Grammar Concepts: Analytical vs. Synthetic Languages

1. The Subject of Theoretical Grammar. Analytical character of Plane Definition Examples English Content Meaning (semantic "Seal" (a...

1. The Subject of Theoretical Grammar. Analytical character of Plane Definition Examples English Content Meaning (semantic "Seal" (animal) vs. 1. Theoretical Grammar: Key Concepts (Содержание) elements). "seal" (stamp). Association Term Definition Expression Form (material units like -(e)s: plural (birds) or (RU) (Выражение) words/sounds). verb (runs). Study of language structure (originally Grammar Грамматика "art of writing"). Key Phenomena: Theoretical Analyzes the grammar system of a Теоретическая Grammar language (rules, categories, structures). грамматика  Polysemy/Homonymy: One form, multiple meanings (seal). Practical Provides rules for correct language Практическая  Synonymy: Multiple forms, one meaning (pretty = beautiful). Grammar usage (speaking/writing). грамматика 4. Analytical vs. Synthetic Languages Key Differences: Synthetic Feature Analytical (English)  Theoretical Grammar: Explains why language works a certain (Russian/Ukrainian) way. Grammar Uses helper words (e.g., will Uses inflections (e.g., я  Practical Grammar: Teaches how to use language correctly. Expression go). пойду). 2. Language Systems Fixed (e.g., The cat chases Flexible (e.g., Кот гоняет Word Order the ball). мяч). Linguistic System Function Discipline Many (делаю, сделаю, Inflections Few (-s, -ed, -ing). делал). Phonolog Sound structure of language. Фонология ical Key Traits of English (Analytical): Lexical Vocabulary (words & word groups). Лексикология 1. Analytical Forms: will go, has eaten, is running. Grammat Rules for word changes & sentence 2. Few Inflections: Mostly -s, -ed, -ing. Грамматика ical formation. 3. Prepositions: of, in, at replace case endings. Grammar Subdivisions: 4. Word Order: Critical for meaning (Dog bites man ≠ Man bites  Morphology: Word changes (e.g., run → runs). dog).  Syntax: Sentence structure (e.g., She runs fast). Synthetic Traits in English (Remnants): 3. Plane of Content vs. Plane of Expression  Irregular plurals (mouse → mice).  Sound changes (sing → sang).  Suppletive forms (go → went). 5. Shift from Synthetic to Analytic   Old English: Synthetic (inflections like þū cume = "you come"). Time Period Main Types Key Focus Frame  Modern English: Analytic (You will come).  Reason: Loss of inflections → reliance on word order/helper - Transformational words. Generative Example: Association (RU):  Synthetic: Latin amo ("I love") – inflection shows subject.  Prescientific = Правила как в школе (строгие нормы).  Analytic: English I love – pronoun + base verb.  Scientific = Научный анализ (как в университете). 2. Prescientific Grammar (Before 1900) A. Early Prenormative Grammar (1585 – mid-18th c.). Goal: Create a system for English grammar (based on Latin). Summary Table: Analytical vs. Synthetic Key Contributions Analytical Synthetic Figures Aspect (English) (Russian) William 5 cases for nouns, 6 genders (like Latin). Grammar Helper words (will, Inflections (-у, -ет, Bullokar Marks more) -ем) Ben 2 cases for nouns. Divided words by "number" Word Order Strict Flexible Jonson (singular/plural). Examples She has written Она написала J. Simplified parts of speech to 4: Names (nouns), Qualities Brightlan Association: (adjectives), Affirmations (verbs), Particles (the rest). d  Analytical = Lego (pieces fit via order/helpers). Morphology:  Synthetic = Play-Doh (molded into one shape).  Latin-inspired parts of speech (e.g., participles as separate).  Words classified as "declinable" (nouns, verbs) vs. "indeclinable" (adverbs, prepositions). 2. The History of Theoretical Grammar development 1. History of English Grammars: Overview Syntax: Time  Introduced the sentence concept: Period Main Types Key Focus Frame o Simple: One subject + one verb. - Early Prenormative o Compound: Multiple simple sentences combined. Prescientific 16th c. – Rules for correct usage, - Prescriptive Grammar 1900 Latin influence (Normative) B. Prescriptive Grammar (Mid-18th c. – 1900). Goal: Set strict rules for "correct" English. Scientific 1900 – - Classical Scientific Scientific analysis, Grammar present - structure, and generation Structural/Descriptiv of sentences e Key Syntax: Contributions Figure  Jespersen’s ranks: - 2 cases for nouns o Primary: Main word (e.g., dog in big dog). Robert (e.g., cat vs. cat’s). Lowth - Future tense rules (e.g., will o Secondary: Describes it (big). go). Association (RU): Jespersen’s ranks = Как главное и зависимое Morphology: слово в предложении.  