PSYC1000A General Psychology Lecture Notes 2024-2025 PDF

PSYC1000A General Psychology 2024-25 Term 1 (Fall Term) Lecture 8: Development Lecturer: Vince NGAN Teaching Assistants: RUAN, Jingchi FAN, Zhiyu YANG, Yaqi From L7 Overview Thinking What constitute thoughts Universal trends...

PSYC1000A General Psychology 2024-25 Term 1 (Fall Term) Lecture 8: Development Lecturer: Vince NGAN Teaching Assistants: RUAN, Jingchi FAN, Zhiyu YANG, Yaqi From L7 Overview Thinking What constitute thoughts Universal trends Problem solving Reasoning heuristics and errors Intelligence Defining intelligence Individual differences How to measure it? 2 From L7 Intelligence Test? From L7 What is intelligence? Lots of definitions  The mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select one’s environment.  The ability to judge, to comprehend, and to reason.  The ability to understand and deal with people, objects, and symbols.  The ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.  Ability to learn from experience.  Ability to adapt to the surrounding environment. ULTIMATELY: What do intelligence tests measure…? 4 From L7 Spearman’s Psychometric Approach Psychometric approach  Measurement of individual differences in behaviors and abilities. How well do people perform in different tasks? Level of performance on one task was correlated positively with level of performance on all of the others. General ability: g Specific ability: s 5 From L7 Spearman’s Psychometric Approach Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q1 1 Q2.78 1 Q3.90.69 1 Q4.23.32.78 1 Q5.12.23.67.91 1 Q6.45.56.43.14.10 1 Q7.23.60.23.45.21.89 1 6 From L7 7 From L7 G fMRI study 8 From L7 Types of Intelligence Carroll’s Model ▪ Fluid ▪ Crystallized From L7 Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence Fluid Intelligence: The ability to think logically without needing previously learned knowledge, such as seeing patterns Peaks in young adulthood, then declines Crystallized intelligence: Requires specific, learned knowledge, such as vocabulary or mathematics Remains stable through adulthood From L7 Concept Check 1. Navigating a subway system Fluid or Crystal? in a new city 2. Knowing Budapest is the capital of Hungary 3. Solving an algebra problem 4. Baking cookies from memory 5. Playing a video game From L7 Types of Intelligence Gardner’s Theory: Multiple Intelligence Logic-math Visual-spatial Music-rhythm Verbal-linguistic Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic From L7 Sternberg’s Three Part / Triarchic Conception of Intelligence Analytical intelligence  Focuses on abstract but traditional types of problems measured on IQ tests  “Traditional” type Creative intelligence  Involves generating novel ideas and products Practical intelligence Robert Stenberg  Intelligence relates to overall success in living  Adaptability!  Flexibility! 13 From L7 Emotional Intelligence From L7 Emotional Intelligence  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CYr4FgMYGI (M & M)  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yo4WF3cSd9Q (Marshmallow) 15 From L7 Overview Thinking What constitute thoughts Universal trends Problem solving Reasoning heuristics and errors Intelligence Defining intelligence Individual differences How to measure it? 16 From L7 How to Assess Intelligence? What is a good intelligence test?  Reliability: A test’s ability to consistently measure what it is trying to measure.  Validity: A test’s ability to indeed measure what it is supposed to measure.  should accurately represent the information that the test is meant to measure.  should be influenced by factors that make sense theoretically.  scores should predict some real-world performance.  Norm: Standards of test performance that permits the comparison of one person’s score on a test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test. 17 From L7 Biological basis of intelligence Intelligence remains a stable trait over the life span  Related to measurement reliability – something that remains stable is more likely to be consistently measured Unlikely there is a single “intelligence center” in the brain Intelligence positively correlates with overall brain volume Frontal and parietal lobes and their connections are particularly implicated in individual differences in intelligence Influences of heredity (nature) interact with experience and the environment (nurture) to produces a result From L7 First IQ test by Binet & Simon 1905 - Invention of IQ test by Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon. Mental age IQ = X 100 Chronological age Binet 19 From L7 The Stanford-Binet Test  Procedure designed by Binet and Simon and later modified for English speakers by Stanford psychologists  A given IQ score means the same at different ages.  The mean IQ at each age is 100.  Adaptive testing – a method where the range of items used is adapted to the performance of the individual  Subscores reflecting visual reasoning, short-term memory, and other specialized skills.  Provides an overall IQ score, a verbal IQ score, and a nonverbal IQ score based on items answered by handling items instead of by speech. 20 From L7 The Stanford-Binet Test Age Sample Test Item 2 Test administrator points at pictures of everyday objects and asks, “What is this?” “Here are some pegs of different sizes and shapes. See whether you can put each one into the correct hole.” 4 “Why do people live in houses?” “Birds fly in the air; fish swim in the _____.” 6 “Here is a picture of a horse. Do you see what part of the horse is missing?” “Here are some candles. Can you count how many there are?” 8 “What should you do if you find a lost puppy?” “Stephanie can’t write today because she twisted her ankle. What is wrong with that?” 21 From L7 The Stanford-Binet Test Age Sample Test Item 10 “Why should people be quiet in a library?” “Repeat after me: 4 8 3 7 1 4.” 