NSC 205 Unit II-IV: Culture, Family, and Agents of Socialisation PDF

UNIT II: SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE CULTURE, SOCIETY, TRADITION AND BELIEF SYSTEM The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin "colere," which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture, according to Arthur Asa Berge...

UNIT II: SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE CULTURE, SOCIETY, TRADITION AND BELIEF SYSTEM The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin "colere," which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture, according to Arthur Asa Berger. Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we behave with loved ones and a million other things," Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (opens in new tab) goes a step further, defining culture as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding that are learned by socialization. Thus, culture can be seen as the growth of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group. The term "Western culture" has come to define the culture of European countries as well as those that have been heavily influenced by European immigration, such as the United States, according to Khan University (opens in new tab). Western culture has its roots in the Classical Period of the Greco-Roman era (the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.) and the rise of Christianity in the 14th century. Other drivers of Western culture include Latin, Celtic, Germanic and Hellenic ethnic and linguistic groups. INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON HEALTH AND ILLNESS As a healthcare provider, broaching subjects on ethnic differences may not be on territory you want to tread. However, it’s an important part of providing care to your patients. Culture has a significant impact on both diagnoses and treatment options, primarily because of different social beliefs, but also because of biological factors. In order to improve the care of patients in general, health care providers should be aware of the following cultural influences. 1. Family and Community: Everyone retains certain beliefs as a result of family and community influences, especially in other countries. For example, Africans, Asians and Pacific Islanders rely heavily on their extended family. Oftentimes, the honor and interests of the family are more important than the interests of the individual. Understanding situations like this when administering health care can be very helpful in providing proper treatment. 2. Religion: For the truly zealous, religion is not just a hobby. It’s a way of life, and that can add barriers to typical treatments. Jews, and Arabs for example, abstain from certain foods because of their religion, and therefore there will be dietary preferences to consider when outlining any sort of nutritional plan. Others may believe that their illness is an act of God and therefore refuse treatment. 3. Perspectives on Death: This is not a question about life after death or funeral rituals, but if health workers (nurses, doctors etc.) truly want to connect with and help patients, they will benefit from knowing the patients’ and families’ perspectives on dying. They will need to know the proper ways to handle end of life care and make the transition as comfortable as possible. 4. Gender Roles: Different genders will often have different beliefs regarding medical treatment. Women, for example, may request less invasive treatments to make them more comfortable. Likewise, gender roles within relationships can often play a role in hindering treatment. One partner in the relationship may be dominant and believe it’s his/her job to make all of the decisions. 5. Health Beliefs: Cultures often have different beliefs regarding health care in general. Caucasians generally have a low pain tolerance compared to other ethnicities and tend to have higher expectations regarding their physical recovery and expectations of receiving a prescription. On the other hand, those coming from a Hispanic background desire quick relief, but are often less willing to trust American remedies. 6. Beliefs about Medication: As mentioned above, Caucasians have a lot of faith in prescription medication and modern treatments. Therefore, they are much more likely to take their medications as prescribed. Others cultural groups, such as African Americans and Native Americans, may doubt the need for such medication and stop taking it prematurely. 7. Responses to Medications: Perhaps one of the most important cultural influences has to do with the way a patient responds physically to medication. Some people from backgrounds other than Caucasian may not metabolize the medication correctly, causing serious complications in  treatment. Caucasian patients generally tend to handle a wider variety of medications than those of other cultures do. Broaching these subjects with your patients may be uncomfortable to begin with, but it may be the thing that saves your patient’s life and your career. Cultural factors influencing the acceptance and utilization of health care services. (10 cultural factors that influence health care) In order to improve health care delivery and outcomes, providers must develop the cultural competence to serve patients from diverse cultures. Western culture takes a biomedical approach to health care. However, many cultures take a more holistic approach that includes the body, mind, and spirit. Health Providers, who work with the patient’s belief system, rather than against it or ignoring it, will have greater success in delivery and outcomes. Providers must also be aware of their own cultural filters in the health care delivery process. To improve health care delivery and outcomes, providers should know the patient’s cultural views on: 1. Role of family (roles of members, hierarchy, key decision-maker) 2. Role of community 3. Religion (impact on diet, beliefs about illness, treatment) 4. Views on health and wellness 5. Views on death and dying 6. Eastern/western/alternative/traditional medicine. 7. Beliefs about causes and treatments of illness, disease (physical and mental) 8. Gender roles and relationships 9. Sexuality, fertility, childbirth 10. Food beliefs and diet NORMS AND VALUES Norms and values: Norms refers to behavior and attitudes which are considered normal, while values are those things that people consider important to them. Functionalists believe that all members of society are socialized into these norms and values, first through the family and later through institutions such as education, the media and religion. It is in this secondary socialization that people learn universalistic values rather than just those particular values to their own family or community. Norms are action-guiding rules while Values are important beliefs or ideals of a person in a community, serving as a motivation for action. The difference between a value and a norm is that a value is general, referring to an overall ideal, whereas a norm is concrete, specifying certain things that have to be done (or omitted). Values can be operationalized in specifying norms; norms refer to and are justified by underlying values. Why Values and Norms are important In codes of conduct for scientific research, the concepts of values and norms are often used interchangeably. Yet, it is crucial to distinguish between the two concepts. Values are general ideals. They underlie norms, which are action-guiding rules. There are three kinds of such rules: permissions, orders or commands and prohibitions. Values show what persons and communities hold as important. Norms say what has to be done in order to realize values. Without a reference to underlying values, rules lack motivation and justification. Without corresponding norms, values lack specification and concrete direction. STATUS AND ROLE Status is a position in a social system involving designated rights and obligation, whereas, role is the behavior oriented to others' patterned expectations. Simply defined, status is a socially defined position in a group or a social system, such as female, student, teacher, child, mother, father etc. Put it another way, status is a rank or position of an individual in a group/community or the place in a particular system, which a certain individual occupies at a particular time or position in the general institutional system, recognized and supported by the entire society. A status occupant is expected by others to behave in a special way, relative to the specific situation. The relation of the father and the child is reciprocal and gives to each a position in the family group. The position is always relative; status always implies a group. With every status certain privileges, rights and duties are associated, such privileges, rights and duties are the roles expected to be play the occupant of the status. Additionally, the role, in sociology, is expected of an individual who occupies a given social position or status. A role is a comprehensive pattern of socially recognized behavior, providing a means of identifying and placing an individual in a society. It also serves as a strategy for coping with recurrent situations and dealing with others' roles (e.g., parent-child roles). The basic fact is that each person in society inevitably occupies multiple statuses and each of these statuses has an associated role to play. And in every society and every group, each member has some function or activity with which he is associated and carries some degree of power or prestige. What the individual does or performs is generally call his role. The degree of prestige or power is refers to as his status. Therefore roles are related to statuses. Types of Status Statuses are culturally defined, despite the fact that they may be based on biological factors such as sex, caste or race etc. Ralph Linton has noted two types of status such as Ascribed and Achieved status described below: (i) Ascribed status: An ascribed status is a social position, one into which a person is born and in which he or she remains throughout his or her life, e.g., sex, caste, race and age etc. and is therefore usually permanent. In addition, ethnic background, place of birth, and family name supply assigned statuses. Such statuses are said to be ascribed. Ascribed statuses are usually fixed at birth. (ii) Achieved status: An achieved status is one that is chosen or achieved, such as a married person, a parent, a friend, a doctor or an engineer. Thus, an achieved status, by contrast, is entered as a result of some degree of purposive action and choice; it is one that is based on something the person has done. For example, a boy of 17-25 can be an athlete, a guitarist, a student of history, even a doctor, nurse, and a member of a local club enjoying different forms of achieved status. An achieved status is acquired through one’s efforts and society recognizes such changes in achieved status. Statuses that are not fixed by inheritance, biological characteristics, or other factors, over which the individual has no control, are known as achieved statuses. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social stratification: meaning, types, and characteristics In all societies people differ from each other on the basis of their age, sex and personal characteristics. Human society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous. Apart from the natural differences, human beings are also differentiated according to socially approved criteria. Socially differentiated men are treated as socially unequal from the point of view of enjoyment of social rewards like status, power, income etc. That may be called social inequality. The term social inequality simply refers to the existence of socially created inequalities. Meanings: Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others. In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon the inequality of social positions, social stratification occurs. Social stratification means division of society into different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of social groups. Members of a particular layer have a common identity. They have a similar life style. The Indian Caste system provides an example of stratification system according to Puja (2018). The society in which divisions of social classes exist is known as a stratified society. Modern stratification fundamentally differs from stratification of primitive societies. Social stratification involves two phenomena: (i) Differentiation of individuals or groups on the basis of possession of certain characteristics whereby some individuals or groups come to rank higher than others, (ii) The ranking of individuals according to some basis of evaluation. Sociologists are concerned not merely with the facts of social differences but also with their social evaluation. Definitions of social stratifications by various authorities 1. Ogburn and Nimkoff: Refer to social stratification as the process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification” 2. Lundberg: A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that are evaluated by them as being lower and higher. 3. Gisbert: Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordinations”. 4. Williams: Social Stratification refers to “The ranking of individuals on a scale of superiority-inferiority-equality, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation. 5. Raymond W. Murray: Social stratification is horizontal division of society into “higher” and “lower” social units.” 6. Melvin M Tumin: “Social stratification refers to “arrangement of any social group or society into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation and psychic gratification”. Origin of Stratification: Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given. (i) According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to the functional necessity of the social system. (ii) Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference in environmental conditions. (iii) According to Karl Mrax, social factors are responsible for the emergence of different social strata, i.e. social stratification. (iv). Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification is to be found in the conquest of one group by another. (v) According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity which is created whenever society differentiates positive in terms of functions and powers. (vi). Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also lead to stratification. Types of Social Stratification: Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we find different type of stratification. The major types of stratification are (i) Caste (ii) Class (iii) Estate (iv) Slavery (i) Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group in which a person’s rank and its accompanying rights and obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth into a particular group. (ii) Class-Stratification on the basis of class is dominant in modern society. In this, a person’s position depends to a very great extent upon achievement and his ability to use to advantage the inborn characteristics and wealth that he may possess. (iii) Estate system of medieval: Europe provides another system of stratification which gave much emphasis to birth as well as to wealth and possessions. Each estate had a state. (iv) Slavery had economic basis: In slavery, every slave had his master to whom he was subjected. The master’s power over the slave was unlimited. Characteristics of Social Stratification On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social stratification may have the following characteristics. (a) Social stratification is universal: There is no society on this world which is free from stratification. Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently organized groups are stratified.” (b) Stratification is social: It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority and inferiority. Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the basis on which statues are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power, experience, character, personality etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities. Hence, stratification is social by nature. (c) It is ancient: Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering bonds. In almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble and powerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya even emphasis was given to political, social and economic inequalities. (d) It is in diverse forms: The forms of stratification are not uniform in all the societies. In the modern world class, caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India a special type of stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient Aryas were divided into four varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The ancient Greeks were divided into freemen and slaves and the ancient Romans were divided into the particians and the plebians. So every society, past or present, big or small is characterized by diversed forms of social stratification. (e) Social stratification is Consequential: Social stratification has two important consequences one is “life chances” and the other one is “life style”. A class system not only affects the “life- chances” of the individuals but also their “life style”. The members of a class have similar social chances but the social chances vary in every society. It includes chances of survival and of good physical and mental health, opportunities for education, chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and divorce etc. Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular social status. Life-styles include such matters like the residential areas in every community which have gradations of prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of recreation, the kinds of dress, the kinds of books; TV shows to which one is exposed and so on. Life-style may be viewed as a sub-culture in which one stratum differs from another within the frame work of a commonly shared over-all culture. Social Stratification and Social Mobility: Social mobility refers to the movement within the social structure, from one social position to another. It means a change in social status. All societies provide some opportunity for social mobility. But the societies differ from each other to extent in which individuals can move from one class or status level to another. It is said that the greater the amount of social mobility, the more open the class structure. The concept of social mobility has fundamental importance in ascertaining the relative “openness” of a social structure. The nature, forms, direction and magnitude of social mobility depends on the nature and types of social stratification. Sociologists study social mobility in order to find out the relative ‘openness’ of a social structure. Any group that improves its standard will also improve its social status. But the rate of social mobility is not uniform in all the countries. It differs from society to society from time to time. In India the rate of mobility is naturally low because of agriculture being the predominant occupation and the continuity of caste system as compared to the other countries of the world. Types of Social Mobility: In social stratification the movement occurs in three directions. (a) From lower to higher (b) From higher to lower (c) Between two positions at the same level. Social mobility is of two types: (i) Vertical mobility (ii) Horizontal mobility (i) Vertical mobility: It refers to the movement of people from one stratum to another or from one status to another. It brings changes in class, occupation and power. It involves movement from lower to higher or higher to lower. There are two types of vertical mobility. One is upward and other is downward mobility. When an individual moves from lower status to higher status, it is called upward mobility. For example, if the son of a peon joins a bank as an officer, it is said to be upward social mobility but if he loses the job due to any other reason or inefficiency, he is downwardly mobile from his previous job. So downward mobility takes place when a person moves down from one position to another and change his status. (ii) Horizontal Mobility: It refers to the movement of people from one social group to another situated on the same level. It means that the ranks of these two groups are not different. It indicates change in position without the change in status. For example, if a teacher