Lectures in School Curriculum PDF 2023-2024

Faculty of Education at Qena Department of Curricula & Instruction Lectures in School Curriculum For First Year – Science Students' English program Lecturer Dr. Nagwa Yassein M. Ismail Department of Curricula & Instruction Qena Faculty...

Faculty of Education at Qena Department of Curricula & Instruction Lectures in School Curriculum For First Year – Science Students' English program Lecturer Dr. Nagwa Yassein M. Ismail Department of Curricula & Instruction Qena Faculty of Education 2023-2024 ‫بيــــانـــات أساسية‬ ‫الكمية‪ :‬التربية – شعبة التعميم األساسي‬ ‫الفرقة‪ :‬األولي أساسي عممي– برنامج المغة‬ ‫التخصص ‪ :‬العموم‬ ‫عدد الصفحات‪36 :‬‬ ‫القسم التابع له المقرر ‪ :‬قسم المناهج وطرق التدريس‬ ‫الرموز المستخدمة‬ ‫فيديو لممشاهدة‪.‬‬ ‫نص للقراءة والدراسة‪.‬‬ ‫رابط خارجي‪.‬‬ ‫أسئمة لمتفكير والتقييم الذاتي‪.‬‬ ‫أنشطة ومهام‪.‬‬ ‫تواصل عبر مؤتمر الفيديو‪.‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬  Table of Content Chapter Page. Chapter I: Different definitions of Curriculum in Education...................... Chapter II: Foundations of Curriculum……………………………….. Chapter III: Curriculum Designs ……………………………………….. Chapter V: Planning for Teaching………………………………………… Chapter VI: Curriculum Content…………………………………….. Chapter VII: Curriculum Evaluation…………………………………….. References: ……………………………………………………………… 3  Chapter I Definitions of Curriculum 4   What is meant by Curriculum? Curriculum is so wide when it is viewed from the realm of education. Curriculum is various based on the location, culture, social, needs, and implementation. It is the arrangement of what countries and or institutions need to manage the education system grounded on institution‟s goal and objectives. Actually, the philosophy of the curriculum tends to define achievement as the goal and it is more relevant to efforts as the objectives. Therefore, some definitions arise to be the description of the curriculum itself and they are not mistaken as long as the definition is not restrain from the fact that curriculum is a provisional set of achievement. - According to Nichols, Shidaker, Johnson, & Singer (2006) that Curriculum is an area of education that is characterized by a lack of agreement about its definition and nature. - According to Wortham (2006) that Curriculum is a planned set of course that is presented to teachers to arrange teaching and learning in certain level of ages. - A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies, which students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education. For example, an elementary school might discuss how its curriculum, or its entire sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve national testing scores or help students learn the basics. An individual teacher might also refer to his or her curriculum, meaning all the subjects that will be taught during a school year. - According to Nation & Macalister (2010) define Curriculum as a guidance in designing courses that consist of outer cycle namely 5  Principles, Environment, and needs that involve practical and theoretical considerations that will have a major effect in guiding the actual process of course production. Inner cycle that consists of goals and its centre, contents and sequences, format and presentation, and monitoring and assessment. - According to Cattington (2010), curriculum (or curriculum standards) to refer to the standards, benchmarks, and outcomes that delineate the content to be taught and learned in science classrooms. - According to Slattery (2006) Curriculum should be developed time by times to the postmodern curriculum that is radically eclectic, determined in the context of relatedness, recursive in its complexity, autobiographically intuitive, aesthetically inter subjective, embodied, phenomenological, experiential, simultaneously quantum and cosmic, hopeful in its constructive dimension, radical in its deconstructive movement, liberating in its post structural intents, empowering in its spirituality, ironic in its kaleidoscopic sensibilities, and ultimately, a hermeneutic search for greater understanding that motivates and satisfies us on the journey. - According to Lake and Winter botto (2010), Curriculum is a set of rule that benefits students by providing them with practice in both content and social curriculum through the use of active learning, exploration of interests, civic responsibility, character building, and recognizing and helping the community. - According to Dat (2008) implied that curriculum requires too much to be accomplished within a unit and that their students want a more manageable and realistic learning goal. 6  - Brady (1995), view curriculum as a document--an outline of a course program that is written on a piece of paper. Thus, curriculum “has become associated with the official written programs of study published by ministries or departments of education, local authorities or boards of education, and commercial firms or teams of educational specialists working on specially funded projects” (Barrow & Milburn, 1990). This view of the visual written document attached to curriculum derives from the need that, particularly in the phases of curriculum development and implementation, a written form has to be made to include a statement of objectives, content, method, and assessment. The presentation of the document purports to provide teachers with a model to follow in the curriculum process. In this sense, curriculum is synonymous with the term, “syllabus” (Barrow & Milburn, 1990). Ralph Tyler (1902) – he believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of school‟s philosophy. It is based on student‟s needs and interest. To him, curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. Curriculum perspectives that have been identified within the field of curriculum will be used as lenses through which to view parent education curricula. Reasons for viewing parent education in relation to curricular perspectives include a need for: deeper understanding of parent education curricula in terms of curricular ideas that are not explicit in typical descriptive discussions and presentations of parent education curriculum, in those that focus primarily on outcomes, and in those primarily concerned with underlying psychological theory; a "forest level" view of parent education curriculum within which specific parent education curricula can be understood 7 in terms of a larger framework or pattern; attention to gaps in parent education curricula and development efforts to address them; awareness of more recently developed parent education curricula that address the gaps; parent educators to think deeply about their practice as it might be guided by various curricula and the implications of their practice for parents and their children. Curriculum theory work over recent decades has focused on identifying various perspectives from which curriculum is viewed and the implications of those perspectives for the kind of curriculum that is developed and its implications for learners, educators, institutions and agencies that sponsor educational programs, and society. Several schemes of curricular perspectives have emerged from this work (Eisner & Vallance, 1974; Giroux, Penna, & Pinar, 1981; Miller, 1983; Miller & Seller, 1990). The number of perspectives in these schemes has ranged from about three to eight. Because Miller and Seller's (1990) scheme is the most recent and synthesizes the others into three perspectives, a scope which this paper can reasonably accommodate, it is the basis for this discussion and analysis of parent education curriculum. The Transmission Perspective. This perspective is characterized as follows:  Rooted in behaviorism and traditional academic modes of educating.  Goal is to transmit knowledge, attitudes, or skills from those who are believed to possess them to those believed to lack them.  Educator or curriculum developer is viewed as possessing the desired skills, knowledge and/or attitudes.  Learners are seen as lacking and needing the desired skills, knowledge and/or attitudes. 8  Curriculum development involves identifying components of needed skills and/or areas of content knowledge and then indicating what the educator is to demonstrate, model, tell, and provide practice opportunities for.  Assumes knowledge (concepts, attitudes, and skills) is possessed by people and that one person's knowledge can be imparted to another through the above methods until it is eventually replicated in the other.  Curriculum is organized into units or topics that are often sequential; learners must master one in order to go on to the next.  Curriculum is evaluated in terms of the degree to which learners have absorbed or mastered the prescribed knowledge, attitudes, and/or skills. 9  Chapter II Foundations of curriculum 10 The commonly accepted foundations of curriculum include: - Philosophical - Historical, - Psychological - Social. 1- Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework for planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what school are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and methods should be used. In decision making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision making. Philosophy to Curriculum. Educators, curriculum makers and teachers must have espoused a philosophy or philosophies that are deemed necessary for planning, implementing, and evaluating a school curriculum. The philosophy that they have embraced will help them define the purpose of the school, the important subjects to be taught, the kind of learning students must have and how they can acquire them, the instructional materials, methods and strategies to be used, and how students will be evaluated. 