Possessive case term popularized. B. Structural Grammar (1940s–1957). Goal: Analyze English  Fixed rules for verb forms (e.g., I am vs. you are). structure (ignore traditional rules). Syntax: Key Contributions Figures  Sentence types expanded: - 4 "form-classes" (like o Simple: Basic subject-verb-object. Ch. nouns/verbs). Fries - 15 "function words" (e.g., o Compound: Joined with conjunctions (e.g., and). prepositions). o Complex: Subordinate clauses (e.g., because...). Morphology:  Clauses categorized:  Words classified by distribution (where they appear in sentences). o Independent (I ran) vs. dependent (because I was late). Syntax: Association (RU): Prescriptive = Как учебник Петровой для школы (строгие правила).  Immediate Constituent (IC) Analysis: 3. Scientific Grammar (After 1900) o Sentences split into pairs (e.g., The dog / chased the cat). A. Classical Scientific Grammar (1900–1940s). Association (RU): IC Analysis = Как разбор предложения по Goal: Explain why grammar works (not just rules). кусочкам Key C. Transformational Generative Grammar (1957–present). Contributions Figures Goal: Generate all possible sentences (even new ones). Focus on meaning, form, function of Key H. Sweet Contributions words. Figure - 5 parts of speech (merged N. - Deep vs. surface structure (e.g., The man hits the O. adverbs/prepositions). Chomsk boy → The boy was hit). Jesperse - "Ranks" theory (e.g., primary vs. y - Kernel sentences: Simple, active (e.g., She reads). n subordinate words). Syntax: Morphology: 1. Deep structure: Basic meaning (e.g., X causes Y to happen).  Traditional 8 parts of speech (but articles grouped with adjectives). 2. Transformations: Changes (e.g., passive voice, questions).  3. Surface structure: Final sentence (e.g., Was the boy hit?). Part of Example Meaning Form Function Speech s Association (RU):  Deep structure = Скрытый смысл. ing) sleeping  Surface structure = То, что мы говорим. Adjectiv Property Comparative (- happy, Attribute (red apple) e (quality) er, more) faster Summary Table: Key Grammar Types Modifies Type Time Focus Example Property of Often ends in - quickly, Adverb verbs/adjectives (run action/state ly very fast) 18th–19th Strict rules (don’t split To go boldly (not to Prescriptive c. infinitives). boldly go). Points to Case forms (I Replaces nouns he, they, Pronoun something → me) (she, this) myself Sentence structure (no The cat / sat / on the Structural 1940s meaning). mat. Ordinal (-th), Quantity (three Numeral Number five, first cardinal books) Transformat 1957– How sentences are She eats → Does she ional present generated. eat? Functional Parts of Speech (unchangeable): Association (RU):  Article (the, a), preposition (in, on), conjunction (and, but), interjection (oh!), modal words (perhaps).  Prescriptive = Правила из учебника. Association (RU):  Transformational = Как работает "внутренняя кухня" языка.  Notional = Знаменательные (изменяемые).  Functional = Служебные (неизменяемые). 3. Parts of speech. Different classifications The words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are 2. Henry Sweet’s Classification divided into grammatically relevant classes of words. The traditional grammatical classes of words are called parts of speech. The term part of speech is purely traditional and Groups: conventional and introduced by in Ancient Greek. In modern linguistics, parts of speech are 1. Declinable (can change form): classified on the basis of 3 criteria: 1. Traditional Classification (Based on Meaning, Form, Function). o Noun-words: Nouns (dog), pronouns (I), numerals Criteria: (three), gerunds (running). 1. Meaning (e.g., noun = substance, verb = action). o Adjective-words: Adjectives (happy), adjective-pronouns (my), participles (broken). 2. Form (e.g., suffixes, inflection). o Verbs: Finite (runs) and verbals (to run, running). 3. Function (role in a sentence). 2. Indeclinable (Particles): Part of Example Meaning Form Function Speech s o Adverbs (quickly), prepositions (in), conjunctions (and ), interjections (wow!). Substance Suffixes (-tion, Subject, object, book, Noun (thingness) -ment) attribute happiness Association (RU): Verb Action/state Tenses (-ed, - Predicate run, is  Declinable = Склоняемые (как стол → стола).   Indeclinable = Неизменяемые (как быстро). 5. J. Nesfield’s Purpose-Based Classification 3. Otto Jespersen’s Theory of Ranks. Key Idea: Words in a sentence Part of Exam have ranks (like a hierarchy). Purpose Speech ple Rank Role Example Noun Names things cat Primar weather in "hot Pronoun Replaces nouns she Main word y weather" Adjective Describes nouns happy Second Modifies hot in "hot weather" ary primary Expresses Verb run action/state Tertiar Modifies very in "very hot y secondary weather" Modifies quickl Adverb verbs/adjectives y Parts of Speech (Simplified): Prepositio Shows relation (in,  Substantives (nouns), adjectives, verbs, particles (adverbs/ under n on) prepositions). Association (RU): Ranks = Как начальник (primary), подчинённый Conjuncti Connects but (secondary), и помощник (tertiary). on