Introduction to Library Automation PDF

Introduction to Library UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO LIBRARY Automation AUTOMATION Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Evolutio...

Introduction to Library UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO LIBRARY Automation AUTOMATION Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Evolution of Library Automation 1.3 Automated Library Systems 1.3.1 Rationale 1.3.2 Prerequisites and Steps 1.3.3 Procedural Model 1.3.4 Traditional, Automated and Digital: Three Eras of Library Systems 1.4 Automated Library System: Standards and Software 1.4.1 Standards 1.4.2 Software 1.5 Automated Library System: Global Recommendations 1.5.1 OLE Recommendations 1.5.2 ILS-DI Recommendations 1.5.3 Request for Proposals (RFPs) 1.6 Automated Library System: Development of RFP 1.7 Automated Library System: Trends and Future 1.8 Summary 1.9 Answers to Self Check Exercises 1.10 Keywords 1.11 References and Further Reading 1.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this Unit, you will be able to: understand conceptual views related to library automation and evolution of ILS; know features, advantages, requirements, steps, standards and models of library automation; and trace the path of progress and future directions in the development of ILS. 1.1 INTRODUCTION Library services require a series of works like acquiring, preparing and organising documents of different types and available in many formats. The activities related to acquisition of documents, technical processing of acquired documents, circulation and maintenance of processed documents are known as housekeeping operations. In a traditional library system (managed manually) these time consuming, labour intensive activities and routine clerical chores are performed slowly and expensively by library staff. Libraries all over the world, right from 1970s (with the advent of Personal Computer) are increasingly attempting to 5 Library Automation automate some of these activities for minimising human clerical routines and thereby optimising productivity and creativity of library staff. Library automation is the generic term that denotes applications of Information Communications Technologies (ICT) for performing manual operations in libraries of any type or size. Library automation process can adopt three routes – i) a piecemeal approach, converting individual operations one at a time (for example installation of Cataloguing module alone to offer OPAC); ii) the process can work towards the integrated system progressively, using a ‘planned installation’ approach (for example installation of Member management module and Circulation modules after the Cataloguing module); and iii) it can go directly for a fully integrated system to cover operations of all subsystems in the library. Therefore, theoretically, a typical library automation may or may not be integrated and may or may not be applied on a Local Area Network (or Intranet). In such automation process, the functions that may be automated are any or all of the followings: acquisition, cataloging, member management, circulation, serials control, inter library lending, and access to online public access catalogue. But the radical development in hardware, software and connectivity along with the reduced costs paved the path for integrated library automation systems (ILS). Presently, library automation processes are integrated systems of a set of interlinked modules responsible for the management of different operational subsystems. Integrated Library System (ILS) Cataloguing Acquisition Inter Library Loan Circulation Reports and Central File Utilities Server and Database Serials control System Administration OPAC User Librarian Local Area Network / Intranet Fig. 1.1: Integrated Library System Such integrated library automation is also known as Automated Library System. Library Management Software (LMS) forms the core of an automated library system. These LMSs are based on relational database architecture. In such systems files are interlinked so that deletion, addition and other changes in one file automatically activate changes in related files. It means integrated library management system is sharing a common database to perform all the basic functions of a library (see Fig. 1.1). For example, an integrated library system 6 (ILS) enables the library to link circulation activities with cataloging, serials Introduction to Library Automation control, report generation etc. at any given time. It makes use of a file server and clients in a local area network or wide area network (Fig. 1.1). Automated Library Systems now support three broad groups of library activities – i) housekeeping operations; ii) information retrieval; and iii) on-the-fly integration of library materials with open datasets. These are accessible through Local area Network (LAN) or Wide Area Network (WAN) and also over Internet. Modern library automation systems are Web compatible and accessible through Internet, Intranet and Extranet for information retrieval as well as data entry activities. Moreover, automated library systems are now capable to be integrated seamlessly with linked open data (like name authority data, subject access systems etc.), open contents (like book reviews, table-of-contents, cover images etc.) and social networking tools (like Facebook, Twitter etc.) through semantic web technologies and information mashup. Self Check Exercises Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below. ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit. 1) Define library automation. What are the needs of library automation?.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2) What do you mean by integrated library system? Enumerate the features of such systems..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3) Distinguish between library automation and integrated library system..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Library Automation 1.2 EVOLUTION OF LIBRARY AUTOMATION Library automation has a fascinating history. You will be amazed to know that the whole automation process in our society began with a librarian – Dr. John Shaw Billing (Rayward, 2002). Herman Hollerith, the Census Bureau of USA employee, who invented punched card machinery, attributes the idea to a suggestion by Dr. Billing, the then librarian of Surgeon-General’s Library (now the National Library of Medicine). Hollerith formed the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, which later became the International Business Machines (IBM) Corporation, one of the largest organisations in computing industry (Mukhopadhyay, 2005). Library professionals initiated application of computers when existing library practices and procedures began to break down under huge bibliographical pressure (also known as information explosion) emerged during late 1950s and early 1960s. Development of low-cost personal computers in 1970s and improved connectivity of 1980s helped establishment of automated library systems mainly in developing blocks of the world. A decade wise analysis of developments in library automation (Mukhopadhyay, 2005) will help you in understanding the rapid upward changes in this domain. Pre-computer era (1950s): First there was the pre-computer era of unit record equipment. Stand-alone era (1960s): Then came the off-line computerisation in 1960s and early 1970s. On-line system (1970s): This was followed by the on-line systems of the 1970s. Micro-computer era (1980s): The 1980s saw the advent of microcomputers in the form of PCs, emergence of CDROM technology and Local Area Network (LAN). Web era (1990s): Internet revolution of 1990s paved the path of Web-enabled integrated library systems to support access and operations from anywhere at any time. Open era (2000s): Emergence of open library systems powered by open source software, open standards and on-the-fly integration with open data and open contents. Although library automation began in 1930s (1936 to be exact) when punched card equipment was implemented for use in library circulation and acquisitions, the real library automation started in early 1970s with the use of low-cost PCs and locally developed software to automate library house-keeping operations. The whole phase of development i.e., 1970 to till date may be grouped into five distinct periods: The First Automation Age: This era was characterised by computerisation of library operations by utilising either commercial automation package or software developed in-house. The development of shared copy–cataloguing system (also known as distributed cataloguing) was another significant achievement of this phase that utilised computer and communication technologies for collaboration and cooperation within the library community. 8 The Second Automation Age: This period of library automation was Introduction to Library Automation characterised by the rise of public access i.e., the arrival of OPAC as a replacement for the traditional card catalogue. This period also witnessed major developments in online access to abstracting and indexing databases, union catalogues, resource sharing networks and library consortia. The Third Automation Age: This era was characterised by the full text access to electronic documents over high-speed communication channels. Digital media archiving was an important element of library automation in this period. The advent of Internet as global publishing platform and largest repository of information bearing objects revolutionised the ways and means of delivering library services. As a result, Web-centric library automation was norm of the time. The Fourth Automation Age: It is also known as ‘networked information revolution’ era. This era supports a vast constellation of digital contents and services that are accessible through the network at anytime, from anyplace, can be used and reused, navigated, integrated and tailored to the needs and objectives of each user. Digital libraries, multimedia databases and virtual libraries are major achievements in this era. Most of the automated library systems in our country are in between the third age and fourth age of library automation. The Fifth Automation Age: The next generation library automation uses interactive, collaborative and participative platform for developing user-oriented library services with the help of Web 2.0 tools and services. This era of library automation also characterised by the capabilities to on-the-fly integration of Linked Open Data (LOD) with local library resources and operations (for example - utilisation of global dataset VIAF (Virtual Internet Authority File) in managing name authority file of local library catalogue, and integration social networking tool such as Facebook with OPAC to post Like against a library document). Cloud based library management and Web-scale library management are norms of the fifth automation age. Now you know the phases of development in library automation for almost the last forty-five years. However, a time line for the development of ground-breaking events in library automation can be a handy tool for you to grab the path of development. 