2- Historical Foundations of Curriculum. Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning. In 1918 with the publication of Franklin Bobbit‟s book The Curriculum. Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational system has the greatest influence on our educational system. 11  3- The Influence of Psychology to Curriculum. Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be organized in order to achieve students‟ learning at the optimum level, and as to what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the curriculum. The following are some psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum development: - Behaviorism. Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject matter is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and repetition are common. For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and routine. Though many are skeptical about this theory, we can‟t deny the fact the influences it had in our educational system. - Cognitive. Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:  How do learners process and store information?  How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?  How much information can they absorb? With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and popularize the use of reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, among others. 12  - Humanism is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow‟s theory and Carl Rogers‟ theory. This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential. In this theory, curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental situations. In short, curriculum views founded on humanism posits that learners are human beings who are affected by their biology, culture, and environment. 4- Sociology and Curriculum. There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the school exists within the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, there are other units of society that educate or influence the way people think, such as families and friends as well as communities. Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to. But the schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one‟s country but in the world as well. Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and interdisciplinary. A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the explosion of knowledge through the internet, and the educational reforms and policies. 13  Chapter III Curriculum design 14  Curriculum design Types of curriculum designs: There are many types of curriculum design, but here we will discuss only the few. Types or patterns are being followed in educational institutions. 1- Subject Based Curriculum. Subject matter is the most used and accepted curriculum Design, it is also the oldest curriculum Design. In a subject base curriculum every subject is separate unit. In this kind of curriculum four or five subject are placed in curriculum and each subject has a separate teacher. Every teacher try to teach his own subject, no one intervene in the subject of other teacher. 2- Learner-Cantered Curriculum. The supporters of learner-cantered Curriculum give importance to individual development and they wants to organize the curriculum according to the needs and interest of learners, there are fundamental differences in this approach and the subject-cantered design. This movement from the traditional curriculum towards a program that stresses the interests and needs of students, This approach was used by Rousseau in the education of Emile, then Dewy in his laboratory School in 1896-1904. it is believed that all of these twentieth-century efforts reflect, the influence of Dewey. It is a fundamental principle of education that the beginning of each instruction it shall be connected with the previous experience of learners. The purpose is that the experience and the capacities that have been developed in early lessons, it should provide a starting point for further learning. The current 15 importance given to student-cantered programs may not always acknowledge the Dewey‟s philosophy and influence on the movement to incorporate more student-serving learning opportunities into the curriculum. The association for the Advancement of Progressive Education formed in 1919, had its aim “The development of the individual, based upon the scientific study of his mental, physical, spiritual, and social characteristics and needs”. The views of this association, later called the Progressive Education Association (PEA), were compatible with the ideas of Dewey‟s as indicated by their principles:  Freedom to develop naturally.  Interest is the motive of all work.  The teacher is a guide, not a task-master.  Scientific study of pupil development.  Greater attention to all that affects the child‟s physical development.  Co-operation between school and home to meet the needs of child-life.  The progressive school a leader in educational movement. The aim of using the learner-cantered curriculum on the part of curriculum planners to interpret the needs and interests design as one based on common needs and interests of learners rather than on those of the particular population to be served. Reflected in curriculum plans, this interpretation could and sometimes did, become the rationale for teaching. Research on learner cantered curriculum in recent years made it possible for curriculum planners to develop a better learner-cantered curriculum. Modern learning theories and dissatisfaction of students and parents from the old curriculum are moving 16 curriculum and instruction toward a design that focus on real student needs and interests. Models of Curriculum design Curriculum design is a complex but systematic process. This unit describes a variety of models of curriculum design in order to make this complex activity understandable and manageable. It is important for you as a teacher to understand how the curriculum you are using in your school was designed. 1- The objectives model of curriculum design contains content that is based on specific objectives. These objectives should specify expected learning outcomes in terms of specific measurable behaviors. This model comprises four main steps: agreeing on broad aims which are analyzed into objectives, constructing a curriculum to achieve these objectives, refining the curriculum in practice by testing its capacity to achieve its objectives, and communicating the curriculum to the teachers through the conceptual framework of the objectives. (Gatawa, 1990) 2- The Process Model. Unlike the objectives model, this model does not consider objectives to be important. Using this model presupposes that: Content has its own value. Therefore, it should not be selected on the basis of the achievement of objectives. Content involves procedures, concepts and criteria that can be used to appraise the curriculum. Translating content into objectives may result in knowledge being distorted. Learning activities have their own value and can be measured in terms of their own standard. For this reason, learning activities can stand on their own. (Gatawa, 1990) 17  3- Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on the following questions: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? The model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending with evaluation. In this model, evaluation is terminal. It is important to note that: Objectives form the basis for the selection and organization of learning experiences. Objectives form the basis for assessing the curriculum. Objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject specialist. To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial expectation with the outcomes. 4- Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon Tyler‟s model. Instead of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model. Evaluation in Wheeler‟s model is not terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed back into the objectives and the goals, which influence other stages. Wheeler contends that: Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product of learning which yields the ultimate goals. One can think of these ultimate goals as outcomes. Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This results in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal level. Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which determine that content. 