words/clauses 4. Charles Fries’ Distributional Analysis. Method: Uses "frames" to Interjectio Expresses emotion Oops! test word classes. n Clas Traditional Association (RU): Purpose-based = Как инструменты для разных Frame Example задач. s Equivalent Clas Summary Table: Key Linguists’ Views Nouns The ___ was good (concert) s1 Linguist Approach Key Contribution Clas The clerk ___ the Meaning + form + Verbs Traditional 8 parts of speech s2 tax (remembered) function Clas Henry Declinable vs. Adjectives The ___ concert (good) Noun-/adjective-words s3 Sweet indeclinable Clas Otto Ranks (primary, Adverbs The team went ___ (there) Hierarchy in phrases s4 Jespersen secondary, etc.) Functional Words (15 groups): Specifiers (the, may), connectors Charles 4 classes + 15 functional (and, in), sentence markers (please, no). Distribution (frames) Fries groups Association (RU): Frames = Как шаблоны для сортировки слов. J. Nesfield Purpose-based "A noun names a thing" Association (RU):  Traditional = Как школьная грамматика.   Fries’ frames = Как тест на "где слово встаёт?". o Pluralia Tantum (only plural): Objects with parts (scissors), games (darts). Association (RU): 4. Noun, its categories 1. General Characteristics  Число = как "стол" (ед.) vs. "столы" (мн.). The noun is the central lexical unit of language. It is the main nominative unit of speech.  Pluralia tantum = как "ножницы" (всегда мн.). As any other part of speech, the noun can be characterised by three criteria:  Semantic – the meaning: Names things (objects, people, concepts).  Morphological – the form & the grammatical categories: Has number, case, and gender categories.  Syntactic – functions & distribution: Functions as subject, object, attribute, etc. 3. Category of Case The noun denotes thingness or substance in a general sense. Thus, nouns name things, Main Theories: living beings, places, materials, processes, states, abstract notions and qualities. Association (RU): Theory Key Idea Example Существительное = называет предметы/явления. Limited Case Only 2 cases: Nominative (basic) (Sweet, dog → dog’s and Possessive (-’s). Jespersen) 2. Category of Number Give John Opposition: Singular (one) – weak member of the opposition vs. Plural Positional 5 cases: Nominative, Vocative, (Dative) the (more than one) – strong member of the opposition. (Nesfield) Dative, Accusative, Genitive. book. Formation Examples Notes Prepositional Cases shown via prepositions (to a friend of Mary Regular (- cat → cats, box → Productive (основной (Curme) John = Dative). (Genitive) s/-es) boxes способ). Possessive Case: Irregular:  Shows ownership (the cat’s tail). - Vowel man → men, tooth →  Also used with phrases (the King of Spain’s daughter). Редкие формы. change teeth Association (RU): ox → oxen, child → - Suffix -en Архаичные формы.  Падеж = как "кто?" (им.) vs. "кого?" (вин.). children  Притяжательный = как "мамин" (чья?). - Zero sheep → sheep, deer → Форма не меняется. ending deer 4. Category of Gender Special Cases: Approaches: o Singularia Tantum (only singular): Abstract (love), 1. No Grammatical Gender (Ilyish, Palmer): materials (water), sciences (physics).  o Gender is only semantic (based on meaning). Association (RU): 2. Grammatical Gender (Blokh, Lyons):  Существительное = отвечает на "кто? что?" и имеет число, падеж, род. o Expressed via pronoun correlation (he/she/it). Gender Types: 5. Adjective. The category of degrees of comparison Prono 1. Types of Adjectives Gender Examples un Type Description Examples RU Association Masculi man, boy, actor he Describe qualities that can be Качественные ne Qualitat happy, big, measured (can form degrees (можно ive clever Femini of comparison). сравнить) woman, girl, actress she ne Show relation to another wooden, Относительные table, love, sun (as Relativ substance (cannot form Neuter it historical, (нельзя object) e degrees of comparison surgical сравнить) normally). Commo doctor, student (can they Note: n be any) Ways to Show Gender:  Relative adjectives can sometimes become qualitative in figurative meaning:  Lexical: boy vs. girl. "a wooden expression" → "a very wooden face" (awkward).  Suffixes: actor → actress.  Context: The sun shines → it (but poetically she). 2. Degrees of Comparison Association (RU): Only for qualitative adjectives!  Род = как "он" (м.), "она" (ж.), "оно" (ср.). Degree Formation Example RU Association  Common gender = как "врач" (может быть он/она). Basic form (no This task Положительная Positive Summary Table: Noun Categories comparison). is difficult. степень Categ Mike Key Points Example Compara -er or more + adj. (for Сравнительная ory is stronger than tive 2 items). степень John. Numb Singular/Plural; -s or irregular cat → cats She’s er forms. Superlati -est or most + Превосходная the smartest in ve adj. (for 3+ items). степень Nominative (basic) vs. Possessive John → John’s class. Case (-’s). book Key Points: Gende Masculine (he), Feminine (she), actor (he), actress 1. Analytical Forms (more/most): r Neuter (it). (she)  o Some linguists argue they’re syntactic (not grammatical): 6. Pronoun, its categories  "a most interesting book" = very interesting (not 1. General Characteristics "the most").  