12 “What does regret mean?” “Here is a picture. Can you tell me what is wrong with it?” 14 “What is the similarity between high and low?” “Watch me fold this paper and cut it. Now, when I unfold it, how many holes will there be?” Adult “Make up a sentence using the words celebrate, reverse, and appointment.” “What do people mean when they say, ‘People who live in glass houses should not throw stones’?” 22 From L7 Assessing Intelligence 23 From L7 The Wechsler Tests  Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)  David Wechsler created a test that tapped a wider range of intellectual abilities (ability to remember, compute, understand language, reason well, and process information quickly)  For individuals above 16 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)  For children up to age 16 24 From L7 What does IQ predict? Correlates with school grades (.5). Correlates with job performance, ranging from 0.2 for unskilled jobs to 0.8 for the most complex jobs. Does not correlate with measures of happiness. Correlates with "social pathology" (e.g., adult criminality, poverty, unemployment, dependence on welfare, children outside of marriage). 25 From L7 Self-discipline outdoes IQ  IQ tests designed to predict school performance, but we know that people with the same IQ can vary in how well they perform.  Other (non-intellectual) strengths must influence academic performance too.  Duckworth & Seligman (2005):  164 8th grade students  Measures of self-discpline (asking child, parents, teachers about self-control; Also questions about being able to delay gratification)  An IQ test  Grades FINDINGS: Self discipline predicted academic performance better than IQ. Self discipline predicted who would improve their grades, whereas IQ did not. 26 From L7 Generation difference? The Flynn effect: Increases in IQ over generations James R. Flynn 27 From L7 Gender differences? Female Male ▪ Fine Motor Skill ▪ Fluid reasoning related ▪ Acquired Knowledge to math/science ▪ Reading Comprehension ▪ Perceptual tasks (e.g., moving objects) ▪ Decoding Non-verbal Expression ▪ Transformations in working memory ▪ Grades From L7 Ethnic differences? Significant,but diminishing, differences in IQ (12-15 points) between African Americans and European Americans. Not thought of as a bias because it correlates with difference in school performance.  Can therebe biases in both IQ tests and school assessments? Debate regarding the causes of such differences…  Little scientific evidence to tease apart genetic from environmental influences in this case (a case where genes directly influence one’s environment…) 29 From L7 Culture fairness? Culture-fair intelligence tests? 30 From L7 Stereotype Threat? Fear that one might do something that supports an unfavorable stereotype about their group -> creates anxiety -> impairs performance. African Americans European Americans Score on math test “IQ test” “Lab task” 31 From L7 Extreme Intelligences? Intellectual disability Giftedness  Deficits in intellectual functioning  An extreme of intelligence defined as beginning early in childhood having an IQ score of 130 or above  Can be mild, moderate, severe, or  Not all those who are gifted produce profound, based on IQ scores genius work (usually < 70 / 2 SD below 100) and  Often provided additional adaptive functioning educational opportunity, including  Mild intellectual disability typically academic acceleration, and associated with preventable advanced learning while still in high environmental causes school  Language skills often affected,  Genius: No established criteria, but depending on severity of intellectual the term usually combines high disability intellect with remarkable creativity From L7 Summary We rely on both fast automatic and slow strategic thinking to solve different types of everyday problems. There some both domain-general and domain-specific aspects of intelligence. Intelligence as measured traditionally is not the sole or even the most important factor determining our success. Self discipline? Emotional intelligence? Measuring intelligence concerning discriminating between different individuals. It is much more difficult and sensitive than we thought. 33  Development – An Outline Physical Development Infancy Cognitive Development Early Childhood Piaget Tasks for baby research Adolescence Babies are smart Adulthood Social Development Aging 35 A big question How should you view one’s development? 36 Physical Development Gestational week 7: Cells that will Zygote form the cerebral cortex begin to move to ultimate destination First 2 weeks of gestational period Gestational month 6: Myelination of nervous system Embryo Most pregnancies last about 40 Gestational weeks weeks, and 37 to 42 are considered 3 through 8 typical Fetus: Premature infants are at greater risk for conditions that affect lifetime Term used for the health and development, such as remainder of the disorders of lungs, vision, and development of the brain pregnancy What if something went wrong before birth? Down syndrome Child receives a full or partial third copy of the 21st chromosome because of faulty cell division More common as maternal age increases Teratogen Chemical agent that can harm the zygote, embryo, or fetus Includes prescription and over-the counter medications Recreational drugs are the most common and preventable sources of adverse effects  Includes tobacco, alcohol, opioids, among others Some aspects of development are inborn The Neonate  Reflexes  Rooting