18  5- Kerr’s Model. Most of the features in Kerr‟s model resemble those in Wheeler‟s and Tyler‟s models. However, Kerr divided the domains into four areas (Urevbu, 1985) objectives, knowledge, evaluation, and school learning experiences. Evaluation in Kerr‟s model is the collection of information for use in making decisions about the curriculum. School learning experiences are influenced by societal opportunities, the school community, pupil and teacher. Components of curriculum Any curriculum consists of several components: objectives, attitudes, time, students and teachers, needs analysis, classroom activities, materials, study skills, language skills, vocabulary, grammar and assessment. Before setting up a program or course of study, these components should be determined and described in detail. In fact, these elements help to clarify various dimensions of the curriculum and consequently enhance its productivity. Practically, proper consideration of each aspect of these constructs can exert a tremendous influence on the richness of the program. Therefore, curriculum or course designers need to scrutinize these components one by one and determine their role in the program. Essentially, these elements should be explored at length prior to, during and after the program. Thus, this article attempts to shed some light on the various constructs of a teaching- learning course Generally, objectives are one of the quintessential aspects of any course or program. Any curriculum usually determines its instructional objectives at the beginning of the course. These objectives should clearly elucidate the 19 language elements or skills which the students might learn during the program (Brown, 1995). In fact, objectives or goals are the ends towards which we try to direct our efforts. That is, objectives are things we aim to achieve at the end of the course (Van Blerkom, 2003) Certainly, students‟ attitudes determine whether or not they intend to learn a foreign or second language. Mainly, favourable attitudes towards the language and its speakers augment students‟ motivation and their learning rate (Lightbown & Spada, 2003). In fact, motivation for learning a second language is one of the realizations of positive attitudes towards the language. Curriculum theory (CT) is an academic discipline devoted to examining and shaping educational curricula. There are many interpretations of CT, being as narrow as the dynamics of the learning process of one child in a classroom to the lifelong learning path an individual takes. CT can be approached from the educational, philosophical, psychological and sociological perspectives. James MacDonald states "one central concern of theorists is identifying the fundamental unit of curriculum with which to build conceptual systems. Whether this be rational decisions, action processes, language patterns, or any other potential unit has not been agreed upon by the theorists." Curriculum theory is fundamentally concerned with values, the historical analysis of curriculum, ways of viewing current educational curriculum and policy decisions, and theorizing about the curricula of the future. Curriculum theory, then, is a form of autobiographical and theoretical truth- telling that articulates the educational experience of teachers and students as lived. As such, curriculum theory speaks from the subjective experience of history and society, the inextricable interrelationships among which structure educational experience. 20 A Hobbesian view of essential human nature made Durkheim see the primary social problem as one of control, organization and discipline - its individual corollary being 'morality'. Education, therefore, for Durkheim, became the primary means of socialization - producing 'moral' members of society - and allocation and training of various human resources for various. The curriculum is a tool through which the values, needs, aspirations, interests and objectives of the society or the nation are articulated and addressed as learning experiences for the development of the individuals through teaching and learning process (Apple, 1979). Tanner and Tanner, (1995) looked at curriculum as, “the planned and guided learning experiences and intended outcomes formulated through systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for learners‟ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence”. As such, it should be relevant, appropriate and responsive to the needs of individual learners and the society at large. In addition to being influenced by internal historical, economic, social and political factors, the national curriculum is also influenced by external conditions and ideas. Chisholm (2005) argues that the wind of curriculum change sweeping across nations, especially in Southern Africa is due to the phenomenon of globalisation, rather than just the desire of individual nation states. Chisholm (2005) holds that the concept of globalization and its relationship to national education systems has enjoyed considerable prominence. According to Chisholm, globalization and international influences have led to increasing convergences of ideas and practices (including those of education) across national contexts. Thus the agenda for education is increasingly being set globally (Dale and Robertson, 2002). 21 However, it is important that the teacher is always involved at all stages of any curriculum development and review. This will ensure that quality assurance happens at all stages of development. The teacher therefore can be positive that all parts of curriculum contains all the relevant information such as the course goal, aims and objectives, rationale, entry requirements, evaluation, assessment etc. Any curricula should ensure that schools/higher education programs must be delivered in the most effective and up to date manner as possible. In reviewing the subject of curriculum it should enable a teacher to reflect on addressing the identified needs of the students within the educational establishments or programmes. Curriculum should also provide a tool for examining the quality and completeness of the curriculum's components for, example, instructional principles, functional knowledge, self-perceptions, attitudes, skills, and duration. Through constant analysis it will help to determine the degree of fidelity between the curriculum and its application in the classroom; and assess the impact of the curriculum on students' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour. Geoff Petty quotes „We should seek a win-win curriculum that puts the needs of individuals on equal terms with economic and other factors'. The quote really say it all as we are purely developing curriculum with the main objective of imparting knowledge and skills on the learners of the future which will hopefully have a positive effect on the economy in the 21st century. In conclusion, it can be realized that the influence of politics, economics, social, culture, and religion factors shapes curriculum practices which restrains me as a teacher under the metaphors curriculum as content, subject matter, and cultural reproduction. Curriculum is a powerful tool for me to stimulate our 22 learners as imaginative thinker who could participate for social reconstruction in my society. It is but of great deal to mention that these factors are not on top of each other but is on the same level as each factor should be addressed well in order for a curriculum design to be in full-function without a slight hint of retreat. How challenging this must have been for the 21st century curricularists to design one that is new, fund-driven, tried and tested, morally and ethically accepted, substantial, ever changing, and addresses the needs of man and his environment. 23  Chapter V Planning for Teaching 24 Introduction This chapter discusses the processes involved in lesson planning. Lesson planning is a creative, thought - provoking and challenging process. Indeed, there is no a simple formula or prescription that says lesson planning must be in one form rather than the other. That said, we should stress that whatever steps you follow, key elements must be out there in any effective and successful lesson plan. Precisely, this chapter presents the following steps: 1- Concept of Planning 2- Concept of Educational Planning 3- Characteristics of Effective Educational Planning 4- Types of Planning 5- Context of the lesson 6- Aims and objectives of the lesson  Meaning and scope level of objectives  Characteristics of a well learning objectives  Classification of objectives 7- Procedures (action) 8- Assessment of learning 9- Evaluation of teaching 25  1- Concept of Planning: Planning is fundamental to the achievement of set goals. Planning is a deliberate effort to determine the future course of action for accomplishing predetermined goals and objectives. Akpan (2011) conceptualizes planning as the process of examining the future and drawing up or mapping out a course of action for achieving specified goals and objectives. It involves working out in broad outline the things to be done and procedures for doing them in order to accomplish set purpose. It is a process of making rational and technical choice. Planning is a systematic, conscious and deliberate process of deciding ahead of time, the future course of action that a person wishes to pursue in order to reach set goals. This definition suggests that planning is part and parcel of every man‟s endeavor politically, socially, economically and academically. Similarly, UNESCO (2003) describes planning as a process that makes it possible to work out a systematic outline of activities to be undertaken in order to meet the developmental objectives of a country within that country‟s possibilities and aspirations. These definitions depict that planning is both futuristic and goal-oriented. It is intelligent preparation for actions that will lead to the achievement of predetermined goals and objectives (Akpan, 2000). It involves a conscious, careful and systematic process of arranging a future course of action directed at goal accomplishment. Planning therefore, provides the direction in relation to objectives, activities, procedures, strategies, and cost implications, sources of fund, responsibilities and duration or time frame for attainment of set objectives. It spells out what is to be done, who to do it, when it should be done and how it should be done in order to reach set target. 