Meaning: Indication (point to objects/people without naming o Others see them as true comparatives: them).  "more difficult" = same as "harder".  Features: 2. Problems: o Cannot be modified by adjectives (~~beautiful she~~ ❌). o Is "positive degree" really a degree? (Some say no, it’s o Cannot be used with articles (~~the I~~ ❌). just the base form). RU Association: Местоимения = слова-указатели (я, этот, кто-то). o Can relative adjectives (wooden) gain comparison? Yes, in 2. Classification of Pronouns figurative use: Type Function Examples RU Equivalent  "His smile was more wooden than usual." 3. Controversies in Comparison Replace nouns (I, you, Personal I, he, she, it Личные (я, ты, он) they). Issue Opinion 1 Opinion 2 Demonstr Point to objects (this, Указательные this, those Number of Only 2 (comparative + 3 (including positive as ative that). (этот) degrees superlative). weak member). Interrogati Ask questions (who, Вопросительные who, which Analytical forms Grammatical (like -er/- Lexical (free word ve what). (кто) (more/most) est). combinations). Connect clauses (who, who, which, Относительные Relative Relative No comparison (strictly Can compare in figurative that). that (который) adjectives relative). meaning. Refer to non-specific some, any, Неопределенные Indefinite RU Association: Спорные вопросы = как "можно ли сказать более things (some). nobody (кто-то) деревянный?" Reflect back to subject (- myself, Summary Table Reflexive Возвратные (себя) self). herself Qualitative Relative Emphasize a noun (same I did it Feature Intensive Усилительные (сам) Adjectives Adjectives as reflexive). myself. Compari Yes (big → No (except Note: Russian lacks separate intensive pronouns → uses "сам" for both son bigger). figuratively). functions. Example "a happy child" "a wooden box" 3. Category of Case RU Association: Only some pronouns have case forms:  Качественные = изменяются (красивый → красивее).  Относительные = не изменяются (деревянный). Case Pronouns Example Feature English Russian Nominat He is Posses Forms of personal pronouns I, he, she, we, they, who Separate class (my, his). ive here. sive (мой). Objectiv me, him, her, us, them, She saw Negati nobody, Special negative pronouns e whom him. ve nothing (indefinite). (никто). my/mine, his, her/hers, This is Reflexi myself, yourself (for Only себя (no emphasis Genitive our/ours mine. ve emphasis too). function). Exceptions: Recipro each other, one another. Друг друга (one phrase). cal  it, you – same form in both cases (You see it. It sees you.).  Most pronouns (something, his) have no case distinction. RU Association: В русском нет отдельного класса Intensive → RU Association: используют "сам".  Падежи = как я (им.) → меня (вин.). Summary Table: Pronoun Features  В английском меньше падежей, чем в русском. Categ English Russian 4. Category of Number ory  Only a few pronouns change for number: Case 2-3 cases (I/me/my). 6 падежей (я/меня/мне). o this/these, that/those, other/others. Numb Only demonstratives Все личные местоимения er (this/these). (я/мы).  Personal pronouns (I/we, he/they): o No grammatical plural – we ≠ plural of I (separate words). Gende No (separate Есть (он/она/оно). r words: he/she).  Reflexive pronouns (myself/ourselves): RU Association: o -self/-selves is like noun plural (-s), but not a true Английские местоимения проще русских (меньше падежей, нет grammatical form. рода). RU Association: Я → мы = разные слова (не форма числа). 5. No Category of Gender 7. Verb, classifications 1. Structural Classification of Verbs  He, she, it – separate words, not gender forms of one pronoun. Type Description Examples RU Association o RU Difference: Russian has gender in pronouns (он/она/оно). Simple Basic verbs, often from go, take, cloud Простые глаголы Stems nouns (conversion) (v.), park (v.) (конверсия) Sound/ food → feed, Rare, unproductive Чередование Stress 'import → forms звуков/ударения 6. Key Differences with Russian Change im'port Type Description Examples RU Association Type Function Examples RU Association cultivate (- Connect subject to She is Derived Производные Link Verbs Глаголы-связки With prefixes/suffixes ate), undo description happy. Verbs глаголы (un-) Verbid Start infinitive/gerund He began to Вводящие глаголы Composite blackmail (n. Introducers phrases laugh. Compound verbs Сложные глаголы Stems → v.), baby-sit Link Verb Types: Verb + Phrasal give up, put Фразовые 1. Pure Link (be): It is cold. adverb/preposition Verbs off, stand up глаголы (idiomatic) 2. Specifying Link: Key Points: o Perception (seem, look): She looks tired.  