1936-59 : Major events of this time period were as follows: Introduction of punched card for circulation control in library; Use of IBM 402, 403 and 407 for manipulating, analysis, sorting and retrieval of data; Vannevar Bush introduced the concept of ‘Memex’ in 1945. 1960-69 : Major breakthroughs of this period were as follows - Use of general- purpose computers that became widely available in the 1960s; H.P. Luhn, in 1961, used a computer to produce the “Keyword in Context” or KWIC index for articles appearing in Chemical Abstracts; Project “MEDLARS” started in 1961 that applied computer in measuring efficiencies of information retrieval systems; Computerised circulation system first appeared in 1962; Project ‘Intrex’ (aimed to provide a design for evolution of a large university library into a new information transfer system) started in 1965; 9 Library Automation Project MARC, initiative by Library of Congress to provide a format for machine readable cataloguing data, started in 1965; Introduction of online interactive computer system in place of off-line batch processing systems began in mid 1960s; Initiation of projects like BALLOTS by Stanford University and MAC by M.I.T. These developments deal with the possibility of a new horizon for the library operations and services. 1970-79 : Important achievements of this time period – Minicomputers were introduced to automate circulation and books were bar-coded; Computer based acquisition systems were introduced to procure books and serials; ISBDs started appearing from 1971; OCLC established in 1971 to facilitate library cooperation and to reduce costs of processing works; ISO-2709 was developed in 1973 as the standard for data exchange format; OCLC started development of Worldcat in 1975 (Worldcat now contains 8 billion cataloguing records and considered as the largest bibliographic database in the world); Library networks started appearing all over the world. 1980-89 : Important events of the decade – Shared copy-cataloguing systems by using computer and communication technologies were established as a norm in 1980s; Remote access to on-line databases became a reality; Appearance of CDROM databases on indexing and abstracting journals started in early 1980s; Library automation packages initiated shifting towards relational architecture; Integrated automation packages began appearing in mid 1980s along with bar- coded circulation system; OPAC became very popular in this decade and made available on campus wide LAN for accessing; 1990-99 : Major events were as follows – Library automation packages started upgrading from client server architecture to web architecture; Large scale developments took place in the area of resource sharing, union catalogue and computerised inter library loan. Release of Z39.50 protocol in 1995 to share bibliographical information and to overcame the problems of database searching with many search languages; Formation of collective purchasing consortia started that can negotiate prices for all members of the consortium; Emergence of multimedia databases; Retrieval achieved maturity with an array of search operators; Emergence of Web-based library services; Release of Dublin Core Metadata Standard in 1995; Web-OPAC began appearing for almost all automated libraries; Conversion and digitisation of print contents into electronic format started in a big way; Full text access to information resources over Internet started against IP authentication; Integrated access interface emerged to act as one-stop access interface; IFLA introduced FRBR as a conceptual data model for bibliographical databases in 1998; Introduction and development of Eprint archives and digital libraries; MARC 21 family of standards (Bibliographic format, Authority format, Holdings format, Classification format and Community information format) released in 1999; RFID based inventory management and smart card based user access to on-line library services; OAI/PMH standard developed for metadata 10  harvesting and initiatives started to make LMSs compatible with Introduction to Library Automation this standard; 2000-14 : Remarkable achievements of the present era are – Development of matured and globally competitive open source LMSs; Establishment of open standards like SRW, SRU, MARC-XML and development of standards for different sub-domains of library automation like NCIP (NISO Circulation Interchange Protocol); Applications of Web 2.0 tools and techniques in automated library system; Development of interactive OPAC to support user tagging, rating and comments; Improvements in searching and browsing with a set of newly developed search operators like Fuzzy search, weight-term search etc.; Application of semantic web technologies in LMSs to support integration of Linked Open Data (LOD) with library operations and services. Self Check Exercises Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below. ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit. 4) What are the five ages of library automation? Explain............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5) Show a decade-wise growth of library automation technologies from 1970 to 2010............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6) Enumerate the major technology breakthroughs in library automation since the introduction of PCs.