26  Planning is a careful analysis of relevant information from the present and the past and using such information to predict future development so that a course of action can be determined that may enable attainment of stated objectives. Planning is concerned with the future and involves predicting the effect of future events so that hindrance of the presence could be minimized or eliminated in order to meet the future with more confidence and success. Therefore planning gives direction; enhances continuity of actions and reduces overlapping of responsibilities, waste of time, energy and resources (Akpan, 2000). 2- Concept of Educational planning: Educational planning involves a systematic and scientific set of decisions for future action with the aim of achieving set educational goals and objectives through effective use of scarce resources. It provides the tool for coordinating and controlling the direction of the educational system so that educational objectives can be realized. It is a process of identifying and classifying educational needs of a nation and the direction education should take and the strategies for implementing decisions concerning educational development. Akpan (2000) maintains that educational planning should reflect the state of development of a nation including the needs and readiness to execute the planned objectives. Thus, educational planning must take into consideration the population growth of children of school age in relation to access to education, educational opportunities and the demand for education. Comb cited in (Akpan, 2000) described educational planning as the application of rational systematic 27 analysis to the process of educational development with the aim of making education more effective and efficient in responding to the needs and goals of the learners and the society. This means that educational planning should take into account the needs of the pupils/students in terms of learning facilities and equipment, textbooks, classroom spaces and qualified educational personnel. In meeting the needs of the society, educational planning should take cognizance of the manpower, cultural, social and communication needs of the society (nation) as well as the economic changes (Akpan, 2000). Therefore, educational planning is a blue-print that gives direction for future development of a nation‟s educational system and prescribes courses of actions for achieving defined goals and objectives. Educational planning involves restructuring of the present educational system, forecasting future possibilities, formulating realistic and achievable goals and objectives developing action plans for implementation and periodic appraisal of progress and achievement. The political, social, economic and technological needs of a nation must be considered in educational planning. In support of this fact, Beeby cited in Okwori (2011) states that educational planning is the exercise of foresight in determining the policy, priorities and cost of educational system having due regards for economic and political realities for the system potentials, for growth and for the needs of the country and of the pupils served by the system. This implies that educational planning is a scientific study of the future with regard to a nation‟s educational development. The future development of a nation is the focus of educational planning. It involves studying the future educational needs of a country and putting in place relevant policies and priorities, actions, and programs that will enhance achievement of set 28 educational goals. Educational planning does not just happen by chance. It is an organized social practice involving studying the present and using available information concerning the educational challenges of a country to plan for future educational development. The outcome of educational planning is the education plan which contains educational policies, goals and objectives, activities and programs to be carried out, implementation strategies, method of monitoring and evaluation of achievement and progress and the time frame for implementation. 3- Characteristics of Effective Educational Planning: A good and effective educational planning should have the following features: 1. It should be dynamic: We are living in a society and environment that are not static and changes occur daily. Educational planning should be dynamic in order to keep pace with changes in the society. 2. It should be comprehensive: Planning should take the overall view of the entire educational system. If planning is concerned with national educational system, the overall view of the national educational system must be done in order to have adequate information for planning. If the planning is for one level of education, for example, secondary education, an overall assessment of the secondary educational system must be carried out. 3. Educational planning should be integrated: This implies that educational planning should aim at maximizing output through the use of limited resources. Efforts should be made to link the various planning operations and the focus should be to improve the outcome of educational services provided. 4. Educational planning should be iterative: Planning should require 29 redefining educational goals and objectives because of serendipity and unforeseen obstacles. The planning should be flexible to give room for adjustment. 5. Planning should provide for exploration of alternatives: This would enhance choice of possible alternatives, in terms of methods, strategies and approaches for effectiveness and efficiency. 6. Educational planning should be goal-oriented: It should focus on achievement of set educational goals and objectives. Planning should be based on clearly defined goals that are simple and easy to understand. 7. Educational planning should be future-oriented: It should focus on the improvement of future educational development. 8. Educational planning should be pragmatic: This means that the plan should be good and effective. The pragmatic nature of educational planning can be evaluated by how good the plan is and how well it is implemented. 9.Planning of education should be a continuous process that takes into consideration current changes in the society. 10. Educational planning is a deliberate action: It does not happen by accident. 11. Educational planning is a formal activity: It has a structured plan and some procedures in a written form to follow. 4. Types of Planning: Types of planning refer to forms of educational planning adopted by planners in conjunction with the polity to map out the direction of future education of a country within a specified time-frame. Planning is a rational 30 process of decision making aimed at achieving set goals in the future. It is a deliberate action involving prediction of the future and arranging the means and procedures for achieving set target. Planning under the classification of time specifies clearly the time - frame for the implementation of the plan. It includes long-term planning, medium - term planning - short-term planning, lesson planning. a) Long-term planning: This type of planning is usually carried out by top management of an enterprise or school organization. It covers a period of 5- 10 years and above. It is strategic in nature and deals with matters relating to diversification of school curriculum and planning for effective and quality instruction in school. b) Medium-term planning: This type of planning defines the future goals and objectives of education with greater clarity and provides clear-cut strategies and procedures or action plans for achievement of future targets. It covers a period of 2-4 years. c) Short-term planning: This is a type of planning designed to achieve immediate future goals. It covers a time frame of one year or less than one year. It helps the organization to progress gradually to achievement of long- term goals. d) Lesson Planning: The purpose of a lesson planning is providing a structure step-by-step of what the teacher wants students to be able to do by the end of a lesson, or what they will have done during it. 5- Context of the lesson 31  Any good and effective teacher must be thinking of the context of teaching before embarking or sketching his lesson plan. We do not teach in a vacuum, nor do we teach what strikes our minds. Without planning for teaching, our teaching and effort would be futile and meaningless. Let's also imagine that another teacher who, too, does not understand the context of teaching, decided to teach a lesson about subject and object pronouns. The teacher does not know that this is a very simple topic which all the students have mastered. Imagine the teacher entering the class and starting to teach it. Would you think that the students will be attentive? Do you think that the teacher will be able to manage this class? Of course, this will be questionable. The students will feel that the teacher is giving them trivial input. They will not be that interested as it would have been with a new topic about which they do not have enough information. Again, the reason for this particular lesson to be unsuccessful would be the teacher's ignorance of the teaching / learning context. 6- Benefits of lesson planning Every teacher is required to prepare or plan for his teaching. S/he should prepare a lesson plan because this is considered as guide for the day‟s lessons. Lesson planning is important because:  It gives the teacher a concrete direction of what she/he wants to take up for the day.  Research has shown that student learning is correlated to teacher planning. One major explanation is that when plan is ready, teachers can focus on its implementation. 32   A teachers‟ most important trait is confidence. Lesson planning can help the teacher to be well prepared and be aware of what he/she intends on teaching the students.  