leaves one school and joins another school or a bank officer leaves one branch to work in another or change of residence; all these are refer to as the horizontal mobility. Apart from the above two broad types of social stratification, there are two other types of social stratification in terms of dimension of time, they are: (i) Inter-generational mobility: When changes in status occur from one generation to another, it is called intergenerational mobility. For example, if the son changes his status either by taking upon occupation of higher or lower rank with that of his father, their inter-generational mobility is said to have taken place. (ii) Intra-generational mobility: When changes in status occur within one generation, it is called intra-generational mobility. For example, the rise and fall in the occupational structure of a family which leads to change in its social status within one generation is called intra-generational mobility. Stratification and Caste: Under the caste system status is hereditary. It is based on birth; it is purely an ascribed status. Once such positions are assigned, they cannot advance and improve their social status in any way. Hence, caste as a major type of social stratification does not facilitate vertical social mobility. Social Stratification and Class: Class is an “open” system. Under this system vertical mobility is absolutely free. Movement from one status to another has no barrier. Status is based on achievement. It is determined by the talents, wealth, money, intelligence, power, education, income, etc. of a person. There is no inheritance of parental status. The major classes that exist in Nigeria are (1) Upper class, (2) Middle class (working class), and (3) The masses unlike other countries like India etc. Gender: Like caste and class gender is another kind of social stratification system. Gender, perhaps is the oldest and permanent source of social differentiation. But within the broad hierarchy of caste and class, gender cuts across caste and class. Gender is defined as the social construction of relations between women and men and among various groups of women and men. Feminist consider gender as the socio-cultural manifestation of being a man or a woman. The origin of the concept gender can be traced to the 19th century women’s movement and in Marxism. But it seems to have first appeared among American Feminists who wanted to reject biological determinism. Feminists prefer the term gender than sex. But the term gender means much more than sex and more inclusive than sex. It is a socially constructed category rather than biologically determined. The gender of a man is masculine and a woman is feminine. Neither a man nor a woman is sex alone. Gender refers to the socially constructed and culturally determined role that men and women play in their day-to-day lives. Gender and Sex: The term gender does not replace the term sex. While gender refers to social, cultural and psychological differences between males and females, sex refers to the physical differences/interaction of bodily activity. Gender is a structural feature of a society. Gender refers to socially and culturally constructed differences and relations between males and females which vary from place to place and from time to time, whereas sx refers to biological differences between male and female which are much more the same over time and space. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL CLASS AND HEALTH STATUS Social class has a significant impact on one’s physical health, ability to receive adequate medical care and nutrition, and life expectancy. Here, we shall discuss the role social class plays in access to adequate health care and health inequality Key Points 1. While gender and race play significant factors in explaining healthcare inequality in the globally, socioeconomic status is the greatest determining factor in an individual’s level of access to healthcare. 2. Social determinants of health are the economic and social conditions, and their distribution among the population, that influence individual and group differences in health status. 3. They are risk factors found in one’s living and working conditions (such as the distribution of income, wealth, influence, and power), rather than individual factors (such as behavioral risk factors or genetics) that influence the risk for a disease, injury, or vulnerability to disease or injury. 4. Social determinants of health are the economic and social conditions, and their distribution among the population, that influence individual and group differences in health status. 5. Health inequality is the term used in a number of countries to refer to those instances whereby the health of two demographic groups (not necessarily ethnic or racial groups) differs despite comparative access to health care services. Key Terms 1. Social determinants of health: The economic and social conditions that influence individual and group differences in health status. 2. Health inequality: The unequal distribution of environmental health hazards and access to health services between demographic groups, including social classes. THE ROLE OF SOCIAL CLASS IN HEALTH A person’s social class has a significant impact on their physical health, their ability to receive adequate medical care and nutrition, and their life expectancy. While gender and race play significant factors in explaining healthcare inequality in the globally, socioeconomic status is the greatest determining factor in an individual’s level of access to healthcare. Individuals of lower socioeconomic status globally experience a wide array of health problems as a result of their economic status. They are unable to use health care as often, and when they do it is of lower quality, even though they generally tend to experience a much higher rate of health issues. Furthermore, individuals of lower socioeconomic status have less education and often perform jobs without significant health and benefits plans, whereas individuals of higher standing are more likely to have jobs that provide medical insurance. Consequently, they have higher rates of infant mortality, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and disabling physical injuries. Social determinants of health are the economic and social conditions, and their distribution among the population, that influence individual and group differences in health status. They are risk factors found in one’s living and working conditions (such as the distribution of income, wealth, influence, and power), rather than individual factors (such as behavioral risk factors or genetics) that influence the risk for a disease, injury, or vulnerability to disease or injury. According to some viewpoints, these distributions of social determinants are shaped by public policies that reflect the influence of prevailing political ideologies of those governing a jurisdiction. Health inequality is the term used in a number of countries to refer to those instances whereby the health of two demographic groups (not necessarily ethnic or racial groups) differs despite comparative access to health care services. Such examples include higher rates of morbidity and mortality for those in lower occupational classes than those in higher occupational classes, and the increased likelihood of those from ethnic minorities being diagnosed with a mental health disorder. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL CLASS AND HEALTH STATUS UNDER MATERIALISM AND LIFE CONDITIONS Key points are: There is an established link between poverty and poor health Insecure, poorly paid employment has been shown to have a detrimental impact on health and wellbeing The most important materialistic influences on health are diet, housing, working conditions, exposure to pollution, the urban environment and public services Economic inequalities lead to inequalities in health and wellbeing Being encouraged to strive for wealth negatively affects mental wellbeing and happiness MATERIALISM AND LIFE CONDITIONS Preoccupation with socioeconomic status is known as materialism; it is relevant to nurses because individuals’ material existence can reduce or enhance their health. White (2013) stated that the most significant materialist influences on health are: Diet, Housing, Working conditions, Exposure to pollution, and Organization of the urban landscape. Another important factor influencing health inequality is the provision or lack of public services (Bartley, 2004). The unequal distribution of income determines the relationship between individuals and these factors: those on the lowest income are likely to be most adversely affected by lack of public services. Diet and housing: People on lower incomes are likely to buy goods and services that negatively affect their health (Marmot et al, 2010). Poor diet, often portrayed as the result of a lack of education, is often the result of a lack of money to buy nutritious food. Housing: Housing is overwhelmingly determined by level of income and can significantly impact on health. Poorer housing increases the risk of accidents due to overcrowding and unsafe conditions, while damp, poor air quality leads to a higher risk of respiratory problems (White, 2013). Working conditions: Working conditions also significantly influence health. Globally, 350,000 people die each year due to workplace accidents (Mathers et al, 2009) and the physical nature of work can have serious consequences. For example, 37% of all back pain is due to occupational factors Occupation can also affect the mental health of different groups in different ways. People at the lower end of the socioeconomic scale may feel a lack of control or autonomy at work, resulting in a sense of alienation, which has a negative effect on their mental wellbeing, while more senior white-collar roles may lead to high levels of stress, which can also negatively affect mental wellbeing and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. The urban environment: The built environment can also affect socioeconomic inequalities and have serious consequences on health. A locality’s economic status affects physical features, resources and the socio-cultural environment. The affluence or poverty of an urban area influences the availability of public