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11 Library Automation 1.3 AUTOMATED LIBRARY SYSTEMS The decade-wise development of library automation shows that the effects of ICT on libraries and information centers. The path of developments is characterised by three fundamental factors: Mechanisation – doing what we are already doing though more efficiently; Innovation – experimenting with new capabilities i.e., introduction of new services and improvement of existing services through the use of ICT; and Transformation – fundamentally altering the nature of the library operations and services through capabilities extended by ICT. This section of the unit discusses how library automation – i) helps in mechanisation of library operations; ii) supports innovation in library operations and user-centric services; and iii) promotes transformation in organisation of information resources and dissemination of services. The discussion covers reasons for library automation, requirements for library automation, steps for developing an effective automated library system, model of library automation and how does an automated library system differs from a digital library system. 1.3.1 Rationale Society is changing and so are the library users. There are many reasons of the ongoing changes but the most visible one is the impact of ICT on society. As a result libraries need to change to keep pace with these societal changes. It is also required for libraries to get continued support – political and financial from parent organisation as well as from government. However, the rationale for library automation may be summarised as below: Automation of library housekeeping operations is considered as an especially critical area from which future benefits will emerge. It means that if a library is not automated it cannot take advantages contributed by ICT such as digitisation, web-enabled library system, use of linked open data, remote management of library, interactive user services etc. ; Increased operational efficiencies are achieved through library automation; Automation of housekeeping operations relieves professional staff from routine clerical chores and thus make them available for end-users services; Betterment of library services in terms of speed, quality and efficiencies; Automation may create interactive, collaborative and participative platform for user-centric library services; Supports improvement of existing services and introduction of new services; Makes library free from two fundamental barriers of information access – time and space. A web-enabled library system allows access at anytime from anywhere and by anyone; Automated library system with the capability to generate extensive reports and statistics extends support as decision-making tool for library managers and policy makers; 12  An automated library system is able to contribute to resource-sharing Introduction to Library Automation networks and on the other hand may take the benefits of resources and services of library networks; and Better management of staff, physical resources, financial resources and wider dissemination of information products and services. But at the same time one should remember that library automation requires huge initial investments in developing network infrastructure, procuring hardware, buying/customising software, retraining of staff or in some cases recruitment of technical staff. It may lead to chaos in resource organisation and dislocations in user services during transformation phase. Initially users and staff may feel uncomfortable, but with the passing of time the benefits of library automation will be realised by all stakeholders. As ICT has spillover effect, an automated library system, after initial teething problem, soon begins to search other areas for extension of bibliographic services. 1.3.2 Prerequisites and Steps After covering the previous sections, you now know that library automation is a challenging task. We need to know what are the requirements, what are the strength and weakness of the library to be automated, how to prepare the proposal and budget, how to select hardware and software, who requires to be trained, how to plan implementation of software, how to handle retro-conversion (RECON or retro-conversion is transferring old bibliographic resource into machine-readable forms in the software system) and finally how to manage the transformation process. The prerequisites of library automation may be studied under the following heads: System-level requirements The system level requirements include hardware, network and storage. These components build the necessary infrastructure for implementation of integrated library system. The infrastructural requirements for library automation may vary from simple (inexpensive) to very complex (expensive) depending on factors like functional requirements, software architecture, support for global domain- specific standards, interoperability requirements, number of library sites or branches, number of records to be managed, number of users to be supported, requirements for managing multi-lingual records, retrieval features, federated search capabilities etc. The infrastructural requirements is very high for an automated library system that aims to serve users through Web-OPAC (requires server, IP address and domain name), to support distributed cataloguing (to serve bibliographic data as Z39.50 server), and to take the advantages of cloud computing. Generally hardware level requirements include Server (a centralised mainframe or minicomputer architecture) and client PCs (low-end computers for data entry and end-user searching). Storage