reflex  Sucking reflex  Gag reflex  Startle reflex  Babinski reflex  Grasp reflex  Stepping reflex Activity: Sleep 16 to 18 hours per day Alert looking Physical movement of arms and legs 39 Some aspects are determined by the environment  High level of stress hormone interferes with normal development (i.e., low birth weight, negative cognitive and physical outcomes)  Bacteria, viruses, chemicals, drugs, etc., cause abnormal development  Fetal alcohol syndrome: low birth weight, face and head abnormalities, mental retardation, and behavioral and cognitive problems 40 Some aspects are determined by the environment Effect of neglect Nature and nurture interact  Early on, brain regions learn to communicate to each other through synaptic connections  Brain grows more connections than needed, and only those connections that actually used are preserved (synaptic pruning)  The brain grows from about 350 grams to about 1250 grams by age 4, largely due to new connections and myelination 42 Nature and nurture interact High sensitivity to smells and respond differently to pleasant and unpleasant smells  Can recognize their mother by smell Fetuscan hear very well beginning gestational month seven  Infants prefer sounds with higher frequencies Young infants do not see detail at a distance  Show innate preference for faces, which may be related to importance of social relationships  Those that refuse to make eye contact often develop social and language impairments later Researchers use habituation to measure infant senses 43 Nature and nurture interact Nervous system development Rapid growth in gray matter or neural cell bodies Between birth and end of third month, the brain grows 64%, about half the size of an adult brain About twice as many synapses as adults Use it or lose it principle (related to synaptic pruning)  Children raised in stimulating and enriched environment are likely to have the best outcomes  Children living in intellectually impoverished circumstances may retain too few connections, which may lead to forms of intellectual disability 44 Nature and nurture interact Educators –How do we capitalize on the way nature and nurture interact to deliver the best educational outcome?  Nativists – Children are born with innate abilities (popular in language development)  Behaviorists –Children are a blank slate and we can turn anyone into anything with different stimulations  Constructivists –Children are active builders of knowledge, little scientists who are constantly creating and testing their own theories of the world (e.g., Piaget) 45 Piaget’s method Early in his career, Piaget worked with Simon (Binet- Simon IQ) Simon would focus on the number of correct answers, and not look at what the incorrect answers were Piaget noticed thatmany children were giving the same “incorrect” answers -> He decided to focus on reasoning rather than only performance He thought that development occurs as a series of stages differing in the way the world is understood 46 Piaget’s method According to Piaget, cognitive abilities develop through regular stages: Cognition matures as child uses concepts and organizing schemas Assimilation: No changes to the existing schema are required to add the new instance Accommodation: New information has to be added to the existing schema to expand information 47 Jean Piaget Children think in radically different ways from adults Piaget: What makes the wind? Julia: The trees. P: How do you know? J: I saw them waving their arms. P: How does that make the wind? J (waving her hand in front of his face): Like this. Only they are bigger. And there are lots of trees. P: What makes the wind on the ocean? J: It blows there from the land. No. It's the waves... 48  Piaget’s Four Major Stages of Development 1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years)  Infants use sensory and motor capabilities to explore and gain understanding of their environments  Lack symbolic representations  Developing object permanence  Developing a sense of self 49  Piaget’s Four Major Stages of Development 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 6-7 years)  Focus on verbalskills  Use symbols; have mental representations  Focus on how objects appear to be (e.g., sponge that looks like a rock)  Lack mental processes of symbol manipulations  Lack the concept of conservation  Egocentric 50 51 Preoperational children are egocentric Have trouble seeing the other person’s perspective 52  Theory of mind  An ability to represent and infer unobservable mental states such as desires, intentions, and beliefs from the self and others.  False belief task (most 4yo succeed, most 3yo fail) 53 An Example of Egocentric Thought “Do you have a brother?” “Yes” “What’s his name?” “Jim” “Does Jim have a brother?” “No” 54 What is love? ‘Love is what makes you smile when you’re tired.’ – Terri (age 4) ‘Love is when a girl puts on perfume and a boy puts on shaving cologne and they go out and smell each other.’ – Karl (age 5) ‘Love is when you go out to eat and give somebody most of your French fries without making them give you any of theirs.’ - Chrissy (age 6) ‘Love is when my mommy makes coffee for my daddy and she takes a sip before giving it to him, to make sure the taste is OK.’ – Danny (age 7) ‘Love is what’s in the room with you at Christmas if you stop opening presents and listen.’ – Bobby (age 7 ) 55 Piaget’s Four Major Stages of Development 3. Concrete Operations Stage (7 to 11 years) Can reason logically with regard to concrete objects  Putting items (such as toys) in height order  Classify objects  Conservation – realizing something can have same properties, even if it appears differently.  