services, housing conditions, pollution levels, crime rates and the quality of private sector enterprises in terms of the goods and services provided. The Royal Society for Public Health (2015) highlights the impact of the urban landscape on health in its definition of a healthy town. To promote good health, healthy towns require high streets that are: (a) Free from excess noise and pollution; (b) Architecturally designed to support activities such as walking and cycling; (c) Planned to provide services that allow social interaction, improving social cohesion; and (d) Designed to encourage the establishment of businesses providing healthier services and goods. More equal and healthier: So far it has been argued that low income and material deprivation can have severe health consequences. However, it is increasingly argued that health inequalities are not just related to level of income, but that large inequalities of wealth within society in general have a negative effect on health. The social gradient of health is influenced by the existence of relative deprivation. The poorer health of middle-income earners relative to the most affluent is less to do with the absolute amount of income they earn than with their perceived lack of material possessions relative to others, and their anxiety to achieve greater social status. If health inequalities are to be seriously reduced, society must invest in individuals and environments where deprivation, poverty and economic insecurity are common. An individual’s health and wellbeing cannot be reduced to genetics, biology or poor lifestyle choices; it is the result of social inequalities (Marmot et al, 2010). Further, it is clear that a society that values materialist acquisitions as representations of success breeds divisio. It could be argued that a healthy society is one built on equality, social justice and social cohesion. UNIT III: BASIC SOCIAL STRUCTURES AND SOCIAL PROCESS MARRIAGE/FAMILY Marriage is one of the universal social institutions established to control and regulate the life of mankind. It is closely associated with the institution of family. Infact both the institutions are complementary to each other. It is an institution with different implications in different cultures. Its purposes, functions and forms may differ from society to society but it is present everywhere as an institution. Sociologists define marriage as a socially supported union involving two or more individuals in what is regarded as a stable, enduring arrangement typically based at least in part on a sexual bond of some kind. Westermarck defines marriage as the more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring. According to Malinowski marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children. Robert Lowie describes marriage as a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates. For Horton and Hunt marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. Marriage can be define as a legally and socially accepted and supported union of two or more individuals who have consented to live together in a stable and enduring arrangement typically according to the culture and norm of that community for the purpose of establishing a family. Depending on the society, marriage may require religious and/or civil sanction, although some couples may come to be considered married simply by living together for a period of time (common law marriage). Though marriage ceremonies, rules, and roles may differ from one society to another, marriage is considered a cultural universal, which means that it is present as a social institution in all cultures. TYPES OF MARRIAGE Basically, there are two types of marriage, they are monogamy and polygamy. (a) Monogamy: This is the type of marriage that permits the coming together of one man and one woman as husband and wife. Monogamy as a marital institution is a typical European origin but exists in other societies all over the world. (b) Polygamy: This refers to the right of one man to marry many wives. It is typical of African societies, Nigeria inclusive. Another type of polygamy by name polyandry exist which refers to the right of a woman to have more than one husband. Polyandry exists among the Australian Aborigines, Ashaute of Ghana, and some parts of India. Polyandry in particular exists largely in matrilineal societies. FORMS/CLASSIFICATION OF MARRIAGE Marriage, be it monogamy or polygamy is further classify in various forms depending on the society or community where it is practiced; below are various forms of marriage: Marriage by exchange, Marriage by capture is where a man forcibly marries a woman, Marriage by intrusion is where a woman forcibly marries a man, Marriage by probation allow a man to stay at woman place for weeks together after which if they decide to get married, Marriage by purchase or giving bride price. A man is required to give an agreed amount of cash/kind to the parents of the bride as price which usually varies according to the physical beauty and utility of the bride, Marriage by service is where the man serves at his father-in-law's house before marriage, Marriage by trial, Marriage by mutual consent, and Marriage by elopement (running without tell parents/friends- now celebrating with self or small group). (a) Exchange Marriage: This is the type of marriage which involves the exchange of sisters as brides. This type of marriage is practiced among Kadara people in Niger, and Kaduna State in northern part of Nigeria, but the practice is fast declining since people prefer to marry honourably than through unpopular method. (b) Ghost Marriage: This is the type of marriage where the younger brother of a deceased relation marries to a woman and procreates in the name of the late relation who perhaps died childless. The wife may not have known the deceased, and the children belong to the father they never knew. This is done to ensure continuity of the family and lineage, as a result the children of the marriage bear the name of the decease person. This is practiced in some African countries, Nigeria inclusive e.g. among the Igbo of Nigeria. (c) Arrested Marriage: Arrested Marriage otherwise sometimes known as contract marriage is the type of marriage where there is absence of procreation, that is the couple during the arrange agreed not to have children within the period of the union commonly practiced in the western world (d) Contract Marriage: Contract Marriage is a kind of marriage where the couple comes together to sign their marriage vow for period of two years which can renewable after the expiration of the initial one years. This kind of marriage is mostly practiced in Europeans countries. (e) Liverates Marriage/Nkuchi(Igbo)/Opo(Yoruba) This refers to marriage of widow to her dead husbands younger brother who may or might not be married refers to as widow inheritance practiced by almost all tribes in Nigeria especially Igbo and Yoruba of eastern and western Nigeria respectively. (f) Surrogate Marriage: This is a form of marriage where a man marries his dead wife’s sister as a substitute especially in situation where probably the senior sister could not procreate for her husband before she died; practiced in Sub-Saharan countries e.g. Igbo people and even some Islam/Muslims community. (g) Captive Marriage: This is a development that involves the bride and bridegroom’s decision to run away secretly and get marriage; or a marriage where the bride is ambushed and picked by force to the destination of the bridegroom’s house. The parents may or might not be part of the plot but are usually aware of the exercise. The formal is practiced by Tiv people in Benue State, Nigeria and the reason may not be unconnected with “out of pocket” for the due process involve in formal marriage. While the latter is practiced by the Yorubas in western Nigeria refers to as Asante. (h) Force marriage: This is the form of marriage where the man or woman is force to the man or woman against his her own wish; most underaged girls are the victims of this kind of marriage. In the case of the girl/woman, the parents might have collected a large sum of money from the bridegroom with or without the consent of the bride; practiced by the Hausas in northern part of the country and some Yorubas in the western Nigeria. However, this type of marriage is also fast declining due to women liberalization and passage of law prohibiting force/under-age marriage. (i)Woman – Woman Marriage (Ikpofa Nwanyi Igbo): Ethnographic studies reveal that many African societies have practiced woman to woman marriage and some still do (Herskovits, 1937; Kringe 1974; Obbo, 1976; Obrien 1977; and Obalar, 1980). Woman to woman marriage also known as woman marriage or marriage involving “a female husband” refers to the institution whereby a woman marries another woman and assumes control over her and her offspring. In most cases, the wife will bear children for the female husband. All ceremonial aspects of these marriages are observed, bride wealth is paid to the girl’s father and all rules of divorce in the society applied. This type of marriage is practiced in Sub-Sahara Africa (Tanzania, S/Africa, and Igbo of Nigeria). Despite the fact that woman to woman marriages has existed or exist, in many societies, this institution has often been over looked by researchers studying such topics as marriages, the family, gender relations and the positive of woman in African societies. (j) Charity/Sadaka Marriage: This is a form of marriage where a woman is given out for marriage to a man she may, or might have not known. No dowry is pay on the woman’s head, but some scholars believe that the dowry is usually settled by the father of the bride. This type of marriage is commonly practiced among the Islam communities in the northern part of Nigeria. (k) Commuter Marriage: This is the type of marriage where the family operates from two homes. In this case, the couples are not divorced, but they are separated either because of the nature of their jobs or due to some other important variables. The practiced of this type of marriage can be found almost everywhere in the world. (l) Hypergamy: The norm in Hypergamy is that a man should give his daughter in marriage to a family of higher status than his own. In a hypergamous