The Social Construction of Gender PDF

The Social Construction of Gender GEN 2027 Gender, Culture and Society Semester 1 2024/25 Dr. Lucille Ngan Lecture Outline 1. Social Construction of Gender Identities 2. Gender Socialization 3. Discussion 1. Social Construction of Gender Identities Cultural Categories and Social Constructionism...

The Social Construction of Gender GEN 2027 Gender, Culture and Society Semester 1 2024/25 Dr. Lucille Ngan Lecture Outline 1. Social Construction of Gender Identities 2. Gender Socialization 3. Discussion 1. Social Construction of Gender Identities Cultural Categories and Social Constructionism Cultural Categories: Terms like “men” and “women” are not natural or fixed; their boundaries are fluid and constantly evolving. These concepts are created, contested, and redefined through historical processes within various institutions and cultures across societies. Social Constructionism: This theory posits that characteristics often viewed as fixed and purely biological—such as gender, race, and age—are actually products of human definition and interpretation, shaped by cultural and historical contexts. Challenging Essentialism: Social constructionist approaches challenge essentialist or biological determinist views that typically inform our “common sense” understanding of race, gender, and sexuality. Gender: Gender consists of the socially constructed characteristics associated with women and men, influencing our perceptions of distinct male and female categories.  Social Construction of Reality Understanding Reality: Humans create their own understanding of reality through interactions and communication with others. This shapes how we interpret the world and engage with those around us. “If people define Historical Approach: The social construction of reality refers situations as real, to the historical process by which our experiences are they are real in their categorized and treated as real phenomena. consequences.” Cross-Cultural Approach: Different cultures have varying interpretations of specific social phenomena, highlighting the diversity of understanding. Social Construction of Gender: There is no inherent truth to gender; it is shaped by societal norms and expectations. Fashion and Gender Renaissance period –ideal female body was voluptuous, small breasts, large tummy and hips 1600s Europe – men wore bold colours and high heels, wigs, makeup Blue was linked to femaleness, because the Virgin Mary was frequently shown wearing blue The Social Impact on Biology: Men are Taller than Women Biology can be influenced by social reality Change of height over time – average height difference between females and males have been shrinking in the last 100 years Changes in nutrition brought about by shifting cultural beliefs Height Judgement and Stereotypes (Biernat 1993) Height judgements are sensitive to height stereotypes. The belief that men are taller than women is an accurate gender stereotype that is presumably learned through everyday encounters with men and women. Subjects from five different groups (kindergarten, third grade, seventh grade, tenth grade, and college) made judgments of “who is taller” among photographed male—female pairs that had actually been matched in height. Subjects tend to judge adult men as taller than adult women and seventh grade females taller than seventh-grade males Height judgments are particularly sensitive to subjects who are directly faced with this reality in their peer context—seventh graders—and among college students.  Gender controversies In 2019, a picture of 4 athletes, who won the Women's 4x400 Relay at the annual Chinese Athletics Championships, has become a trending topic on Chinese social media. The gender of 2 athletes in Hunan team, Liao and Tong was called into question. Lots of netizens say judging from how they look or how they speak it’s hard to tell that Liao and Tong are women. The Chinese Athletic Association later announced that both athletes are women. Gender controversies “The participation of Lin and Khelif in Olympic women’s boxing has sparked global outrage in recent days after reports resurfaced that the pair failed to meet gender eligibility tests at the Women’s World Boxing Championships in New Delhi last year. Sporting officials at the time alleged that the boxers failed an unspecified test because they had male chromosomes.” “We have two boxers who are born as women, who have been raised as women, who have a passport as a woman and have competed for many years as women. Some want to own a definition of who is a woman.” “A complication is that the IBA has since been stripped of its status as boxing’s governing body over governance issues and has been accused by the IOC of making decisions over gender “arbitrarily.” Social Construction of Gender "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman…; it is civilization as a whole that produces this creature... which is described as feminine” Simone de Beauvoir1972 The Second Sex Social Expectations of Gender Identity Constructions (Judith Butler’s Observation) 1. Everyone must be either masculine or feminine 2. Masculine and feminine traits should be sharply opposed 3. Everyone should be heterosexual 4. Masculine and feminine individuals should play opposed roles in heterosexual sex. It is against these expectations that we insist everyone must be male or female. No exceptions are allowed hence the perceived need to surgically reconstruct intersex people. Gender Binary System The gender binary is a system that pairs together sex and gender Classifies two distinguishable, distinct, and often times contrasting genders - masculine, feminine - mutually exclusive – only one or the other and never both This two-sided categorization, which is mainstream in most cultures and societies around the world, dictates self-expression in all areas of life Individuals