Conversion = Nouns → Verbs (a house → to house). o Factual (become, remain): He became a doctor.  Phrasal Verbs = Idiomatic meanings (give in ≠ literal). 3. Valency (Combining Power) 2. Semantic Classification Type Description Examples Notional Verbs (Full Meaning) Complementi Require objects/adverbs Subcla ve Description Examples RU Association ss She gave [a book] - Objective Take 1-2 objects (give, explain) Actiona She writes a [to him]. Active doer (run, write) Активные действия l letter. Need place/time/manner (go, - Adverbial He went [to school]. State of subject (know, He knows the behave) Statal Состояния love) answer. Uncompleme No objects required Limitiv Action with endpoint The train Ограниченные ntive e (arrive, stop) arrived. действия - Personal Real subject (laugh, work) They laughed. Unlimit Action without endpoint She works Неограниченные ive (sleep, work) hard. действия Natural phenomena (rain, - Impersonal It snows. snow) RU Association: Валентность = Сколько дополнений требует Functional Verbs (Partial Meaning) глагол (дать = 2, спать = 0). Type Function Examples RU Association 4. Functional vs. Notional Verbs Form tenses/questions She is Вспомогательные Feature Notional Verbs Functional Verbs Auxiliary (be, have) reading. глаголы Full lexical meaning Grammatical function Meaning Express ability/obligation Модальные (run) (be) Modal You must go. (can, must) глаголы Independ Can stand alone (She Need main verb (She is Feature Notional Verbs Functional Verbs  Shows relation between action time and speech time ence runs.) running.) Basic Tenses: Examples write, love, arrive can, must, seem Tens Form Example RU Equivalent e Borderline Cases: Prese Настоящее write She writes  Link Verbs (be, become): Functional in She is a teacher, but nt время notional in She is here. Прошедшее  Reflexive Pronouns (myself): Functional in I warmed myself. Past wrote She wrote время Summary Tables Futur will She will Будущее Verb Types Overview e write write время Catego Controversy about Future Tense: Key Features Examples ry  Jespersen: will/shall have modal meanings (volition/obligation) Notion run, know,  Counterargument: Often express pure futurity (I'll be there) Independent, full meaning al build Special Cases: Functio Auxiliary roles, grammatical be, can, nal markers have  Future-in-the-Past: She said she would come (относительное будущее) Phrasal Verb Types  Absolute vs. Relative Time: Exampl Type Structure Meaning o Absolute: now, yesterday e o Relative: before, after, when Verb + have/give/take + take a = walk (synonym Noun noun walk ) 2. Tense-Aspect System Verb + verb + = postpone (idio Combination with Aspects: put off Particle adverb/preposition matic) Tens Simpl Continuo Perfect RU Association: Фразовые глаголы = Как идиомы Perfect e e us Continuous (откладывать = put off). Prese have been write am writing have written nt writing 8. Verb, the categories of tense and time correlation Past wrote was writing had written had been writing 1. Category of Tense Definition: Futur will will be will have will have been Grammatical expression of time through verb forms. e write writing written writing Functions: Korsakov's Classification:  Reflects objective time  Absolute (simple) vs. Anterior (perfect)   Static (simple) vs. Dynamic (continuous) Feature Tense Time Correlation 3. Category of Time Correlation (Perfect Forms) When action Relation between Focus Definition: occurs actions Shows priority of one action to another. Present/Past/ Forms Perfect/Non-perfect Key Opposition: Future Perfect vs. Non-Perfect forms Example writes/wrote has written/wrote Main Theories: RU Время Приоритет Propon Exampl Concept действия действий Theory Key Idea RU Interpretation ent e Key Differences: Tense Jesperse Special tense had Вид времени  Tense = position on timeline Category n form written  Time Correlation = relationship between actions Aspect Vorontso Retrospective has Видовой аспект Category va view written RU Associations: Time Smirnits have Временная  Времена глаголов = как "я делаю/сделал/буду делать" Priority marker Correlation ky seen корреляция  Перфект = показывает, что действие завершилось к моменту Characteristics: речи (я уже сделал)  Perfect = strong member (shows priority)  Non-perfect = weak member (no priority) 9. Verb, the categories of voice and aspect 1. Category of Voice  Can stand alone: He has left (no explicit reference point) Definition: Bloch's Proposal: Shows the relationship between the action and its participants "Retrospective coordination" - emphasizes action priority (subject/object). 