marriage a woman marries a superior or an equal; a man should not marry a woman of higher status than himself. Though Hypergamy is prevalent in India it is not universal. (m) Hypogamous: The norm in hypogamous system is that a man should marry a woman of higher status than his own. In such a case the wife giver has a higher status than the wife receiver. Such a type of marriage has been chronicled in Myanmar where commoners married women of aristocratic lineages. FAMILY TYPES ACCORDING TO INHERITANCE Sociologists have identified two types of family according to inheritance as follows:- (1) Patrilineal: Patrilineal refer to a descent system which emphasizes the male line. The offspring in a patrilineal descent system enjoy rights of inheritance in their father’s land, practiced everywhere in the globe Nigeria inclusive. (2) Matrilineal: Refers to descent system which stresses the female line. Similar rights to those enjoyed by a child in the father’s line in the patrilineal descent system are in this case enjoyed by a child in the mother’s line. In this type of system, the brother of the mother of the children plays an important role in the life of the later, e.g. Ashanti in Central Ghana. FAMILY TYPES BY RESIDENCE The decision to settle after marriage in traditional societies was not a problem, this is because all cultures in African societies had some form of understanding and there was also provision for that, hence the couple could settle where the bridegroom people are. However, in modern society on the other hand, many considerations have to be made for residential arrangement after marriage due to some variables, sociologists have identify the following variables for change of residence after marriage:- (1) Patrilocal Residence: This is a residence in which the couple after marriage settles down in the bridegroom’s parent’s local area. A consideration here is for the family to be near the man’s home area for purpose of land and other issues of inheritance, predominantly traditional and practiced in Africa and some Asian countries (2) Matrilocal Residence: In this type of residence, the couples settle down in the bride’s parent’s local area. The reason for this type of settlement may be owing to absence of the husband/man’s relations or do not exist or cannot be trace to two generation, or was residing there before the marriage and wish to remain there or in case of matrilineal society in which the individual trace descent through their mothers and also claim inheritance through their mothers. In this case the uncles have power over the offspring and the off-springs can inherit the uncle’s properties, practiced in Africa, Ghana etc. (3) Neolocal Residence: This is a type of residence in which the couple after marriage establishes their own independent domicile. They settle in neither the man’s parent’s local area nor the wife’s parent’s local area. This may not necessarily mean that the couple cannot trace their decent through either parents but of matter of choice FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY Family performed the following functions in almost all societies in the globe: (1) Sexual Satisfaction: This is one of the major roles being played by the family. It provide forum for sexual satisfaction for the couples. Sexual interaction is a basic need in which family is the only social institution approved to satisfy it by all societies, such role if well performed, will prevent extra-marital relationship which will in turn prevent unwanted pregnancy, illegal abortion, and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV especially among youths who are the leaders of tomorrow. (2) Procreation: This is an act of giving birth to younger ones. Family helps to perpetuate human race by giving birth to children who will replace the deceased members in the society. (3) Child Rearing: Having given birth to a child, such child has to be brought up properly. Family does not only procreate, but is also shoulder with the responsibility of bringing them up according to the norms of the society. (4) Economic functions: The family is an economic unit. It is also a unit of production. In a traditional Africa society before the advent of western education/civilization, the family provides everything needed by its members and even till now, most basic needs are provided by the family (food, shelter, clothing etc). (5) Educational Function: Before the introduction/coming of western education to Africa, the family was the basic education unit within the household. It teaches all its members all they needed to learn so as to become useful members of the society (transmission of culture). This role which used to be performed by extended family has now being overtaken by schools and colleges (Educational institutions). (6) Health Insurance: The family is responsible for provision of medicine to its members in an event of ill-health before and even now. (7) Protection: It is the responsibility of the family to protect its members from any type of hazards/danger including any type of aggression. (8) Legal Function: Family is also shoulder with the responsibility of protecting its members in case legal actions against its member, and as well educates its members to be law abiding to the constituted authority. (9) Recreation: Family is duly bound to provide both indoor and outdoor recreational activities for its members such recreational activities include from indoor to outdoor:- Ludo, draft, snooker, television, swimming pool, etc. that of outdoor include sight-seeing like amusement parks, wild life parks and zoos’ where children can see live animals. (10) Marriage: Above all, it is the responsibility of the family to give their daughters out for marriage and as well arrange and marry for their son’s. This is an indispensable family function that cannot be ignored. SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECT OF FAMILY ROLES (Effects of labor on the family) The family as it existed in medieval Europe was male-dominated and extended. On the other hand, in Africa, the family is still patriarchal, and polygamy is practiced, and in general the status of women has somewhat not improved because they still are not allowed to manage their own affairs in African countries. Most African families are extended types and are male-dominated. Spawning of West industrialization and the accompanying urbanization have led to changes in family structure by causing a sharp change in life and occupational styles where many people, particularly unmarried youths, left farms and went to urban centres to become industrial workers. The modern family that emerged after the industrial revolution, for instance like patriarchal rule, began to give way to greater equality between the sexes. This process has led to the dissolution of many extended families The structure of the family is also changing in that some couples choose not to marry legally and instead elect to have their children out of wedlock; many of these informal relationships tend to be of short duration, and this as well as the rise in levels of divorce has led to a rapid increase in the number of one-parent households especially in Western cultures, where modern family today is more of a consuming as opposed to a producing unit, and the members of the family work away from home rather than at home. Public authorities in developed countries, primarily governmental ones, have assumed many of the functions that the family used to provide, such as caring for the aged and the sick, educating the young, and providing for recreation. Technological advancements have made it possible for couples to decide if and when they want to have children However, at its best, the family performs various valuable functions for its members. Perhaps most important of all, it provides for: Socioeconomic aspects of the family At its best, the family performs various valuable functions for its members. Perhaps most important of all is: 1. It provides for emotional and psychological security, particularly through the warmth, love, and companionship that living together generates between spouses and in turn between them and their children. 2. Provides a valuable social and political function by institutionalizing procreation and by providing guidelines for the regulation of sexual conduct. 3. Provides such other socially beneficial functions as the rearing and socialization of children, along with such humanitarian activities as caring for its members when they are sick or disabled. 4. On the economic side, the family provides food, shelter, clothing, and physical security for its members, some of whom may be too young or too old to provide for the basic necessities of life themselves. 5. On the social side, the family may serve to promote order and stability within society as a whole Finally, on the social side, the family may serve to promote order and stability within society as a whole. UNIT IV: PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION AND ITS AGENTS/PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION Agencies of Socialization: Every society is faced with the necessity of making a responsible member out of each child born into it. The child must learn the expectations of the society so that his behavior can be relied upon. He must acquire the group norms. The society must socialize each member so that his behavior will be meaningful in terms of the group norms. In the process of socialization the individual learns the reciprocal responses of the society. Socialization stands for the development of the human brain, body, attitude, behavior and so forth. Socialization is, thus, a process of cultural learning whereby a new person acquires necessary skills and education to play a regular part in a social system. The process is essentially the same and continues throughout life as each new situation arises in all societies, though institutional arrangements vary. It is also is a process by which culture is transmitted to the younger generation and men learn the rules and practices of social groups to which they belong. It is through it that a society maintains its social system. Personalities do not come ready-made. The process that transforms a child into a reasonably respectable human being is a long process. Hence, every society builds an institutional framework within which socialization of the child takes place. Culture is transmitted through the communication they have with one another and communication thus comes to be the essence of the process of culture transmission. There exist a number of agencies to socialize the child a society and to facilitate socialization different agencies play important roles. These agencies are however interrelated as enumerated below:. 