Emperess of the Pagodas, is about a former princess who became magically disfigured by a witch, who then meets “The Green Serpent” in the forest. They take adventures together and visit living pagodas that sing and play for the couple. In movement four, Beauty and the Beast Converse, the clarinet represents Beauty, and the bassoon represents the Beast. Eventually, the beauty’s voice is represented in the flute and oboe. After the Beast transitions back into a prince, Beauty’s voice is the violin, and the Beast’s is the cello. The fifth movement, The Fairy Garden, of this suite brings a happy ending to the narrative beneath the music. The celeste can be heard representing Sleeping Beauty being awoken by Prince Charming, and the general fanfare and triumphant mood of this movement represents a happy reunion of characters around Sleeping Beauty and a happy ending for her and Prince Charming. (All sources for biography, orchestration, and narrative information are within the links below) Why I Chose This Piece: My audition experience influenced me to choose this piece because of how much time I spent with it. While I was listening and exploring this suite for the first time, I enjoyed feeling the sense of musical hesitation throughout Ravel’s writing. Ravel’s use of the woodwind’s timbre and lightness brings attention to carefulness throughout the piece. I also found myself enjoying the sense of gentle, but exciting playfulness throughout this work in the third movement especially. I believe the smaller group of instruments for this suite helps to add the element of exposure and uniqueness to the musical image Ravel is creating. The exposure paired with the way melodies and themes interact with each other conveys a lot of beauty and intention that was written into this work to deliver the full picture. Further Reading: https://www.bso.org/works/mother-goose-complete Sources: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maurice-Ravel https://ton.bard.edu/ravels-mother-goose-suite/#:~:text=Ravel%20was%20inspired%20by%2 0Perrault's,friends%20Cipa%20and%20Ida%20Godebski. https://www.laphil.com/musicdb/pieces/2368/mother-goose-suite https://www.bso.org/works/mother-goose-complete#:~:text=Composition%20and%20premie re%3A%20Ravel%20wrote,the%20Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre%20des%20Arts%2C%20Paris. Pictures at an Exhibition - Modest Mussorgsky (Orch, Ravel) Spotify Link: https://open.spotify.com/album/1b2aoeaYZZBWmJoavOQhnd?si=eN35P6niTtC8O-ozPcoY wQ Russian composer Modest Mussorgsky composed Pictures at an Exhibition in 1874 for solo piano. He wrote the piece after the death of his friend and visual artist Viktor Hartmann. The piece was never published or performed and it was not until after his death that colleague Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov had to finalize it and bring it to be printed in 1886. The piece musically represents and depicts ten paintings. The movements within this work are named: Promenade I, Gnomus, Promenade II, The Old Castle, Promenade III, Tuileries Gardens, Bydlo, Promenade IV, Ballet of The Unhatched Chicks, Samuel Goldenberg und Schmuÿle, The Market at Limoges, Catacombae, Cum Mortuis in Lingua Mortua, The Hut on Chicken’s Legs, and The Great Gate of Kiev. This piece was later orchestrated by various composers, but Maurice Ravel’s orchestration is the most known version of this piece today. Mussorgsky notes in letters about this piece that the Promenade theme is meant to represent himself viewing the exhibit. Why I Chose This Pie