4. Time Expression Types Key Opposition: Active vs. Passive Voice Type Description Example RU Equivalent Voice Meaning Formation Example RU Equivalent Absolu Fixed time yesterday at 5 Абсолютное te reference PM время Subject Activ Base verb (+ He writes a Действительны performs the Relativ Относительное e tense/aspect) letter. й залог Action sequence after she left action e время Subject A letter is Historical Фактическое Passi be + past Страдательный Factual in the 1990s receives the written (by context время ve participle (+ by) залог action him). Summary Table: Tense vs. Time Correlation Features:  Passive = strong member (marked form)   Colloquial alternatives: get/become + past participle (He got  Perfect Continuous (has been working) combines two aspects: fired) o Retrospective coordination (priority)  Debatable "voices": o Development (duration) o Reflexive (He dressed himself) → Возвратный залог  Theories: o Reciprocal (They greeted each other) → Взаимный залог o Smirnitsky: Two separate categories (development + o Middle (The door opened) → Средний залог retrospective) o Others: Single aspect category with complex forms 2. Category of Aspect Definition: 3. Tense-Aspect Combinations Shows how the action is performed or represented (duration/completion). Present Tense Examples: Key Opposition: Aspect Form Example Common (Simple) vs. Continuous Aspect Simple work/works She works hard. RU (Common) Aspect Meaning Formation Example Interpretati on is/are She is working Continuous working now. Commo General action (no Base verb (+ He works Общий вид has/have She has worked n duration focus) tense) every day. Perfect worked here. Continu Action in progress at be + -ing for He is Длительный ous a time m working now. вид Perfect has been She has been Continuous working working. Additional Aspects (Curme's Classification): Key Points: Aspect Meaning Example  Continuous Aspect: Not used with stative verbs (know, love) Durative Ongoing action He is eating. unless meaning changes (I'm loving this! = temporary emphasis) - Ingressive: He began  Perfect Aspect: Shows action's relation to another time point Point- Focus on start/end of to cry (has finished = before now) Action action - Effective: He finished the job 4. Summary Tables Terminat He handed me the Action as a whole Voice vs. Aspect ive book. Iterative Repeated action He kept knocking. Categ Focus Key Forms RU Concept ory Perfect Forms Controversy: Voice Subject-object Active/Passive Залог Categ  Indicative = Only real mood (uses all tense forms) Focus Key Forms RU Concept ory  Imperative = Base verb form (Be quiet!) relation (действ./страдат.)  Subjunctive = Special forms (be, were, had done) Aspec Common/Continuous/ Вид Action's nature t Perfect (соверш./длит.) 2. Smirnitsky's 6-Mood System Main Aspect Theories Mood Formation Usage Example Propon Theory Key Idea Example ent Regular tense She knows the Indicative Facts forms answer. Development vs. Smirnits Two separate is working/has Retrospective ky categories worked Imperativ Base verb Commands Go home now. e Single Aspect Complex but unified has been Others Category aspect system working Subjuncti Bare infinitive Suggestions, I suggest he go ve I (be/go) demands there. RU Associations: Subjuncti Past/Past Perfect  Залог = Кто выполняет действие (я делаю vs. действие Unreal conditions If I were you... ve II forms делают со мной). Suppositi Recommendation You should leave  Вид = Как протекает действие (делаю/делал vs. делаю should + infinitive onal s early. сейчас/уже сделал). Condition Hypothetical I would help if I would + infinitive al results could. 10. Verb, the category of mood. Other types of expressing modality 1. Basic Mood Classification RU Note: В русском только 3 наклонения, поэтому Subjunctive I/II и Definition: Suppositional/Conditional объединяются в "сослагательное". Shows the speaker's attitude toward the reality of an action. Mood Reality Status Function Example RU Equivalent 3. Other Modality Expressions He works Indicati Изъявительное Ways to Show Modality: Real/factual States facts every ve наклонение day. Type Examples RU Equivalent Gives can, must, should (+ Модальные глаголы Imperati Close the Повелительное Modal Verbs - commands/reques infinitive) (мочь) ve door! наклонение ts Вводные слова I wish he Modal Words maybe, perhaps, probably Subjunc Unreal/ Expresses wishes, Сослагательно (возможно) were tive hypothetical suggestions е наклонение here. Modal Конструкции (пора It's time..., I wish... Constructions бы...) Key Features: Type Examples RU Equivalent Grammatical Lexical Syntactic Syntax/ Imperative sentences, as Интонация и sentences Intonation if clauses синтаксис - Subjunctive - perhaps/ - as if clauses Key Constructions: clauses maybe  It's time we left. (Сослагательное) RU Concept: Наклонение = как говорящий относится к действию  She acts as if she knew. (Условное) (реально/гипотетически). 