1. Family: The family is the first agent of socialization and it plays an outstanding role in the in process especially important role in the formation of personality. In all societies other agencies besides the family contribute to socialization such as educational institutions, the peer group etc. By the time other agencies contribute to this process family has already left an imprint on the personality of the child because the parents have used both reward and punishment to imbibe what is socially required from a child. The family serves as “the natural and convenient channel of social continuity and the process of socialization remains a process because of the interplay between individual life cycle and family life cycle. 2. Peer Group: Peer Group means a group in which the members share some common characteristics such as age or sex etc. It is made up of the contemporaries of the child, his associates in school, in playground and in street. The growing child learns some very important lessons from his peer group. Since members of the peer group are at the same stage of socialization hence they freely and spontaneously interact with each other. The members of peer groups have other sources of information about the culture and thus the acquisition of culture goes on. They view the world through the same eyes and share the same subjective attitudes. In order to be accepted by his peer group, the child must exhibit the characteristic attitudes, the likes and dislikes. Conflict arises when standards of the peer group differ from the standards of the child’s family, and a member of the group may consequently attempt to withdraw from the family environment. The peer group surpasses the parental influence as time goes on. This seems to be an inevitable occurrence in rapidly changing societies. 3. Religion: Religion is belief held by an individual regarding his/her faith and it plays a very important role in socialization. We have two major religion in Nigeria (Christianity and Moslem) and traditional African religion where people practice what our forefathers handed over to them. Religion instills the fear of hell in the individual so that he/she should refrain from bad and undesirable activities. Religion not only makes people religious but socializes them into the secular order. 4. Educational Institutions: In modern societies like ours, aside family, peer groups, and religion, there other agencies of the socialization. The educational institutions not only help the growing child in learning language and other subjects but also instill the concept of time, discipline, team work, cooperation and competition. It is in the educational institutions that the culture is formally transmitted and acquired in which the science and the art of one generation is passed on to the next. Through the means of reward and punishment the desired behavior pattern is reinforced whereas undesirable behavior pattern meets with disapproval, ridicule and punishment. Every civilized society therefore has developed a set of formalized agencies of education (schools, colleges and universities) which have a great bearing on the socialization process. In this way, the educational institutions come next to the family for the purpose of socialization of the growing child. Educational institution is a very important socializer and the means by which individual acquires social norms and values (values of achievement, civic ideals, solidarity and group loyalty etc.) beyond those which are available for learning in the family and other groups. 5. Occupation: This is a place where various professionals from different background come together on daily basis to work for their survival. In the occupational world the individual finds himself with new shared interests and goals, makes adjustments with the position he/she holds and also learns to make adjustment with other workers who may occupy equal or higher or lower position. While working, the individual enters into relations of cooperation, involving specialization of tasks and at the same time learns the nature of class divisions. Work, for him/her, is a source of income but at the same time it gives identity and status within society as a whole. Wilbert Moore has divided occupational socialization into four phases: (a) Career choice, (b) anticipatory socialization, (c) conditioning & commitment, and (d) continues commitment. (a) Career Choice: The first phase is career choice, which involves selection of academic or vocational training appropriate for the desired job. (b) Anticipatory Socialization: The next phase is anticipatory socialization, which may last only a few months or extent for years. Some children inherit their occupations. These young people experience anticipatory socialization throughout childhood and adolescence as they observe their parents at work. Certain individuals decide on occupational goals at relatively early ages. The entire adolescent period for them may focus on training for that future. (c) Conditioning and Commitment: The third phase of occupational socialization takes places while one actually performs the work-related Role. Conditioning consists of reluctantly adjusting to the more unpleasant aspects of one’s job. Most people find that the novelty of new daily schedule quickly wears off and realize that the parts of the work experience are rather tedious. Moore uses the term commitment to refer to the enthusiastic acceptance of pleasurable duties that come as the recruit identifies the positive task of an occupation. (d) Continues Commitment: According to Moore, if a job proves to be satisfactory, the person will enter a fourth stage of socialization. At this stage the job becomes an indispensable) art of the person’s self-identity. Violation of proper conduct becomes unthinkable. A person may choose to join professional associations, unions or other groups which represent his or her occupation in the larger society. 6. Political Parities: Political party is coming together of people from different backgrounds with common goal and ideas and attempt to seize political power and maintain it. They try to win the support of the members of the society on the basis of a socio-economic policy and program, and in the process, they disseminate political values and norms and socialize the citizen for stability and change of political system. 7. Mass Media: The mass media of communication, particularly television, play an important role in the process of socialization. The mass media of communication transmit information and messages which influence the personality of an individual to a great extent. Additionally, communication media has an important effect in encouraging individuals to support the existing norms and values or oppose or change them. They are the instrument of social power that influences people with their messages. The words are always written by someone and these people too (authors and editors and advertisers) join the teachers, the peers and the parents in the socialization process. Books/Novel/Journal/Newspaper etc.: These are books, novel, articles newspapers written by peoples (authors and editors and advertisers) meant for student/people to study for their academic purposes or for leisure as well as professionals in a case of articles in journals while newspaper is meant to pass information/news regarding happenings in the society. All these together join the teachers, the peers and the parents in the socialization process. Market: Market is a designated environment where goods and services are displayed for people to patronize. It could be inform of open space or closed circuit where goods are displayed for customers to purchase. Advancement in technology has also made it possible for wares to be purchase online without physical contact. Market is another very good agents of socialization where people meet and interact with one another Environment stimuli: Environment stimuli often determine the growth of human personality. A proper environment may greatly determine whether the social or the self-centered forces will become supreme. Individual’s social environment facilitates socialization especially if his/her mental and physical capacities are good. But where individual mental and physical capacities are poor/bad, he/she may not be able to make proper use of environment. However, the family plays perhaps the important part in the process of socialization. The child learns much from the family. After family his playmates and school wield influence on his socialization. After his education is over, he enters into a profession. Marriage initiates a person into social responsibility, which is one of aims of socialization. In short the socialization is a process which begins at birth and continues unceasingly until the death of individual. Importance of Socialization: 1. The process of socialization is important from the point of view of society as well as from the point of view of individual. Every society is faced with the necessity of making a responsible member out of each child born into it. The child must learn the expectations of the society so that his behavior can be relied upon. 2. Since socialization is the means of transmission of culture, the process by which men learn the rules and practices of social groups to which belongs, each member of the society must acquire the group norms in order to take the behavior of others into account.. It is through it that a society maintains its social system, transmits its culture from generation to generation. 3. Socialization plays a unique role in personality development of the individual., hence is the process by which the individual learns social behavior, and develops him/herself. 