devices are required to store bibliographic data (full-text data in case of digital media archiving). Network is required to link server with storage devices and client PCs. Software-level requirements An integrated library system is managed by integrated library management software (LMS). LMS manages different functional modules (for different sub- systems of a library) on the basis of a common database (with different tables for 13 Library Automation different modules in relational model). Such a LMS supports seamless exchange of data (bibliographic data, financial data, member data etc.) between the different subsystems of an integrated library system. The essential features that should be supported by an ILS (or LMS) must be known before selection of software. These are applicable to all modules of any modern LMS and should include but not limited to the following features: The LMS must be fully integrated, using a single, common database for all operations and a common operator interface across all modules; The LMS should have capability of supporting multiple branches or independent libraries, with one central computer configuration sharing a common database; The LMS must allow unlimited number of records, users and organisation- specific parameters (e.g. loan period rules, fine calculation criteria, hold parameters etc.); The package should include following fully developed and operational facilities at multiple customer sites: Bibliographic and inventory control Z39.50 sever (minimum Authority control version 3 and bath profile level Public access catalogue complaint) and Z39.50 client Web catalogue interface Z39.50 copy cataloguing client Information gateway (telnet, www, Marc 21 bibliographic and Z39.50, proxy server) authority record import/export utility Acquisition management Outreach services Serials control Digital media archive system Electronic data interchange (EDI) and Multimedia Reservation and materials booking Fund accounting , Bills and Circulation control fines Customised generation of reports Inter library loan and usage statistics Interoperability and crosswalk One step administrative parameters Web 2.0 supports setting LMS must provide continuous backup in suitable media (as per the choice of libraries) so that all transactions can be recovered to the point of failure; LMS must be compliant with the following standards (see section 1.4.1 for a list of standards): Z39.50 information interchange format MARC 21, UNCODE (UTF-8 OR UTF-16) Z39.71 holdings statements Z39.50 information retrieval service (client and server version3) EDIFACT (EDI standard) IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 Ethernet HTTP, TCP/IP, Telnet, FTP, SMTP 14  The LMS should be based on web-centric architecture and extend support Introduction to Library Automation for a range of multi-user and multitasking operating systems and RDBMSs; The LMS must be compliant with UNICODE standard for multilingual support and RFID for inventory management and self-issue/return facility; Vendor/Developing group should provide training to enable library staff to become familiar with system functions and operation, should supply full and current system documentation in hard copy and in machine-readable form suitable for online distribution and the LMS should include extensive online help for users and staff; LMS must support multiple hardware architecture in terms of server, network infrastructure, PC-workstations and peripheral devices; LMS must be supported with regular maintenance and on-call service, periodical software upgrades, continuous R & D, trouble-shooting of third- party software such as database package and the library automation package, distribution of problem fixes/patches and emergency services for system failures and disaster recoveries; The package must provide security to prevent accidental or unauthorised modification of records through the establishment of access privileges unique to each user on the system and restriction of specific functions to specific users; LMS should provide graphical user interface including, but not limited to extensive online help, user self-service and personalisation features. The system should be supported with PC-based alternative that will allow circulation to continue in the event of system failure, communication failure and downtime required for maintenance; LMS must be compliant with web 2.0 features to support interactive, collaborative and participative platform; and LMS should be updated regularly to take advantages of cutting-edge technologies like cloud computing, linked open data and semantic web. Steps of library automation Library automation is a complex process and should be planned astutely. The complete process of library automation may be divided into following steps: Software selection Hardware selection Site preparation General training Customisation Defining procedures for o Bibliographical data entry o Administrative data entry o Financial data entry Commissioning 15 Library Automation It is quite obvious that implementation of the above steps in library automation requires background study or analysis of the library system (see section 1.3.3 for system analysis process). It is a precondition to utilise library automation package for effective results. A library will not be able to take full advantages of automation until and unless it’s manual functions are perfect and justified. Therefore, the procedures and tasks followed in different sections should be analysed in terms of : Special features of the