Introduction to Social Science Research Methods PDF

### Introduction to Social Science Research Methods General Research Orientations ============================= Table of Contents {#table-of-contents.TOCHeading} ================= [Readings 1](#readings) [Theory and Research 4](#theory-and-research) [Deductive and Inductive Approaches 7](#deduc...

### Introduction to Social Science Research Methods General Research Orientations ============================= Table of Contents {#table-of-contents.TOCHeading} ================= [Readings 1](#readings) [Theory and Research 4](#theory-and-research) [Deductive and Inductive Approaches 7](#deductive-and-inductive-approaches) [The process of deduction 7](#the-process-of-deduction) [Deductive and inductive approaches to the relationship between theory and research 9](#deductive-and-inductive-approaches-to-the-relationship-between-theory-and-research) [Epistemological Considerations 9](#epistemological-considerations) [Positivism 9](#positivism) [Interpretivism 9](#interpretivism) [Critical Approaches to Social Science 9](#critical-approaches-to-social-science) [Ontological Considerations 12](#ontological-considerations) [General Orientations: Quantitative and Qualitative Research 14](#general-orientations-quantitative-and-qualitative-research) [Influences on the Conduct of Social Research 15](#influences-on-the-conduct-of-social-research) [Research questions 16](#research-questions) [Politics in Social Research 16](#politics-in-social-research) [Issues Related to the Research Question 16](#issues-related-to-the-research-question) [Formulating a Research Question 17](#formulating-a-research-question) [Activities 18](#activities) Readings -------- SRM (*Social Research Methods*) Chapter 1 Cover of Social Research Methods, Sixth Canadian Edition Chapter 1: General Research Orientations ========================================  **Unit Overview** - Theory and research - Deductive and inductive approaches - Epistemological considerations - Ontological considerations - General orientations: Quantitative and qualitative research - Influences on the conduct of social research **Learning Objectives** 1. Explain the relationship between [theory in the broad sense and data gathering]; in particular, you should be able to recognize that the [purpose of collecting data] may be to test theories or to create theories. 2. Discuss the **[positivist, interpretivist, and critical approaches to social science]**, including their key assumptions regarding the purposes of social research and how it should be conducted. 3. Describe the [distinctions between qualitative and quantitative research]. 4. Identify how [different factors], including values, politics, and issues related to the research question(s) may [influence social research]. Introduction ============ - *Social research is political* by nature and is motivated by the following: - The need to assess the adequacy of a particular social theory - The need to gather information to create theories to solve pressing social problems - Personal experience, or the need to explore a social problem that has been important to one's family, friends, or community - **A desire to make sense of the world around us** **Why this course?** This course provides a general overview of research methods for social sciences.  - Students in this course may be studying such diverse areas as Leadership, Criminology, Health Studies, or Social Work; career plans may be focused on front line work, administration, education, or policy.  - It may be hard to see the direct connections between research methods and some of these areas, but consider the following scenarios... 1. Marguerite works in a bookstore. Her manager has given her the responsibility of setting up the displays for the month. She wants to make a good impression and considers how to organize the books to increase sales. She tries two different approaches to the displays, for two weeks each, and evaluates the number of books sold over the month. 2. Taylor is a lobbyist concerned with human rights. She has been interested in how to encourage businesses to better understand and improve their practices as they relate to human rights. She talks to a variety of business leaders and interviews them to hear about their experiences in this area. 3. Fatima is employed by a marketing firm. She has been asked to report on the best media outlet to advertise a new product. She investigates characteristics of the target consumer in order to best match the consumers with the advertising outlet. 4. Benjamin is a teacher. He has heard about a new approach to teaching math (the new 'new' math). He is considering implementing this approach but is uncertain about how effective it will be with his grade six class. He has heard from other teachers that it is effective, but he is concerned that they may be somewhat biased (as they helped to develop this approach). He looks for a published research study comparing this approach to the old 'new' math approach. 5. Jorge works in human resources in a municipal government setting.  His manager has developed a professional and self-development training program. He has asked Jorge how effective he thinks that the program has been. Jorge develops a questionnaire for employees who have taken part in the training program, to assess their experiences. In all of these cases, the employees are utilizing their understanding of research methods to **gather more information, and to increase their knowledge in order to effectively do their jobs.**  - Taylor and Jorge are conducting research studies. - Taylor's research is qualitative and involves collecting interview data from those with direct experience.  She will examine the interviews for common ideas, to try to gain some understanding of their approach to human rights.  - Jorge's research is quantitative.  - He will include numerical ratings that he can examine statistically, in order to evaluate the program's effectiveness.  - Fatima and Benjamin are consumers of research, and must understand how to identify credible sources, and should understand how that research has been conducted in order to do so. A caution! Please note. While all of these individuals are engaging in research, only Marguerite is conducting an experiment. An experiment is a specific type of research, and the term should not be used to describe all research. More on this later! **Reflection Activity** Take a few minutes to think about the career that you hope for. How will understanding research help you to do that job more effectively? Can you describe a way that research will allow you to more effectively do your job? Jot down your ideas in your study notes. (above from OC233, copyright WLU) Theory and Research =================== - What is theory? - An explanation of observed regularities or patterns\ In Science, It\'s Never \'Just a Theory\' - The New York Times - There are three common components in a theory: - **Definitions**: What are the key terms? - **Descriptions**: What are the characteristics? - **Relational statements**: How are **variables** related? - Deterministic - Probabilistic - There are also **different types of theories**: - Middle range theories - Merton's (1967) terminology for theories that are **limited in scope and can be tested directly by gathering empirical evidence**. - For example, Durkheim's theory of suicide (1897). - Grand theories - Merton's (1967) terminology for **grand and abstract theories**. - Examples range from older sociological theories, such as structural-functionalism, to newer contributions, such as standpoint, feminism, or Giddens's structuration theory.  - What is the relationship between theory and research? - Theory can guide research - Research can test theory Campus-map-for-directory - A theory is our description of an imagined world (how things are). - Good theories re-present reality. We use theoretical models in our daily lives all the time. **Consider:** Have you ever planned a party? Have you ever imagined in your mind how it would go? Who should you invite?\ To figure this out you'll need to "imagine" how people will interact and get along? What you would need?\ To figure this out you'll need to anticipate a future reality---imagine it as real. How you would organize the event? Should you put a table at the front door? Imagine the layout. Presumably you did not create a scale model of the party. But you probably imagined it in theory. **Theoretical Hypothesis** The primary question is always this: **Does the theory match reality?** OR "**Does the model fit?**" - When a scientist argues in favour of a theory, they are saying that the **theory matches reality in important ways** (maybe not perfectly, but close). - Any scientific claim is a hypothesis. - A hypothesis is any plausible match between theory and reality. - The argument in favour of the "matching" is called a **[theoretical hypothesis]**. **Theory is often used as [an umbrella term], with theoretical hypotheses and models below it (within it).** Deductive and Inductive Approaches ---------------------------------- - Methods are classified as deductive and inductive. - The method used depends on the nature of the research being conducted. - **Deductive approaches begin with theory.** - **Inductive approaches begin with observations.** - **Deductive** method - The most common approach to social research - Begins with theory - Understand specific phenomenon through background research - Develop hypotheses - Test with empirical data - Revise if necessary The process of deduction ------------------------  Another way to conduct inquiry is by using induction. - Here one begins by gathering or examining data and **then tries to derive a theory or explanation from the data**. Sometimes inductive research is **iterative**: - The researcher goes back and forth from the data to the theory or explanation - Deriving theories or explanations from qualitative data is sometimes called grounded theory. - The **data has primacy over theory** because the theme and the concepts emerge from looking at the data after it has been collected - Created concepts and themes are applied to new data and refined In short, - **Inductive** method - Theories and interpretations are the outcome of theory - Gather and examine data first - Then create theory from the observations - **Grounded theory** - Deriving theory from observations - Used by qualitative researchers What is Grounded Theory? \| Grounded Theory Online Deductive and inductive approaches to the relationship between theory and research ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------  Epistemological Considerations ------------------------------ - Epistemology is what we can know and how we can come to know it. - There are many debates concerning these questions. - How do we know the world? - How does knowledge become acquired? Three major approaches include: Positivism ---------- - Facts must be tangible, or in other words, must be able to be seen or heard. - Science should proceed through the development of hypotheses and hypothesis-testing. - Science must be "value free." Interpretivism -------------- - This view focuses on subjective meanings of people's actions. - Interpretivist researchers try to understand the social world from the point of view of actors. - It tries to create "empathetic understandings and interpretations of human behaviour." Critical Approaches to Social Science ------------------------------------- - Critical social scientists argue that the purpose of research is to rid the world of suffering; it is not value-free. - This view argues that research should be action-oriented. **Positivism** - **Positivism** follows the natural sciences - Uses the principal of **empiricism** (use of the senses for knowledge) - Generate hypotheses to test (uses deduction) - Can provide foundation for induction, too - Science is value-free - Formerly "objectivity" - Currently **intersubjectivity\ ** - Scientific statements are of key importance - Social scientists should use the same methods of inquiry that are used in the natural sciences. - Knowledge must be based on information gathered through the senses - Positivism takes a deductive approach to acquiring knowledge. - The purpose of positivism is to **uncover social laws governing social reality**. - Positivism relies on **scientific statements** (what is) not **normative statements** (what ought). - Scientific statements can be tested empirically and therefore supported or rejected - Normative statements are a question of belief and are not testable. **Interpretivism** - **Interpretivism** is a critique of positivism - Goal is to grasp **the subjective meaning of people's lives** - People interpret the reality of their own lives (social construction of reality) - Views the social world from the point of view of the social actor - Empathetic understanding - Interpretation of existence - Methods of natural sciences are very limited in producing knowledge of social world since it is created by individuals. - The goal of social science should not be to [uncover social laws but to grasp the subjective meanings of people's actions]. - Actions should be viewed from the point of view of the social actors, i.e., the people studied. - Researchers should develop an empathetic understanding of the people studied, sometimes referred to as *Verstehen* (Weber) - Symbolic interactionism is an example of interpretivism. - Individual self-understanding emerges only through appreciation of the perception of others, or by "taking the role of the others" (Mead) - People take part in interaction by constantly interpreting the symbolic meaning of their environment - Social scientists should "catch" (understand) the interpretation by which actors construct their action (Bulmer) **Critical Approaches to Social Science** - Critical theories are critiques of positivism, too, but goes further than interpretivism. - Critical researchers use many kinds of research methods - [Both deductive and inductive] approaches - [Reject "value-free" science\ ] - Anti-oppressive in practice and political in nature - e.g., Karl Marx and conflict theory - Involves *praxis*: putting one's theoretical positions into practice How/why different than interpretivism? - There is no value-neutral research: social scientists should take a position of active support towards those studied - Knowledge should not be used to only "understand" the social reality but to change it (Marx) - Social research should be practice-oriented - Participatory action research - A critical approach to research closest to social activism Ontological Considerations ========================== - **Ontology is a study of how we exist.** It determines how research questions are formulated and how the research is carried out. Bruce Trail Description:  Bruce Trail -- Mono Cliffs. Photo of a walking trail, through deciduous forested area, during early autumn. Source: [Wikimedia Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bruce_Trail-Mono_Cliffs.jpg). Author: Michael Schneider. File is licensed under the creative commons attribution-share alike 2.0 generic license. Description:  The Grotto, Bruce Peninsula National Park, Ontario. Source: [Wikimedia Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Grotto,_Bruce_Peninsula_National_Park,_Ontario_-_panoramio.jpg). Author: A. J. Butler. File is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license. Imagine for a moment that two individuals go for a hike. Juan is a rock collector, and Carl is an avid bird watcher. They are walking on the Bruce Trail, in Ontario. They see the same sights, as they are walking, and hear the same sounds. However, given their very different interests, what do you suppose their experience of the hike is?  Might they subjectively experience the hike in different ways? \ Juan might be more likely to take notice of the geology along the trail and attend more to the geological features as they are walking. When he is later asked about the hike, he is more apt to describe the elevations, waterfalls, and rock structures that he has seen. (OC233, copyright WLU) ### Sample Research Questions **Beer consumption** **\ **How are attitudes about beer consumption related to grades and income?\ \ Improvement: This research question looks at more than one issue and is not very specific.\ A better question would be:  How are first year student attitudes about beer consumption related to grades on their final examinations? **Recycling Behaviour** **\ **Is recycling behaviour impacted by awareness?\ \ Improvement:  Several of the concepts in this research question are quite vague.\ A better question would be:  Are families more likely to recycle their paper products after watching an information video showing the environmental impact of not recycling these materials? (OC233, copyright WLU) In either case above, our ontological assumptions will make a huge impact on our research. Two ontological debates: 1. **Objectivist** perspective: - There is a pre-existent social reality. - Social phenomena have an objective reality, independent of our perceptions 2. **Constructionist** perspective: - Social reality creates objects and relationships in specific ways. Such outcomes vary from society to society. - **Constructionist (hard)** - Reality is merely a set of mental constructions. - e.g., Nietzsche: there are no facts, only interpretations - **Constructionist (soft)**: more middle ground - There is an objective social reality that is marred by human interpretation - Relationship to social research? - **[Ontological assumptions about reality]** affect: - Research question formulation - The way research is carried out - Our perception of "truth" itself. General Orientations: Quantitative and Qualitative Research =========================================================== - **Quantitative research** - Uses numbers and statistics in the collection and analysis of data - Usually entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research in which **theory testing is a prime objective**. - Incorporates the practices and norms of the natural science model and of **positivism in particular**. - Generally embodies a view of society as an external, objective reality. - - **Qualitative research** - Uses [mainly words and other non-numeric symbols] in the collection and analysis of data - Takes a predominantly inductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, in which **the generation of theories and interpretations is the main goal**. - Rejects the use of the natural science and positivist models in social research and replaces them with methodologies that seek to determine [how individuals interpret their social world]. - Embodies a view of social reality as a constantly shifting and emergent property of individuals' creations. - Are these differences irreconcilable? - Does real-life research cluster neatly into these two camps? The table column headings are blank; quantitative; qualitative. 