4. Is the process by which the new born individual acquires the values of the group, and is molded into a social being as he/she grows up. Without this, no individual could become a person, for if the values, sentiments and ideas of culture are not joined to the capacities and needs of the human organism there could be no human mentality, no human personality. 5. The child has no self at birth, but the self emerges or the self, or the core of personality, develops out of the child’s interaction with others through the process of socialization. 6. Individual learns the culture as well as skills, ranging from language to manual dexterity which will enable him to become a participating member of human society socialization process 7. Socialization inculcates basic disciplines among children, ranging from toilet training habits to method of understanding science. In their early years, individuals are also socialized with regard to sexual behaviour. 8. Society is also concerned with imparting the basic goals, aspirations and values to which the child is expected to direct his/her behavior for the rest of his/her life time. Children learn-the levels to which they are expected to aspire in life. 9. Because socialization teaches skills, it is only by acquiring needed skills that an individual can fit into a society. In simple societies, traditional practices are handed down from generation to generation and are usually learned by imitation and practice in the course of everyday life. However, socialization is indeed an intricate process in a contemporary complex society characterized by increasing specialization and division of work owing to advancement in technology. In these societies, inculcating the abstract skills of literacy through formal education is a central task of socialization. 10. Another element in socialization is the acquisition of the appropriate social roles that the individual is expected to play. He/she is expected to know his/her role expectations, which is what behavior and values are a part of, and perform to the later. 11. Role performance is very important in the process of socialization. Roles such as males, females, husbands, wives, sons, daughters, parents, children, student’s teachers and so on, are accepted social roles which must be learned if the individual is to play a functional and predictable part in social interaction. 12. In this way man becomes a person through the social influences which he/she shares with others and through his own ability to respond and weave his/her responses into a unified body of habits, attitudes and traits. It should be noted that man is not the product of socialization alone, but also in part, a potential product of heredity which he generally inherited that can make him a person under conditions of maturation and conditioning. Features of Socialization: Socialization not only helps in the maintenance and preservation of social values and norms but it is the process through which values and norms are impacted and transmitted from one generation to another generation. Features of socialization may be discussed as under: 1. Inculcates basic discipline: Socialization inculcates basic discipline among members of the society. In this situation, a person learns to control his impulses. He may show a disciplined behavior to gain social approval. 2. Helps to control human behaviour: An individual from birth to death undergoes training and his, behavior is controlled by numerous ways. In order to maintain the social order, there are definite procedures or mechanism in society. These procedures become part of the man’s life and man gets adjusted to the society. Through socialization, society intends to control the behavior of its-members unconsciously. 3. Socialization is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of socialization: Socialization takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of socialization are more unanimous in their ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, examples and skills transmitted in home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialization of the individual tends to be slower and ineffective. 4. Socialization takes place formally and informally: Although Family is the primary and the most influential source of education, where Children learn their language, customs, norms and values in the family, however, formal socialization takes through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges. 5. Socialization is continuous process: Socialization is a life-long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult. As socialization does not cease when a child becomes an adult, internalization of culture continues from generation to generation. While society perpetuates itself through the internalization of culture, its members transmit culture to the next generation and society continues to exist. Types of Socialization: Although socialization occurs during childhood and adolescence, it also continues in middle and adult age. Orville F. Brim (Jr) described socialization as a life-long process. He maintains that socialization of adults differ from childhood socialization. In this context it can be said that there are various types of socialization enumerated below: 1. Primary Socialization: Primary socialization take place at infant level or earliest years of his/her life where the infant learns language and cognitive skills, internalizes norms and values. The infant learns the ways of a given grouping and is molded into an effective social participant of that group. The norms of society become part of the personality of the individual. The child does not have a sense of wrong and right. By direct and indirect observation and experience, he/she gradually learns the norms relating to wrong and right things. The primary socialization takes place in the family. 2. Secondary Socialization: Secondary Socialization take place outside the family which can be seen in the school, Churches/Mosque, Market place, at work outside the immediate family, in the ‘peer group’ etc. The growing child learns very important lessons in social conduct from his peers. He also learns lessons in the school. Hence, socialization continues beyond and outside the family environment. Secondary socialization generally refers to the social training received by the child in institutional or formal settings and continues throughout the rest of his life. 3. Adult Socialization: In the adult socialization, actors enter roles (for example, becoming an employee, a husband or wife) for which primary and secondary socialization may not have prepared them fully. Adult socialization teaches people to take on new roles and duties and is more likely to change overt behavior, whereas child socialization molds basic values. The aim of adult socialization is to bring change in the views of the individual. 4. Anticipatory Socialization: Anticipatory socialization refers to a process by which men learn the culture of a group with the anticipation of joining that group. As a person learns the proper beliefs, values and norms of a status or group to which he aspires, he is learning how to act in his new role. 5. Re-socialization: Re-Socialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one’s life. Such re-socialization takes place mostly when a social role is radically changed. It involves abandonment of one way of life for another which is not only different from the former but incompatible with it. For example, when a criminal is rehabilitated, he has to change his role radically. SPECIAL INSTITUTIONS SUCH AS FAMILY, SCHOOLS, RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS ETC. AND THEIR EFFECTS ON INDIVIDUAL A social institution consists of a group of people who have come together for a common purpose. These institutions are a part of the social order of society, and they govern the behavior and expectations of individuals. Examples of five main social institutions found in all human groups as well as other social institutions that are often found in modern societies are enumerated below: 1. The Family Besides the individual, the family is the smallest unit in the field of sociology.. It determines kinship, which is a family member's blood or marriage relationship to another family member. Additionally, the family institution serves as a child's first exposure to society. They will use the lessons and skills learned within the family in the larger community. Examples of the secondary institutions of the family include: the nuclear family (parents and children) the extended family (relatives of parents and children) marriage families of choice (friendship groups) cohabitation parenthood monogamy polygamy divorce Most, if not all, families fall into one or more of these secondary institutions. They create a sense of identity and connection for individuals and pass societal culture between generations. 2. Economic Institutions The next level of social institution is the economy, or market institutions. Market institutions cover the industry that buys and sells goods. Examples of secondary economic institutions are: banking businesses capitalism communism corporations credit unions insurance companies limited partnerships property ownership socialism stock market trust companies welfare capitalism Individuals engage in economic institutions to make a living to support themselves and their families. It helps them to procure the goods and services they require, and to sell other goods and services that others need. 3. Religious Organizations While not every individual participates in religious organizations, the institution of religion is present in every human society. Explore examples of secondary institutions of religion. Abbeys (building occupied by community of monks or nuns) churches dioceses missions monasteries (building occupied by community of monks living under religious vows) mosques taboos temples totems (natural object/animal believed by particular society to have spiritual significant) Societies may include more than one religious institution, but the purpose of this social institution is the same no matter what religion it is. Religion reinforces the norms and values of a society, and its members generally contribute positively to that society. 