Lesson planning is important because it helps teachers ensure that the day-to-day activities that go on in their classrooms are providing students with an adequate level of long –term progress toward the goals outlined in their scope and sequence, as well as their individual education plans when necessary.  An organized teacher will always be able to deliver the lesson within the given time frame (during the limited class timings). With the additional time saved, a teacher can give additional attention and time to students that require additional help.  Also, there will be a sense of control and direction while teaching.  Furthermore, a teacher is one of the first few inspirations of a child. Setting a good example of pre-planning can always assist a teacher to become a good inspiration and the confidence with which the teacher delivers the lesson will make the student realize the importance of planning ahead of time and adopt this habit for other disciplines of life. An effective lesson plan includes several elements: learning objectives, questions, materials, and activities. It is important to have the learning objectives in mind because those should drive the development and implementation of all activities in the classroom. Questions are inquiries that the teacher plans to direct at the students over the course of the lesson. Sometimes these questions are rhetoric in nature, but more often they are designed to help the student think at a higher level than simple memorization and comprehension. It is important to come up with a plan for assessment to 33 determine whether the class has met its targets. Lesson planning is a complex yet essential part of the teaching process that changes over time as teachers gain more hands-on experience. A lesson plan is a teacher‟s guide for facilitating a lesson. It typically includes the goal (what students need to learn), how the goal will be achieved (the method of delivery and procedure) and a way to measure how well the goal was reached (usually via homework assignments or testing). This plan is a teacher‟s objectives for what students should accomplish and how they will learn the material. In order to begin with lesson planning, it is important to know the aims and objectives of the course being taught to students. A teacher should be prepared not only to teach the students but also to make sure that they take some fruitful thought regarding the lesson at the end of the class. The aims and objectives should answer questions regarding all the angles of the course. The questions could be like the following:  What are the present capabilities of the students?  What should the students understand regarding the subject? 34   Is the timing of the lesson appropriate or should it be delayed?  What should they take away from the subject at the end of the class? Answering these questions will definitely help the teacher to take the right decision about what to teach and how to teach it. It will help teachers to save time and embarrassment in the classroom. Now, let's move on to the second step in lesson planning that is aims and objectives'. 7- Aims and objectives of the lesson Imagine you are holding your suitcase at a railway station. You met your friend who asked where you are leaving or heading for. Imagine your answer is that you do not know. Once more, imagine the impact of your response on your friend. This is the situation of a teacher who enters a classroom without having a clear idea of what she wants to achieve. A teacher should have clear understanding of the following issues relating to aims and objectives: * Meaning and scope / level of objectives * Classification of objectives.  Meaning and scope / level of objectives Generally speaking, an aim is what we want to achieve or get. We have two different levels of objectives: 'aims' and 'objectives'. What are the difference between 'aims' and 'objectives'? An aim is of a general level. It means the general change that we wish to achieve as a result of teaching. The scope of aims is broad and difficult to measure. Conversely, an objective is the specific change we wish to achieve as a result of teaching. The scope of objectives is limited and can be easily 35 measured (Tyler, 1949, Richards, 2001), Let's give examples in the coming paragraphs. Suppose that a teacher has set out this as his / her aim of the lesson: 'The students will successfully understand a reading text in English'. You may notice that this is an 'aim' not 'objective': because we do not know exactly how we can judge that the students have successfully read and understand the text. In other words, we do not know exactly how we can measure this. It did not tell us the students will do this, and this and this. It just guides us to a main destination. It is like someone who wants to travel from Cairo to Alexandria. All that we knew is that the person will go to Alex not to Aswan, for example. It did not tell us whether the person will take a train, a car or a plane. Nor did it tell us the time a person needs to reach Alex. It did not tell us about the day of travel, either. All these are the details. These are specific things that the aim did not tell, but objectives can.  Definition of Learning Objective Learning objectives according to Pollard and Triggs (1997: 255) are 'statements of what you want pupils to learn. 'These are simply what you want your students to learn as a result of teaching. What the teacher will do and what the students will do must be a reflection of the planned objectives. This means the teacher and students' roles will be directed towards achieving the lesson objectives. An objective can tell us the specific things that could help us achieve the general aim. Learning objectives are statements of what a learner is expected to know, understand, and/or be able to demonstrate after completion of a process of 36 learning. Learning objectives form a basis for curriculum, course syllabus, course development, as well as assessing the learning process.  Components of a well learning objective: A well-written learning objective provides a basis for planning, developing, delivering, and evaluating an educational activity. Preparing Instructional Objectives, Mager (1975) states that a behavioral objective or a learning objective should have four components which are audience, behavior or performance, condition or constrains, and degree or standard or criteria as described below: 1- Audience: The learner‟s characteristics 2- Behavior (performance): What the student will be able to do 3- Condition (constrains): The conditions under which behavior occurs 4- Degree (standard, criteria): An explicit description of acceptable behavior First, the instructional objective must state the audience and describe the learner‟s characteristics for the educational activity. The behavior should be specific, observable, and assessable. The condition under which the behavior is to be completed should be stated, including what tools or assistance are to be provided. The degree or standard should describe the acceptable level of behavior, including an acceptable range of answers that are allowable as correct. Today, the performance objectives or learning objectives are written by ignoring the indication of the conditions and standards, but a written indication of the behavior using measurable or observable verbs is essential for a valuable objective. 37 Ex: by the end of the lesson, students should be able to apply the rules of punctuation correctly. Moreover, Moon (2002) states that well-written learning objectives should:  Be observable and assessable  Begin with an action verb  Have only one verb per learning objective  Avoid vague terms like know, understand, learn, be familiar with, etc.  Be realistic within the timescale of the course to be able to be achieved and assessed  Be linked with program outcomes  Be linked with teaching and assessment methods You can see now that the teacher could measure if students have successfully read and understood the text by getting the students do the above things. You may have observed that the aim is to specify the general or final learning behavior we want the students to achieve (destination), Objectives tell us how this can happen. Teachers have to set out the lesson aim clearly and to specify the objectives that will help them achieve their aim. Objectives must be specific. We must also be able to measure them.  Classification of objectives It is not enough at all that the teacher decides his/her aims and objectives. Neither is it sufficient for teachers to know how to formulate aims and objectives. They must decide further the kind of objectives they want to achieve. There are three categories of objectives from which the teacher decides what to plan for teaching: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. If the 38 teacher plans to provide students with new information, then she must use the cognitive objectives. These objectives concem the mind (brain). If planning for changing students' attitude toward something or increasing their motivation to do something, then affective objectives must be planned for. These objectives relate to the heart. If planning for training students to acquire certain skills, like using a microscope, then teachers need to use psychomotor objectives, which relate to body and muscles (Shawer, 2003). Behavioral objectives can be written for one of the three domains of learning – cognitive domain, affective domain, and psychomotor domain – as defined below (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001; Krathwohl et al. 1964; Simpson 1966): 1- Cognitive Domain: Acquisition of knowledge and intellectual skills (knowledge) 2- Affective Domain: Integration of beliefs and ideas (attitude) 3- Psychomotor Domain: Acquisition of manual and physical skills (skills). 