number conservation -> mass conservation -> area conservation -> liquid conservation -> solid volume conservation Have trouble with abstract, hypothetical ideas  E.g. third eye question 56 Piaget’s Four Major Stages of Development 4. Formal Operations Stage (11 years - )  Can reason about hypothetical situations  Can plan  Can engage in scientific reasoning  Can handle abstract concepts and “what if” types of questions  Abstract thinking improves problem-solving skills, stimulates burst of idealism 57 Challenges to Piaget’s theory  Does Piaget underestimate children?  Object permanence in the first few months, not 8-9 months  Understanding of math concepts and physics  Lev Vygotsky  Individuals gain knowledge by interacting socially and collaboratively  Language is used to initiate social contact and opportunity to learn  Information processing  Extends Piaget’s theories by describing specific changes in ability to reason  Rate of processing information increases as we age  Naïve theories  Young children understand even before interactive experience 58  Clarification to third-eye question Concrete operation children: Place eyes on forehead / face Formal operation children: Reason further, branching out, e.g. place eyes on hands, even away from body On underestimating babies’ abilities Sucking Looking Eimas, Siqueland, Juscyk, & Vigorito, 1971 60 Babies can segment words! Statistical learning “pretty baby” “prih”->“tee” (likely) “tee” ->“bay” (unlikely) 7- to 8-month-old Listen to artificial nonsense language Tested on “words” “pa bi koo” Saffran, Aslin, & Newport, 1996 61 Babies understand laws of physics! Renee Baillargeon 62 Babies can count! Karen Wynn 63 Challenges to Piaget’s theory Does he underestimate children?  Objectpermanence in the first few months, not 8-9 months  Understanding of math concepts and physics Is development really stage-like or is it more continuous? Should we allow children to discover concepts on their own, or should some instruction be given to help them improve?  C.f. Lev Vygotsky: Zone of proximal development 64 Attachment and Parenting Style Attachment  Secure attachment: A pattern of infant–caregiver bonding in which children explore confidently and return to the parent or caregiver for reassurance  Insecure attachment: A pattern of infant-–caregiver bonding generally characterized as less desirable for the child’s outcomes Parental support  Empathy and recognition of the child’s perspective Behavioral regulation  Supervision of the child’s behavior accompanied by consistent discipline and clear expectations Beyond Early Childhood: Adolescence Adolescence: A period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood Puberty: Typically marks the beginning of adolescence  Marked by secondary sex characteristics, sexual maturation  Substantial gray matter growth, which peaks between the ages of 11 and 12 Mismatch model: Accounts for greater levels of risk- taking and sensation-seeking that characterized adolescence compared to childhood and adulthood  Teen brain responds more vigorously to pleasure than the adult brain, resulting in the potential for risky behavior overwhelming the teen’s better judgment Emerging and Young Adulthood Postformal thought Difference between adolescent and adult thinking Recognizes that the “right answer” is often “it depends” and many questions are complex and ambiguous Adolescents are more likely to think in absolutes and defer to authorities Moving to independent, postformal thought is also described as critical thinking Midlife Some describe midlife as based on age and physical characteristics, others as a growing sense of mortality Menopause: The complete cessation of a woman’s menstrual cycle Males experience reduced sperm quantity, little to no decrease in testosterone Significant changes in social and work roles  Generativity: Most find that progress has been made toward goals, even if not met. Feel their lives have value  Stagnation: Lack of satisfaction in life Late Adulthood Physical changes Brain reaches maturity around age 25, begins to decrease in weight, leading to about a 5% decrease by age 80 Cognition Sematic memories may decrease in very late adulthood Intelligence remains relatively stable, unless experiencing dementia Crystalized intelligence changes less than fluid intelligence Creative output gradually declines Late Adulthood Social and emotional aspects: Integrity  People who are happy with their life’s experiences generally experience integrity. Met most goals and had fun doing so Despair  Those who reach late adulthood feeling that life passed them by are likely to experience despair  Loneliness decreases with age into the 70s  Need for social connections remain strong  Married older adults show patterns of conflict avoidance, which contributes to higher levels of marital satisfaction Questions for you… How much control do you and your parents have on your development? What would be your role in your own personal growth and development going forward? Do you think development is largely deterministic? 71  Additional learning materials  Piaget, Jean. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in Children (M. Cook, Trans. 2nd ed.).  Piaget, J. (1985). The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development (T. Brown & K. J. Thampy, Trans.).  Lourenco, O., & Machado, A. (1996). In Defense of Piaget’s Theory: A Reply to 10 Common Criticisms. Psychological Review, 103, 143-164.  Edited by Leslie Smith.  The story of Genie  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjZolHCrC8E  Journals  Developmental Psychology  Child Development  Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 72 See you next time! Questions welcome