library system Local variations (their validity and usefulness) Limitations of the existing system Nature and objectives of library Total number of collection and nature of collection Per year acquisition and procedures followed for acquisition Per year subscription of serials and number of back-volumes Number of users and their categories Per day transactions (issue/return/reservation) Availability of multilingual documents Need of information services (CAS/SDI etc.) Future plan (in terms of networking and consortia, digitisation, cloud computing) Available manpower (computer literate staff, retraining of staff, recruitment of technical staff). This is an illustrative list of factors to be considered during the process of library automation. In reality a library needs to prepare a comprehensive of list of such factors for effective utilisation of the automated library system. 1.3.3 Procedural Model Library automation aims to support workflows of a library in an integrated setup. It means different subsystems of a library (like acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, serials control, OPAC etc.) need to be supported by an ILS. Therefore, to understand library automation we need to understand first the library workflows. In fact an ILS (or LMS) automates the workflows of a library system. Most of the LMSs are based on a model called procedural model of library automation (first proposed by P.A. Thomas in an analytical study of library automation conducted by the then ASLIB). The model proposes that a library system has mainly two subsystems – administrative subsystem and operational subsystem. We cannot automate the process of administration but if we can automate operational subsystem, it may help administrative subsystem in taking right decision at the right time. In fact automation of operational subsystem may provide a wholesome MIS (Management Information System) to library managers. Operational subsystem comprises mainly four subsystems for performing housekeeping jobs through eighteen procedures. These procedures under each and every operational subsystem require one or more of six possible activities. There are fifteen basic tasks for performing procedures and activities. In short, procedural model of library automation proposes two basic subsystems, four operational subsystems, three levels, eighteen procedures, six activities and fifteen basic tasks as library workflow irrespective of the type and size of libraries and it advocates automation of the procedures, activities and tasks through 16 different modules of an ILS.  Introduction to Library Library Housekeeping Operations Automation Acquisition Processing Use Maintenance Locate Select Classify Lend Bind Order Catalogue Reserve Replace Receive Label Recall Discard Accession Shelve Inter Library Loan (ILL) Photocopy The functions and activities of one division is entirely different from other divisions but they are closely related and the combined efforts lead towards the better library services. It is quite clear now that libraries are complex systems that include subsystems and components. The main two subsystems are operational subsystem and administrative subsystem. Library housekeeping operations are part of the operational subsystem. As per the analytical study of ASLIB (Association of Information Managers, UK), the operational subsystem may be divided into four further subdivisions namely Acquisition, Processing, Use and Maintenance. Within each of these divisions there are a number of procedures and within each procedure there is one or more of six possible activities. The tabular presentation of the place and scope of housekeeping operations related to different subsystems in a library system (as per the procedural model) is given below: Table 1.1: Procedural model of library automation (Source: Mukhopadhyay, 2005) System Subsystems Operational Procedures Activities (Common Subsystems to all Procedures) Select Initiate Acquisition Order (To commence a Receive procedure) Accession Authorise Classify (To approve a Operational Catalogue procedure) Processing Subsystem Label Shelve Activate (To implement a Locate procedure through Library List appropriate action) System Lend/Issue Use Reserve Record Recall/Return (To record what action ILL (Inter has been taken) Library Loan) Report Photocopy (To notify staff or user Bind about the action taken) Maintenance Replace Cancel Discard (To stop a procedure or undoing an action) Administrative Subsystem 17 Library Automation In considering libraries from one general organisational point of view, the analysis of housekeeping system is useful for automation of a library. It is a prerequisite to design and use library management software and to communicate with software vendors and programmers. A close analysis of the operations involved in library housekeeping provides us three hierarchical levels – procedures, activities and tasks. Procedures and Activities The eighteen procedures listed in the previous paragraph are common to libraries of different types. The design and use of an automated library housekeeping system requires the analysis of all these procedures into their atomic structure. It will help to understand and implement mechanised housekeeping operations in an automated environment. The procedures under each and every operational subsystem have been analysed by P.A. Thomas in terms of six possible activities – initiate, authorise, activate, record, report and cancel. All of these activities may not be involved in every procedure. There