4. Verb Classification & Mood 11. The theory of a phrase Notional vs. Functional Verbs: 1. Definition and Basic Characteristics Notional Verbs Functional Verbs Definition: A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit within a - Actional (run, sentence but lacks a subject-predicate structure (unlike a sentence). - Auxiliary (be, have) write) Feature Description Example RU Equivalent - Statal (know, - Modal (can, must) Names love) Nominative Номинативная objects/actions (like a cold weather Function единица - Limitive (arrive, - Link verbs (seem, word) stop) become) Structural Components can writes letters → Грамматическая RU Association: Flexibility change grammatically wrote letters гибкость  Notional = Смысловые глаголы (бегать, знать) Cannot express in the No complete thought morning (not a Нет предикации  Functional = Служебные глаголы (быть, мочь) Predication alone sentence) Key Points: Summary Tables  Not a Sentence: Phrases lack intonation and communicative Mood Systems Compared function. Traditio Smirnits  Russian vs. Western Views: Key Difference nal ky's o Russian linguists: Only notional word combinations (fine Subjunctive split into 4 weather). 3 moods 6 moods subtypes o Western scholars: Any word group (in the morning). Modality Expression Grammatical Lexical Syntactic 2. Classification of Phrases - Mood forms - Modal verbs - Imperative A. By Syntactic Relations Type Description Example RU Term Relation Description Example RU Term Coordina Equal elements joined Сочинительная Subordinati Head + adjunct, fixed tea or coffee dark blue Подчинение te by conjunctions связь on hierarchy Subordi Head word + Подчинительна Interdepend Взаимозависим red apple Subject-predicate link she runs nate dependent element я связь ency ость him Fixed order, no my old Predicati Subject-predicate Предикативная Cumulation Кумуляция leaving (Complex reversibility friend ve relation (secondary) связь Object) Additional Relations: B. By Structure (Bloomfield)  Agreement: Only in pronouns (this book vs. these books). Type Description Example Key Feature  Government: Pronouns after verbs/prepositions (see him). Endocen Has a head word Центр (главное  Enclosure: Article + adjective + noun (a beautiful day). fresh milk → milk tric (replaceable) слово) Exocent No head word (non- in the house (no Без центра 4. Key Linguists’ Theories ric replaceable) replacement) C. Modern Approach Key Linguist Theory RU Association Contribution Type Subtypes Examples H. Adjunct-head tall men (adjunct Отношение - Progressive (to read - a list of Sweet relation + head) определений Headed books) names O. - Regressive (country - Junction: red Атрибуция vs. - very cold Jesperse Junction vs. Nexus doctor) apple предикация n Non- - Independent (Mary and - Nexus: the - he laughed headed John) apple is red - Dependent (my old - his own at friend) car M. Notional/functional home (functional Служебные сочетания Bloch word combinations phrase) L. poor 3. Syntactic Relations in Phrases Endocentric vs. Центральные/ Bloomfi John (endocentri Exocentric бесцентровые Relation Description Example RU Term eld c) Coordinatio Equal elements, cats and Сочинение n reversible order dogs Summary Tables Phrase vs. Sentence Featur 2. Deep vs. Surface Structure Phrase Sentence e Structure Description Example Functio Names Communicates n (nominative) (predicative) Surface Visible sentence "A banana was eaten by me." (Passive) Structure form. Intonat No Yes Deep Underlying "I ate a banana." (Active) → Same ion Structure meaning. meaning, different forms. Exampl the old house The house is old.  Key Idea: One deep structure → multiple surface structures e (Одна глубинная структура → много поверхностных). Main Phrase Types 3. Generative vs. Transformational Grammar Classifica Types Examples Aspect Explanation Example RU Association tion Rules create Генерация – By Headed/Non- red car (headed) infinite "I go home" (✓) vs. "I создание Structure headed Generative correct goes home" (✗). предложений по By Coordinate/ bread and sentences. правилам. Relation Subordinate butter (coordinate) Changes Трансформация RU Concept: sentence "I met my friend – изменение Transformat Фраза = словосочетание (номинативная единица), но не form without yesterday." → "Yesterda формы, ional предложение. altering y, I met my friend." сохранение meaning. смысла. 4. Components of Grammar (Chomsky’s Model) 12. Transformational Generative Grammar Transformational Generative Grammar (N. Chomsky) 1. Syntactical – Generates sentence structures. 1. Definition & Key Concepts 2. Phonological – Manages sound patterns. Term Meaning Association (RU) 3. Semantic – Handles meaning.  