8- Procedures (action) Procedures involve the description of the techniques and practices in a learning situation. It deals with what teaching materials to be used for achieving the lesson objectives, and how the material and objectives to be realized (teaching / learning activities). Procedures also involve what role the teacher will take in the classroom and what roles his / her students will play (White, 1988a). Teaching and learning activities are the roles which the teacher and students take in the learning situation (Richards, 1990). We could sum up the main elements that the procedures of a teaching lesson normally involve: 39   Organizational strategies:  Starting the lesson  Development of the lesson  Ending the lesson  Organizational strategies Organizational strategies involve issues of attendance, seating students, timing of the lesson, space needed for conducting the lesson and use of the resources available.  Starting the lesson Starting the lesson involves the way the teacher warms up students to get set for learning. Teachers could use advance organizers by asking a question about the lesson topic, connecting the past and the present lesson, reviewing the main points the past lesson involved or by beginning with a concise introduction.  Development of the lesson Lesson development requires teachers to be very specific about what the teacher will do (teacher role) and what the students will do (learner role). This relates very much to the teaching method to be used. Will the teacher use the discussion method, for example? If this is the case, then the roles are clear. The teacher's role will be to write the topic of discussion on the board or to show it through an overhead projector or indeed through any appropriate means of presentation. Then the teacher has to specify the elements of the topic by writing down the elements needed for covering the topic. The teacher could write specific questions about each element. The students' role will be 40 to answer each of the questions and to connect the elements of the topic together and to the main topic. The teacher's role will also involve organizing the discussion. The teaching method, as you can see, will decide what the teacher and students will do in the classroom. It decides who reads the lesson, who searches for information, who listens, who talks and so forth. Development of the lesson will be in action through achieving tasks that will help achieve each of the lesson objectives. Once the objectives are thought to be covered in the tasks and realized, then the lesson is ready to be brought to a close. But, how will you end the lesson?  Ending the lesson Teachers could bring their lesson to a close through asking students to submit their reports, if this was what they were asked to do. They may ask them some questions about each element of the lesson to make sure the lesson is understood. They could also end the lesson by setting out homework questions or assignments. The teachers also could end their lesson by asking the students to answer a big question or some questions about a certain topic to be discussed in the coming lesson. They may further end the lesson through a summary of the phases of the lesson. The teacher may let the students ask questions about different parts of the lesson. 9- Assessment of learning Assessment of learning relates in the first place to students and feeds into the teacher's evaluation of the lesson. Teachers may also the learning of their students in several ways initial assessment, formative assessment of summative assessment. Through the initial assessment, you could assess the 41 learning of your students in the previous lesson through asking them questions about it before starting today's lesson. You could find out an assessment form of the main elements of the previous lesson before commencing the lesson you are about to teach and then collect them and have a look at the answers at home or during the school day (Shawer, 2003). Teachers should use formative assessment which takes place throughout the teaching session. This could happen by asking questions to check student understanding. The teacher should observe students to see who is taking part in the activities and who is confused. The teacher could ask one or two students to comment on a specific point and ask his / her classmates to comment on their classmate's response. Formative assessment is a key mode in any successful lesson because you give immediate feedback to the students. Teacher may use summative assessment in several ways. This normally takes place at the end of the lesson by handing out a test form to be marked off. Teachers may ask just oral questions at the end of the lesson to check understanding. Through their observation of their students throughout the lesson, teachers may take notes of confused students and give deferred feedback to them in the tutorials (Shawer, 2003). 4- Evaluation of teaching If assessment of learning concerns learners in the first place, evaluation of teaching relates to teachers, Reflective teachers are always in a constant state of self-appraisal and evaluation of their work. Good teachers may evaluate their teaching in several ways. By answering a number of questions, teachers may be in a position to evaluate their teaching and make use of the data they get to improve their teaching. 42  Have I managed to achieve the lesson objectives?  Have the students answered the lesson questions?  Have the students been motivated throughout the lesson?  Which parts of the lesson were successful? Why?  Which parts of the lesson were unsuccessful? Why?  What needs to be changed or improved in the next lesson?  Has each student achieved his / her role?  Have I started the lesson well? Why?  Have I made the tasks in the development part of the lesson specific and clear 43  Chapter IV Content in Curriculum design 44 Definition of Content: Curriculum content simply means the totality of what is to be taught in a school system. The content component of teaching learning situation refers to the important facts, principles and concepts to be taught. It also can be defined as “Information to be learned in school, another term for knowledge (a collection of facts, concepts, generalization, principles, theories)”. These contents must be in line with the learning experiences and there must be clear cut objective to be achieved by the end of each respective lesson. It can be in form of knowledge, skills, attitude and values that learners are exposed to. Content involves subject matter drawn on the basis of problems, themes or topics cutting across traditional subjects. Learning experience refers to any interaction course, program or other experience in which learning takes place, whether it occurs in traditional academic setting (schools classrooms) or non-traditional academic setting (outside of school locations, outdoor environment or whether it include traditional educational interactions (students learning from teachers and professors)or nontraditional interactions (student learning through games and interactive software applications). According to Tyler learning experiences are the interactions between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react. It is an activity which may be planned by the class or teacher but perform by the learner for the purpose of achieving some important learning objectives There are various types of activities that can be performed by the learners in the study of various school subjects to enhance learning. There are also various activities which teachers perform as they teach learners, but then, 45 learning experiences are not what the teachers do, it is not the teacher methodology, but those activities performed by the learners themselves. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING CURRICULUM CONTENT 1. Validity: The content of the curriculum is valid if it promotes the outcome that it is intended to promote. It is also the authenticity of the subject matter or content selected, to make sure the topics are not obsolete, for this to be achieve, there should be a regular check on the curriculum content and replace it if necessary. 2. Self-sufficiency : This criterion helps learners attain maximum self- sufficiency at the most economical manner or content selection. This is done when the students or learners are given the chance to experiment, observe and carryout field study.  Significance: The content is significant if it is selected and organized for the developed of learning activities, skills, processes and attitude that will help in solving the problem of the country. It also develops the three domain of learning namely cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and considers the cultural aspect of the learners particularly, if your learners come from different cultural background and races then the content must be cultural sensitive. 1. Interest: This criterion is true to be learned centred curriculum. The interest of the students should be considered in selecting content because students learn best if the subject matter is meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is subject centred, teachers have no choice but to finish the facing schedule 46  religiously and teach only what is in the book, this may explain why many fail in subject sometimes. 2. Learnability: The content should be what the students can learn and should be within their experience. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know their subject are presented, sequenced an organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students 3. Utility: This is the usefulness of the content in solving problems now and in future. It is more important in skill or procedural. Knowledge, whereby learners can put what they have learnt into practice life activities  Consistency with Social Realities: This means that content should be chosen based on the fact that they relates to our present social needs economic and political situation. Content must be acceptable to the culture and belief system of the people. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING LEARNING EXPERIENCE: The condition for selecting learning experiences by the experts must base on the recent or modern principles of learning. These criteria are: 1. Validity: Learning experience is valid when it related objectives are in any of the three domains; cognitive, affective and psychomotor, the learning experience must be holistic to involve all the domains. 2. Variety: Learners are different and learn, in different ways base on their interest and ability therefore varied learning experience must be provided to help them comprehend 47  Interest: So that the desired objectives can be achieve and also for learners to demand pleasure learning experiences from tem must be of great interest to the learner. 1. Relevance to Life: Learning experience must be relevant to real-life situations in school and in the society to help learners understand their society and proffer solutions to some problems of the society. This is where community based resources comes to play. Experience in real content and situation bring realism to teaching and learning. 2. Suitability: Learning experience must not be too simple nor complex but rather be suitable for the age or level of the learners and for the content which it is meant for. 3. Comprehensive: Learning experience must cover all the stated objectives in a lesson; it must range from the simplest learning experiences to the most complex, covering all the domains of learning. 4. Potential for multiple Learning: This means that learning experiences are not fashioned for different distinct domains of instructional objectives. Therefore, it is necessary to plan for learning experiences that will provide for the three domains as strategy for multiple learning. A single learning experience should involve cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning, hence it is said to be comprehensive. ORGANIZATIONAL AND INTEGRATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND CONTENT: After learning experience and content have been selected, the next step to take is to organize them. These organization of learning experience and content is 48 based on the cumulative development behavior the learners gradually experience during the educational process. Content and learning experience are organized in two relationship bases; vertical and horizontal relationship; - Vertical organization is the arrangement of learning experiences and content over a time sequence access classes in the same subject. For instance, for a four year program in English, language, contents are arranged in hierarchical order, from the lowest level to the highest level. This arrangement learning of English language becomes cumulative as knowledge continues to build up over time. This knowledge building starts from simple to complex in the subject progressively. - The horizontal organization occurs when the learning in one subject enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude in another subject within the same class. For instance, there should be a relationship between the knowledge acquired in biology and that of agricultural science, the knowledge and skills acquired in economics lessons can enhance that of political science within the same class. There are certain criteria that must be met in organizing learning experience and content. These include: 1. Continuity: It is the recurring emphasis on the learners experience on a particular element or kind of activities, until mastery is achieved. With mastery, learners develop progressively, systematically and naturally, with 49  new knowledge building on earlier acquired knowledge and thus learners can gain competence. 2. Sequence: It is also related to continuity as well as progressively moving from the lower to the higher level of knowledge and from simple to complex. In sequence, each successive experience goes more deeply and broadly into the subjects. Each experience reinforces and extends the previous one. Curriculum practices in the arrangement of sequence of learning experiences usually based according to one of the following; chronological order, logical order and difficulty. 3. Integration: It refers to the relationship among learning experiences which brings about a unified view, and behavior is a horizontal relationship which cut across several subjects and the areas of student‟s life. One subject should buttress the other. For instance, what is learnt in mathematics to solve problems can be used for solving problems in other subjects, as this enhances the transfer of knowledge.  EACHING METHODS & TECHNIQUES Understand the Curriculum: Begin by thoroughly understanding the curriculum's goals, objectives, and content. What are the desired learning outcomes? What topics and skills should be covered? Identify Learning Styles and Needs: Consider the diverse learning styles and needs of your students. Are there visual learners, auditory learners, kinesthetic learners, or other types of 50 learners in your class? Recognizing these differences will help you choose appropriate teaching methods. Select Appropriate Teaching Strategies: Choose teaching strategies that align with the curriculum's goals and the needs of your students. Some common teaching methods include lectures, discussions, group work, hands-on activities, case studies, and multimedia presentations. Use Active Learning: Incorporate active learning techniques that engage students in the learning process. These can include problem-solving exercises, debates, simulations, and real-world projects. Assessment Alignment: Ensure that your assessment methods align with both the curriculum and your teaching methods. If your teaching method emphasizes critical thinking, for example, your assessments should evaluate critical thinking skills. Scaffold Learning: Break down complex topics into smaller, manageable chunks. Use a scaffolded approach where each lesson builds upon the previous one. This helps students gradually master the material. Incorporate Technology: Integrate technology and digital tools when appropriate. This can enhance engagement and provide access to resources that complement the curriculum. 51 Differentiate Instruction: Recognize that students have different learning paces and abilities. Differentiate instruction by offering various levels of difficulty or alternative assignments to cater to individual needs. Encourage Critical Thinking: Design teaching methods that promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Encourage students to analyze, synthesize, and apply knowledge rather than just memorizing facts. Provide Clear Learning Objectives: Communicate clear learning objectives at the beginning of each lesson or unit. This helps students understand what they should be able to do or know by the end of the instruction. Feedback and Reflection: Regularly collect feedback from students to assess the effectiveness of your teaching methods. Reflect on your teaching practices and make adjustments based on this feedback. Professional Development: Stay updated with current educational trends and teaching methods. Attend workshops, conferences, and engage in ongoing professional development to improve your teaching skills. Collaborate with Colleagues: 52 Share ideas and collaborate with other educators who may have expertise in aligning teaching methods with the curriculum. They can offer valuable insights and strategies. Flexibility: Be flexible and willing to adjust your teaching methods if you find that certain strategies are not working as expected. Adaptation is key to effective teaching. By following these steps, educators can create a more cohesive and effective learning experience for their students by aligning teaching methods with the curriculum. 53  Chapter IIV Curriculum Evaluation 54 Objectives of the chapter: After completing your study of this Chapter, you should be able to : 1- Explain the dual role served by the evaluation process. 2- Explain the importance of evaluation in the learning process. 3- Explain why evaluation should be a continual process. 4- Compare and contrast diagnostic , formative , and summative evaluation.. 55 Introduction: All teachers must evaluate in order to determine where students are with respect to targeted learning objectives. If students have not mastered the intended material, re-teaching must be planned. Viewed in this context , evaluation performs a dual role in the teaching - learning process. It gives the teacher in-formation regarding the level of student learning, and it provides information that can be used in planning future les- sons. Being able to identify learner difficulties is a basic skill that successful teachers must possess. No matter how well you plan and implement your lessons, some students will probably experience difficulty in achieving the desired learning outcomes. Without proper identification and remediation, these difficulties may compound until the student becomes frustrated and turns off to learning altogether. Thus , evaluation and measurement are essential components in the teaching process.  