1. Role of theory in research Mainly deductive; testing of theory Mainly inductive; generation of theory. 2. Epistemological orientation. Natural science model; positivism Interpretivism. 3. Ontological orientation; Objectivism; Constructionism.  Influences on the Conduct of Social Research ============================================ - The following is a list of things that influence how we conduct social research.\ \ Each addresses issues that arise in carrying out social research: - Values - Politics - Practical considerations - Ethical issues - Informed consent, deception, harm to participants, and invasion of privacy - A researcher's values can contribute to bias in research: - Choice of topic - Formulation of the research question - Choice of method - Formulation of research design and data collection methods - Actual data collection - Analysis of data - Interpretation of data - Conclusions - **Reflexivity** - [Researchers' awareness] that their values and decisions have an impact on the research - Personal biases are made explicit - Three different **positions on values** in social research: 1. Research should be value-free 2. Research cannot be value-free, but researchers should be open and explicit about their values 3. Researchers should use their values to direct and interpret their investigations: value commitment is a good thing for researchers to have Research questions ================== - A good research question will: - be as **clear** as possible so that it will be understandable to others; - be **researchable**---it must allow for the development of a research design and the collection of data; this means that extremely abstract terms may not be suitable; - **relate in some way** to existing studies that suggest how your question may be approached.\ Even with a topic that has not been widely researched, there will probably be some relevant literature (for example, on related or parallel topics). [Establishing connections with existing] will help to show how your research can make a contribution, however small, to the existing knowledge on the topic. - be **linked to the other research questions in the study**, so that you can develop a single argument or at least a set of related arguments; this is hard to do with unrelated research questions; - be **neither too broad** (no research project can do justice to all aspects of a topic)\ **nor too narrow** (unable to make a meaningful contribution to an area of study). Politics in Social Research =========================== - Researchers sometimes "take sides" - Funding: - Who gets it? Are strings attached? - Government may fund research to benefit them politically - Research subjects/participants - **Gatekeepers** - Who gets access? Are strings attached? - Research findings - What sorts of findings are "acceptable" to those who fund or publish research? ### Issues Related to the Research Question - When little or no research has been done: - A qualitative, exploratory approach may be preferable - Typically associated with the generation of theory rather than theory testing - Relatively unstructured approach to the research process - When a researcher wants to study individuals involved in illicit activities: - Need to develop rapport with subjects - Qualitative strategy ### Formulating a Research Question - The choice of research orientation, design, and method must match the question being asked - Is it a brand-new phenomenon? - Measuring impact? - World views? - Hypothesis testing? - The choice of research method should match the research question - A research question states the purpose of the study in the form of a question - For example: - What social factors make people enjoy smoking marijuana? - What explains differential rates of suicide in societies? - What is it like to be a member of the furry fandom? - The form of the research question will be shaped by the qualitative or quantitative orientations of the study - Qualitative: - Less specific research question - Inductive - No hypothesis - Quantitative: - Can test causal models - Deductive - Narrowed research question to make a testable hypothesis Activities ========== A man draws graffiti on the wall. He paints a goat face shape. A young person painting graffiti on a wall. Some call this behaviour **vandalism**, while others consider it **art**. - What social theories might you invoke to explain what this person is doing? - How might the young person explain it? - Do you think his explanation would have anything in common with your social theories?  Guenter Guni/iStockphoto Women wearing headscarves in Iran, a society that has experienced far less secularization than many Western countries. - Do you think that some of the theories examined in Hay\'s (2014) research can help to explain the high levels of religiosity found in Iran? - For example, could the acceptance of religious beliefs and practices there be related to cultural factors that favour societal cohesion over personal autonomy? - Could low levels of religious pluralism be a factor? **Group Analysis of a Research Project** Remake of **Milgrim Experiment** 1. What was the purpose of Milgram's experiment? 2. Why was Milgram interested in the question of whether or not people would follow the orders of a superior, even if they thought harm was being done to a person? 3. What did we learn about obedience from the Milgram experiment? 4. Why did Milgram's experiment finish earlier than expected? 5. What criticisms have been made of Milgram's experimental method? 6. What should Milgram have done differently? 7. What political ramifications with regard to war and soldiers come out of Milgram's experiment? 8. How do the lessons learned from the Milgram experiment help us to design better research projects using human subjects?