are not only expected to perform the actions appropriate to their gender, they are also expected to identify, or understand, themselves as members of that gender - either as male, female, or as troubling those categories Gender is increasingly understood as not binary but on a spectrum Masculinity and Femininity The term masculinity/femininity stresses gender, unlike male or female, which stresses biological sex Masculinity and Femininity refers to the behaviors gender roles relations of men and women within a given society gender expression Three levels that gender operates: Personal Level –hairstyle, clothing, mannerism Interpersonal Level – interaction between 2 parties Institutional Level – organised gender hierarchy e.g. healthcare field Gender Properties Personality traits, appearances, behaviours, occupations are linked to femininity or masculinity Males are typically expected to behave in a masculine manner and females in a feminine manner. Masculinity Femininity Appearance tall and muscular small and thin Personality self-confident and passive and aggressive submissive Behaviors breadwinning caretaking Occupations doctors, lawyer, Nurses, ceo secretaries, teachers Gender Constructed as Opposites Gender Properties: Male Female Strong Weak Aggressive Passive Independent Dependent Dominant Submissive Active Quiet Decisive Insecure Rational Emotional As a process, gender creates the social differences that define “woman” and “man.” Gender system is deeply entwined with social hierarchy because gender stereotypes contain status beliefs that associate greater status worthiness and competence with men than women. Sworn Virgins in Albania A "sworn virgin" is a biological female who has chosen to take on the social identity of a man for life Vow of lifelong celibacy, adopt male mannerisms and gestures thoroughly A tradition dating back hundreds of years that still exists in the Albanian Alps By taking an oath to live as a sworn virgin in front of village or tribal elders, a woman can be elevated to the status of a man thereby becoming entitled to all the rights and privileges of the male population. Social circumstances -women as property of their husbands, which strips them of some basic rights and freedoms; do not have rights to inherit family's wealth, avoid unwanted marriage Sworn Virgins Sworn Virgins | National Geographic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIIJ990jUfU 3.52 mins Femininity and Sexuality Women are naturally maternal Sexually active women as either spiritually fallen or psychologically disturbed Women’s sexuality is seen as naturally passive, buried deep in her essential biological being, awaiting arousal by men Heterosexuality is the only ‘natural’ sexual behaviour homosexuality is against nature since it is not reproductive Women are taught sex through fear-based scenarios Pregnancy STD Shame for women to have pleasure and interests in sex Masculinity and Sexuality Sexual urges were identified as essential to maleness Men are seen as powerful sexual subjects –they have a sense of power and agency in their own bodies that allows them to act in their bodies rather than being acted upon Men are naturally sexually aggressive Government have often treated the provision of sex as a basic need of their armies that they are obligated to provide A “boys will be boys” approach Behaviour on the part of peacekeeping soldiers were not viewed as a problem for international community Masculinity and Sexuality Comfort Women - WWII women were forced into sexual slavery (from Korea, China, Taiwan, Indonesia and Malaysia) German military brothels were set up by Nazi Germany during World War II US army bases in South Korea have a network of brothels, strip clubs etc.  December 8, 1980 – Yoko Ono and John Lennon Female – Feminine – Heterosexual Male – Masculine – Heterosexual  Gender Performativity (Judith Butler 1990 Gender Trouble) 1. “Scripts” that people perform A performance that makes us males or females Gender, like culture, is a human production that depends on everyone constantly "doing gender" (West and Zimmerman 1987) Transvestites and transsexuals carefully construct their gender status by dressing, speaking, walking, gesturing in the ways prescribed for women or men whichever they want to be taken for - and so does any "normal“ person. 2. An imitation of the dominant conventions of gender “Gender is an impersonation... becoming gendered involves impersonating an ideal that nobody actually inhabits” We behave in ways that consolidate an impression of being man or woman Gender Performativity Gender Trouble (Judith Butler1990) 3. Repetitive performance of gender Gender is “real only to the extent that it is performed repeatedly” Performativity of gender is a stylized repetition of acts 4. Biological sex is also a social construction There is no essential or foundational identity There is no biological sex onto which gender is added Society creates the dominant discourse surrounding sex and gender identity which it is hard to break free from 5. Gender performativity is not by choice “This is not freedom, but a question of how to work the trap that one is inevitably in….” It often the repetition of oppressive and painful gender norms. Gender as a Social Institution Gender is an institution that is embedded in all the social processes of everyday life and social organizations. As a social institution, gender is a process of creating distinguishable social statuses for the assignment of rights and responsibilities When gender is a major component of structured inequality, the devalued genders have less power, prestige, and economic rewards than the valued genders Fundamental feminist insight “gender is a system of power and not just a set of stereotypes or observable differences between women and men” (Brod and Kaufman 1994: 4) 2. Gender Socialization Socialization Socialization – the social experiences through which individuals come to learn about cultural norms, values beliefs and generalized rules for social interaction, and through which they acquire a general understanding of the world and their position in it Talcott Parsons (1955) - The most important function performed the family is: I. stabilization of the adult personality - The stabilisation of adult personalities is also aided by the sexual division of labour within the isolated nuclear family unit. II. the socialization of children: Personality formation Teach impulse control and developing a social conscience Cultivate shared beliefs and values Internalization of society’s culture Preparing people to perform certain social roles Socialisation of Children and Gender Roles Gender roles are learned through the process of socialization with the family and reinforced by additional socializing agents such as school, peers, mass media. We begin to teach children about gender from the moment they are born. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, “By age four, most children have a stable sense of their gender identity.” Gender roles adopted during childhood normally continue to adulthood Given the prevalence of the gender binary, children face great pressure to express their gender within narrow, stereotypical definitions of “boy” or “girl.” Children receive parental approval when they confirm to gender expectation and adopt culturally accented and conventional roles Girl toys vs boy toys: The experiment - BBC Stories https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nWu44AqF0iI The Looking Glass Self- (Charles Horton Cooley 1902) Definition: The looking-glass self refers to the process by which individuals form their self- concepts based on how they believe others perceive them. Focus: The looking-glass self emphasizes the reflective nature of self-perception, suggesting "As we see our face, figure, and dress in that our self-identity is shaped significantly by the glass, and are interested in them social interactions and feedback from others because they are ours, and pleased or Social Feedback: This concept underscores the otherwise with them according as they do importance of social feedback in shaping self- or do not answer to what we should like identity, highlighting that our self-esteem can them to be, so in imagination we perceive fluctuate based on perceived evaluations from in another's mind some thought of our others. appearance, manners, aims, deeds, Happens throughout life character, friends, and so on, and are variously affected by it.” The Looking Glass Self Imagination of our appearance: How we think we appear to others. Imagination of their judgment: How we think others judge that appearance. Emotional response: How we feel about those judgments, which can influence our self-esteem and self-image. The Social Self – George Herbert Mead (1934) Mind, Self, and Society (1934) Constructed Self: Our self—comprising our thoughts, feelings, and “The self is not actions—is not an innate quality. Consciousness of self cannot exist a thing, but a in isolation; it is inherently linked to society. It is shaped and re- process of shaped through everyday interactions with others and within ourselves. interaction.” Social Context: The social self emphasizes the broader context of social roles, cultural norms, and group dynamics in shaping identity. It acknowledges that individuals have multiple selves depending on the social context (e.g., family, work, community) Role of Society: The social self is more about the roles and expectations imposed by society and how individuals navigate these roles, rather than focusing solely on external perceptions. 3 Stages of Development of Self – Herbert Mead Imitation/Preparatory Stage(Newborn – 2): infant simply copies/imitates the behaviour of significant persons in his/her environment Play stage (Age 2-6): Roles are taken from “significant others” e.g. playing mummy and daddy Game stage (Age 7 and up): Multiple roles - Children learn to consider several specific roles at the same time, how those roles interact with each other and the variety of purposes for those interactions. They understand that role play in each situation involves following a consistent set of rules and expectations. Children learn to orient themselves not just to significant others but to “generalized others” - The generalized other refers to the viewpoint of general society. Bobo Doll – Media and socialization Developed by psychologist Albert Bandura 1960s Bobo Doll experiment (1961)- observed violence on children’s behavior Tested 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old. Three groups were formed (1. control group; 2. exposed to aggressive adult; 3. exposed to passive adult) Children who were exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to show imitative aggressive behavior themselves. Subjects exposed to the non-aggressive model, or no model at all, showed little imitative aggressive behavior. Boys were nearly three times more likely to replicate physically violent behavior than girls. This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children Bobo Doll Experiment (5.03) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE 3. Discussion Diversity is reality, Ivan Fahy, TEDxGalway https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EbODhGAyubw (12:07min) 1. Describe what is meant by the normative gender system. 2. Why is it still so important to mark a child as a girl or boy? What would happen if she is mistaken for a boy or he for a girl? 3. What was your reaction to Ivan’s appearance at the start of the clip? Describe the processes that occurred. 4. Give examples of how Ivan tried to conform to gender expectations of society during his childhood and youth. 5. Discuss how you have tried to conform to gender expectations in your own life.