4. Educational Institutions Educational institutions teach skills and knowledge to individuals. Like families, educational institutions pass culture to the next generation and equip them to fully participate in the greater society. Discover examples of secondary education institutions. elementary schools middle schools high schools school districts colleges and universities community colleges graduate school junior colleges trade schools The educational social institution can be cyclical. People who work in educational institutions, such as teachers, administrators and professors, have gone through the educational system themselves. They help to prepare the next generation for most professions in society, including educational careers. 5. Government Institutions Government, or the state, is another major social institution. Every society has a ruling class of some kind that makes decisions for citizens of the states. Secondary institutions of the state include: authoritarianism bureaucracy Congress democracy lobbyists (interest groups) political parties monarchy totalitarianism How each state functions depends on the type of government it has. In many modern societies, the government institution controls much of what happens in its citizens' daily lives, while other governments allow their citizens to exercise civil rights and liberties. Other Social Institution Examples While the above social institutions are present in all human societies, they are certainly not the only social institutions you'll find. There are many more institutions found in some or most modern societies. These organizations help society operate and develop for the good of its citizens. 6. Examples of Community A community is a group of people in the same area and under the same government. They can be defined according to their location and type of settlement. Examples of communities are: boroughs (Town or district which is an administrative unit) burgs (Quite and unexciting town or city or village) castle towns ( Hamlet close by or under a wall)  cities company towns hamlets metropolis military posts municipalities shanty towns ( small settlements) suburbs (outlying district of a city (residential one) towns townships villages There are numbers of extensive communities that are not defined by their location, but by the common attitudes or interests of their participants. Examples of such communities include: LGBT community: LGBTQIA+ is an abbreviation for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual, and more. These terms are used to describe a person’s sexual orientation or gender identity. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual and plus LESBIAN: A woman who’s enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction is to other women. Some lesbians may prefer to identify as gay or as gay women. GAY: The adjective describes people whose enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attractions are to people of the same sex. Sometimes lesbian is the preferred term for women. BISEXUAL: A person who can form enduring physical, romantic, and or emotional attractions to those of the same gender or more than one gender. People may experience this attraction in differing ways and degrees over their lifetime. Bisexual people need not have had specific sexual experiences to be bisexual; they need not have had any sexual experience at all to identify as bisexual. TRANSGENDER: An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and or gender expression differs from what is typically associated with the sex they were assigned at birth. People under the transgender umbrella may describe themselves using one or more of a wide variety of terms— including transgender or non-binary. Some transgender people are prescribed hormones by their doctors to bring their bodies into alignment with their gender identity. Some undergo surgery as well. But not all transgender people can or will take those steps, and a transgender identity is not dependent upon physical appearance or medical procedures. QUEER: An adjective used by some people whose sexual orientation is not exclusively heterosexual or straight. Genderqueer is an umbrella team for gender identities that not solely male or female. This umbrella term includes people who have non-binary, gender-fluid, or gender nonconforming identities. Once considered a pejorative term, queer has been reclaimed by some LGBTQIA+ people to describe themselves; however, it is not a universally accepted term even within the LGBTQIA+ community. QUESTIONING: Sometimes, when the Q is seen at the end of LGBT, it can also mean questioning. This term describes someone who is questioning their sexual orientation or gender identity. INTERSEX: An adjective used to describe a person with one or more innate sex characteristics, including genitals, internal reproductive organs, and chromosomes, that fall outside of traditional conceptions of male or female bodies. Do not confuse having an intersex trait with being transgender. Intersex people are assigned a sex at birth, either male or female, and that decision by medical providers and parents may not match the gender identity of the child. Not all intersex folks identify as being part of the LGBTQIA+ community. ASEXUAL: The adjective describes a person who does not experience sexual attraction. Sometimes shortened to “ace,” it is an umbrella term that can also include people who are demisexual, meaning they do experience some sexual attraction; graysexual, meaning those who may not fit the strictest definition of the word asexual; and aromantic, meaning they experience little to no romantic attraction and/or has little to no desire to form romantic relationships. PLUS: The ‘plus’ is used to signify all of the gender identities and sexual orientations that letters and words cannot yet fully describe Nudist community: "naked lifestyle." Professional learning community: A professional learning community, or PLC, is a group of educators that meets regularly, shares expertise, and works collaboratively to improve teaching skills and the academic performance of students. The term is also applied to schools or teaching faculties that use small-group collaboration as a form of professional development.. Retirement community: A retirement community is a residential community or housing complex designed for older adults who are generally able to care for themselves; however, assistance from home care agencies is allowed in some communities, and activities and socialization opportunities are often provided. Some of the characteristics typically are: the community must be age-restricted or age-qualified, residents must be partially or fully retired, and the community offers shared services or amenities Senior living communities: Senior living is a concept that encompasses a range of housing and lifestyle options for aging persons adapted to the challenges of health issues associated with ageing, such as limited mobility and susceptibility to illness. 7. Community Service Organizations Within communities are organizations to help with social issues.. These community service organizations are often funded by local governments to serve the greater good. Animal shelters Big Brothers and Big Sisters Boys and Girls Clubs Boy Scouts Elks Lodge Food banks Girl Scouts Homeless shelters Kiwanis Rotary clubs Soup kitchens 8. Ethnic or Cultural Groups Ethnic or cultural groups are social institutions that include a group of extended family groups related by a distant, common ancestry. Members of ethnic groups do not need to be related to be connected in the shared experiences of their social institutions. Examples include: African Americans Asians Canadians Hispanic people Navajo people Pacific Islanders Advertisement 9. Healthcare Institutions While some governments include healthcare as a secondary institution, other states prefer to keep these social institutions private. Examples of organizations within the healthcare institution include: Adult daycare Doctor’s offices Clinics Hospice Hospitals Sanatoriums 10. Justice System and Legal Institutions The legal system is another institution that is typically run by the government. However, there are some societies that separate these institutions. Parts of the justice system include: Appeals courts District courts Federal courts Legal system State courts Supreme Court 11. Mass Media Institutions Mass media shapes communication and opinions. It is present in most modern societies, but other human groups are not exposed to the same level of media saturation. Elements of the institution of media include:  Broadcasting corporations Film industry Internet media companies Music industry Newspapers Publishing companies 12. Social Welfare Institutions Institutions that ensure social welfare include worldwide nonprofit organizations and charities. They are similar to community service institutions but aren't limited to one community at a time. Examples include: (a) American Cancer Society (b) Catholic Charities USA (c) Feeding America (d) Food for the Poor (e) Goodwill Industries International (f) Humane Society of America (g) Salvation Army (h) St. Jude Children's Research Hospital (i) Task Force for Global Health (j) United Way (k) Wellcome Trust – UK (l) World Visionand Social welfare in case of Nigeria Living and Thriving in a Society: Social institutions exist to help individuals live their best lives in society. They are the building blocks of any functioning society of humans. You may wish to learn more about the examples of social norms that are upheld by social institutions. If you're interested in the problems that arise in today's global society, you can check out these examples of social justice issues facing the world. MAGIC Magic, is a concept used to describe a mode of rationality or way of thinking that looks to invisible forces to influence events, effect change in material conditions, or present the illusion of change. Within the Western tradition, this way of thinking is distinct from religious or scientific modes; however, such distinctions and even the definition of magic are subject to wide debate. In modern occultism and neopagan religions, many self-described magicians and witches regularly practice ritual magic and hence can be defined as a technique for bringing about change in the physical world through the force of one's will.