Definition of Importance of Evaluation: Evaluation is the process of making a judgment regarding student performance; measurement provides the data for making that judgment. Thus, evaluation often involves more than simply measuring academic achievement. It can be related to how well students carry out specific actions (performance) or to what the can produce (product). Sometimes you will be more interested in a student's performance than in the end product. This is particularly true in the teaching of psychomotor skills. For example: you may want to evaluate how well your students participate group work , how well they stay on an assigned task , or how they go about adjusting a microscope in an experiment. 56 Also, their attitudes and feelings often have a tremendous effect on learning; you should address such factors in your teaching and in your evaluation. You teach to bring about learning. Consequently the ultimate question in the instructional process is whether or not your students have learned what they were supposed to learn. Can they display the outcomes specified in your original objectives? More specifically, do they meet the acceptable level of performance as specified in the criterion of your objective? These objectives will call for the evaluation of cognitive skills. Thus evaluation can be required in the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains. These differences call for different evaluation techniques. Evaluation in the three domains of learning requires the collection of different types of information. However, before we focus on the gathering of evaluation information in these three domains, let`s look at the different evaluation types and the different sources of evaluation information.  EVALUATION TYPES Teachers need continuous feedback in order to plan , monitor , and evaluate their instruction. Obtaining this feedback may involve the use of any one of three different types of evaluation : diagnostic , formative , and summative (see Table 5.1 ). These three primary types of evaluation differ mainly in terms of their chronological position in the instruction process. 57 1- Diagnostic Evaluation Diagnostic evaluations are normally administered before instruction in order to assess students ' prior knowledge of a particular topic. Their purpose is to anticipate potential learning problems and , in many cases , to place students in the proper course or unit of study. Two examples of diagnostic evaluation are ( 1 ) placement of certain elementary children in special reading programs based on standardized testing and ( 2 ) assignment of high school students to basic mathematics courses based on entrance assessment. Such evaluation is sometimes referred to as pre assessment because it is often designed to check the ability levels of students in designated areas so that instructional starting points can be established. Diagnostic evaluation can provide valuable information to teachers about the knowledge, attitudes , and skill of students when they enter courses and can be used as a basis for remediation or special instruction. They can be based on teacher - made tests , standardized tests , or observational techniques. 58 TABLE 5.1 Relationship between Diagnostic, Formative , and Summative Evaluation : DIAGNOSTIC FORMATIVE SUMMATIVE Purpose To identify To promote TO derive a problems and learning grade group students Nature Many question Few questions Many questions related to related to related to general specifics specific and knowledge general knowledge Frequency of Once __ usually Frequently Once_usually at administration before __before or conclusion of instruction during instruction instruction Diagnostic information gives educational planners invaluable information regarding the appropriateness of the curriculum being taught. Unfortunately, it is most frequently used to check on established levels of achievement rather than to evaluate the curriculum. Assessment of achievement test scores , for example , is too often confined to making comparisons of district group scores with national norms , whereas it could be used to make needed curriculum changes and to renew instructional emphasis on areas found to be below the national norms. Diagnostic information also provides information needed for the correct placement of students in curricula tracks, courses , and ability groups within courses. One critical piece of diagnostic information needed by all teachers is reading ability and 59 comprehension. If your students have reading difficulties , remedial instruction must be planned to address these deficiencies. 2- Formative Evaluation Formative evaluation: is carried out during the instructional process to provide feedback to students and teachers on how well students are learning the material being taught. Whatever diagnostic information there was should be revised as additional written work. This permits teachers to modify their instruction as needed. As individual student deficiencies are noted , remedial the level of their peers. Some students may require more assistance work should be planned to bring the slower - learning students up to than you can provide. When this occurs , you should seek outside assistance from an appropriate specialist. Finally , the information compensative Evaluation information is gleaned from students ' performance on oral and the observed. gained from formative evaluation can be used to vary instruction or to correct any general misconceptions that might be Formative evaluation usually focuses on small , comparatively independent pieces of instruction and a narrow range of objectives. Essentially , formative evaluation asks , " How are we doing ? " and uses pretests , checkup tests , homework , seatwork , and classroom questioning to answer the question. The results of formative evaluation should be used to adjust instruction or the curriculum rather than to determine grades. 3- Summative evaluation It is primarily aimed at determining student achievement for grading purposes. Grades provide the school with a rationale for passing or failing students and usually are based on a wide range of accumulated behaviors , 60 skills , and knowledge. As the term implies, summative evaluation provides a summing of students' accomplishments. It is most frequently based upon cognitive knowledge as expressed through test scores and written work and rarely takes into account such areas of learning as values, attitudes, and motor performance. Examples of summative evaluation include:  end - of - chapter tests  homework grades  completed project grades  Standardized achievement tests. Summative evaluation asks. "How did we do?" And can be used to judge not only student achievement but the effectiveness of a teacher or a particular school curriculum as well. The data collected, data collection method, and instrumentation will differ depending on the type of summative evaluation being conducted. Although such evaluative devices as homework and tests are most often used in summative evaluation, they can also be used to diagnose learning problems and to promote learning. Thus, some devices serve a triple function: to diagnose learning problems, to promote learning, and to derive a grade. For example, homework can be analyzed to identify learning difficulties (that is, it can be used to diagnose problems), feedback comments can be written in the margins (to promote learning), and a grade can be recorded (to derive a grade). Likewise, tests should be analyzed to determine problem areas; Then they should be returned to students and discussed to promote learning, and finally, grades should be recorded. 61  Evaluation should be a continual process that includes diagnostic as well as formative and summative goals. Many times you can gain valuable information regarding achievement, motor skills, or attitudes prior to or during the course of instruction. Difficulties may be noted, and if they are noted, on - the - spot feedback can be provided to remedy the situation. For example, lack of response to questioning can reveal that a concept is misunderstood. Trouble with a piece of lab equipment may suggest that students need further instruction on its use. A spot check of childrens' papers during seatwork might reveal problem areas. Clearly, if teachers are to make accurate judgments about student performance, they need a high degree of confidence in the data they collect. In other words, they must use measurement devices that provide reliable and valid information. MEASUREMENT ACCURACY Reliability and validity are two qualities that every measurement device should possess. If a teacher - made test reveals that 50 Percent of a fourth grade class are below grade level in mathematic. 62  REFERENCES  Barrow, R., & Milburn, G. (1990). A critical dictionary of educational concepts. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.  Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to program development. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.  Chen, Y.-U. H. (2007). The role of culture in an EFL curriculum of the 21st century. Selected Papers from the Sixteenth International Symposium on English Teaching (pp. 119-129). Taipei, Taiwan: Crane.  Goodson, I. F. (1994). Studying curriculum. New York: Teachers College Press.  Green, N. S. (2000). Cultures of curriculum. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  Longstreet, W. S., & Shane, H. G. (1993). Curriculum for a new millennium. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 63