RU: Синтаксис, фонология, семантика – три ключевых Rules defining language Порождающая компонента. Generative systems. Chomsky expanded грамматика – правила, Grammar Harris’s idea into a method for "генерирующие" 5. Kernel Sentences & Transforms constructing sentences. предложения. Type Description Examples RU Association Generativis Broader theory: assumptions Генеративизм – теория m about language structure. структуры языка. Kernel Ядерные Simple, active, "John worked." (NP + Sentence предложения – Языковая declarative. VI) Linguistic s базовая форма. Speaker’s subconscious компетенция – знание Competenc knowledge of sentence rules. правил построения Transfor Derived from "The barking dog Трансформы – e предложений. ms kernels (e.g., frightened преобразованные passive, me." (from "The dog Type Description Examples RU Association Type Description Examples RU Association questions). barked.") варианты. Relations of independence betw Mary and Сочинение – Kernel Sentence Patterns: Coordinatio een equivalent units. John ↔ John равноправные n (SR1) Order can often be and Mary элементы. 1. NP + be + substantive (John is a hero.) changed. 2. NP + VI (John worked.) Relations beautiful Подчинение – 3. NP + VT + NP (John paid the bill.) Subordinati of dependence (head girl, to see главное + on (SR2) + adjunct). Order is a house зависимое слово. fixed. Conclusion Взаимозависимос Interdepend Mutual dependence He smiles. I  Chomsky’s theory evolved since the 1950s, sparking debates. ть – подлежащее ency (SR3) (subject ↔ predicate). knew. + сказуемое.  RU: Теория Хомского – основа современной лингвистики. A. Coordination (SR1) Addition: Chomsky’s Legacy  Symmetric: Elements are interchangeable (pens and pencils).  Called the "father of modern linguistics" (отец современной лингвистики).  Asymmetric: Fixed order (ladies and gentlemen).  Kernel sentences → foundation for complex structures.  Connection types: o Copulative (and) Simplified: o Disjunctive (or)  Глубинная структура = смысл. Поверхностная = форма. o Adversative (but)  Трансформации = перестановки слов без потери смысла. o Causative (so, therefore – sentence level).  Ядерные предложения → база для всех остальных. B. Subordination (SR2)  Types: 13. Syntactic relations in a phrase, sentence, text o Adverbial (speak slowly) 1. Definition of Syntactic Meaning o Objective (see a house)  Syntactic meaning arises from the relations between linguistic units in a system. o Attributive (a beautiful flower).  RU: Синтаксическое значение – связь единиц в системе.  Forms:  Studied by syntax (syntactics) – only inner relations are o Agreement (this book → these books) analyzed (not external reality or speakers). o Government (help us) 2. Three Main Types of Syntactic Relations o Adjournment (just, only)  o Enclosure (really, after all). Relation Key Feature Example C. Interdependency (SR3) Coordinatio Equal units, order tea or n flexible coffee  Primary predication: Subject + predicate (She runs).  Secondary predication: Non-finite verbs + nouns (Him leaving Subordinati Head + dependent, read a was unexpected). on fixed order book Interdepend Subject-predicate bond Birds fly. ency 3. Additional Syntactic Relations his own Type Description Examples RU Association Cumulation Non-headed, fixed order car my old Кумуляция – RU: Cumulati Non-headed phrases; friend (not old жесткий порядок on order is fixed.  Сочинение – можно менять порядок (кофе или чай). my friend) слов. Subordinate word  Подчинение – главное слово + зависимое (читать книгу). this Agreeme matches head Согласование –  Согласование – только this/that + число. book → these nt in number (limited in только с this/that. books English).  Управление – винить его (не он). Head word dictates form Управление – Governm invite of subordinate (rare in только у ent him (not he) 14. Sentence in Transformational Generative Grammar English). местоимений. Инкрустация – 1. Phrase Structure Grammar (PSG) Enclosur Attribute placed between a beautiful gir вставка e article and noun. l определения. Key Concepts: Key Notes:  Definition: A hierarchical system that breaks sentences into nested phrases (constituents).  Agreement in English is minimal (only this/that + noun number).  Advantage over Finite State Grammar: Can generate all sentences that finite state grammars can, plus more complex o The United Nations is (singular) vs. My family are (plural). structures.  Government applies only to pronouns (him, whom).  Phrase Marker (PM): A tree diagram showing sentence structure and category relationships.  Enclosure defines attributes (the country doctor). Example Sentence: The boy hits the girl. PM Analysis: Summary Table: Syntactic Relations Level Components RU Association Senten Noun Phrase (NP) + Предложение = Группа Level Components RU Association RU Pattern Example Structure Equivalen t существительного + Группа ce (S) Verb Phrase (VP) глагола John Сущ + неперех. NP + VI worked. глагол Article (ART) + Noun The boy = Артикль + NP (N) Существительное John paid Сущ + перех. NP + VT + NP the bill. глагол + сущ hits the girl = Глагол + Группа VP Verb (V) + NP существительного John had a