are one or more six possible activities against each procedure. The six common activities are defined as: Initiate – That which makes it apparent that a procedure should be commenced. Authorise – In some cases, the decision to carry out a certain procedure must be approved before any further action is taken. Activate – When a procedure is known to be necessary and in some cases approved, it is usually implemented by taking appropriate actions. Record – The function that states or records what action has been taken. Report – To notify library staff or user that an action has been taken. Cancel – To stop a procedure, in particular the aspect of revoking or undoing an action. Tasks The third level in the hierarchy is concerned with ‘tasks’ within an activity under each procedure. Task means a related group of operations carried out to perform a particular kind of job. In an automated library system a task is the collective functions of the elements for the accomplishment of the module at the next higher level. Tasks within each activity, just as the activities themselves, may not all be necessary to each procedure. Most of the works in the operational subsystems of a library include making or using discrete records with bibliographic and administrative information referring to one particular document. In this context, ASLIB defined a set of fifteen tasks for the basic procedures. These are – pass, receive, discard, place, remove, search, duplicate, attach, separate, move, sort. Such tasks are supported by other four element tasks namely read, verify, enter and decide. 1.3.4 Traditional, Automated and Digital: Three Eras of Library Systems The application of ICT tools in the form of hardware, software and network changed conventional library system considerably right from 1970s. Now, we have an array of modern information handling systems named as computerised library system, automated library system, electronic library system, digital library 18 system and virtual library system. However, we are going to restrict discussion Introduction to Library Automation to two stable modern library systems – automated library system and digital library system. You already know what an automated library system is. Now question comes what is a digital library system and how does it differ from automated library system? Digital libraries are major application entities of Internet and Web technologies. These are considered as next generation library services. In simple words, Digital libraries are managed collections of digital objects. These entities enable the creation, organisation, maintenance, management, access to, sharing and preservation of digital knowledge bearing objects or document collections. Digital libraries are being created today by many institutes and agencies for different target groups and in diverse fields like agriculture, cultural heritage, education, health, governance, science, social sciences, social development, etc. In its final shape a digital library system will be a single- window federated search interface for a diverse range of information resources collected or optimised by a library system. Fig. 1.2: Digital library system Availability of free/libre open source software (FLOSS) based digital library software packages, application of open standards and sharing of domain knowledge through Wiki, Blogs etc. help in designing Digital libraries even in developing block of the world. Now the question comes that what are the advantages of digital libraries? There are some obvious benefits of Digital libraries over the automated library systems. Some of the key benefits of digital libraries are: Traditional libraries are associated with the organisation and provision of access to physical material like print-on-paper publications. 19 Library Automation Automated library systems are providing improved access to their collections but online access facilities are limited to the computerised library catalogue (OPAC). Digital libraries differ significantly from such libraries because these entities facilitate online access to and work with digital versions of full text resources in multimedia-driven environment. Library automation activities address two major issues – library housekeeping operations and access to library resources. An automated library system has cataloguing data in digital format but source documents are mostly available in print formats. In a digital library setup both metadata (document description data) and documents are available in digital format. The other major differences are: Table 2: Automated Vs. Digital library systems Automated library system Digital library system Only metadata (cataloguing data) is Both metadata set and full-text finely searchable resources are finely searchable Provides document description data Provides document description data set set, not documents. and source documents Based on Z39.50 standard for cross- Based on OAI/PMH protocol for system catalogue search/retrieve metadata harvesting Supports standard bibliographic Supports generic and domain-specific formats (MARC 21, CCF) for metadata schemas (e.g. Dublin Core, document description LOM, GILS etc.) for resource description Processes global resources for local Processes global and local resources for users local and global users Generally follows centralised Generally follows distributed processing – distributed access processing – distributed access architecture architecture Self Check Exercises Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below. ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit. 7) What is the rationale for integrated library system?.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20 8) Discuss the software-level prerequisites for an integrated library system. Introduction to Library Automation.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9) What is Procedural model of library automation? Illustrate............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10) What is a digital library system? How does it differ from automated library system?.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1.4 AUTOMATED LIBRARY SYSTEM: STANDARDS AND SOFTWARE Integrated library systems depend on two core components – standards and software architecture. Libraries are now operating in a distributed networked environment, where standards are essential for efficiency and interoperability. Order, collaboration and interoperability are three most important prerequisites for effective application of ICT in library operations and services. Library automation is no exception. Therefore, we need to know about standards for developing automated library systems and LMSs should follow strictly different global and national standards prescribed for the domain of library automation. 1.4.1 Standards Standards are developed by general agreement among stakeholders of an area of human activity. These are used by professional like scientists, engineers, technologists etc. for their respective domain of activities. We often use the terms standards, guidelines and specifications synonymously. A “guideline” is a statement of policy by a person or group having authority over an activity. A “standard” is formulated by agreement and applicable to an array of levels – corporate, national, or international. A “specification” is a concise statement of 21 Library Automation the requirement for a material, process, method, procedure or service. Standards are frequently updated, modified or revised to keep pace with the technological changes and practical requirements (Withers, 1970). ANSI (American National Standards Institute) defined a standard as a specification accepted by recognised authority as the most practical and appropriate current solution of a recurring problem. IEC Guide 2:2004 of ISO (International Standards Organisation) defines a standard as a document, established by consensus and approved by a recognised body, that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context. Standards perform important roles in the development of integrated library systems in view of the followings: to act as the pattern of an ideal; to set a model procedure; to achieve interoperability in heterogeneous environment; to establish measure for appraisal; to act as stimulus for future development and importance; and to help as an instrument to assist decision and action. Standards are mainly developed by Standards Development Organisations (SDOs). An SDO is any entity whose primary activities are developing, coordinating, promulgating, revising, amending, reissuing, interpreting, or otherwise maintaining standards. SDOs are generally grouped by two parameters – geographic designation (e.g. international, regional, national) and organisational authority (e.g. governmental, quasi-governmental or non-governmental entities). Library professionals are generally interested in the library standards developed by their national standard organisations (e.g. BIS – Bureau of Indian Standards in India) and library standards developed by ISO (International Standards Organisations), NISO (National Information Standards Organisation, US) and BSI (British Standards Institute, UK). The library standards developed by NISO are American national standards but in many cases these standards are used by libraries/related organisations across the globe (e.g. Z39.50). These SDOs develop standards in the domain of library services through designated committees and sub-committees. The committee IDT/2 is entrusted by BSI (http://www.bsi- global.com/) for Information and Documentation. There are mainly three American National Standards Committees under NISO that develop standards affecting libraries, information services and publishing (www.niso.org). These are X3 (Information Processing Systems); PH5 (Micrographic Reproduction); Z85 (Standardisation of Library Supplies and Equipment); and Z39 (Library and Information Sciences and Related Publishing Practices). Of these, Z39 has developed more standards directly related to LIS fields than others. TC 46 committee of ISO (www.iso.org/iso/) is responsible for standardisation of practices relating to libraries, documentation and information centres, publishing, archives, records management, museum documentation, indexing and abstracting services, and information science. The secretariat of TC 46 is in France (AFNOR - Association française de normalisation). It works through three working groups (WG), four sub committees (SC) and one coordinating group (CG). In BIS, India, MSD 5 (www.bis.org.in) is the Sectional Committee for Documentation and Information. 22 Although it is difficult to list all the standards related to automated library systems, Introduction to Library Automation we may go for listing a set of minimum standards that need to be supported by an ILS/LMS to remain globally competitive and interoperable. These are: ISO – 2709 for bibliographic data interoperability; Standard bibliographic formats compliant with ISO - 2709 (e.g. MARC 21, UNIMARC, CCF/B); Z39.50 protocol standard for distributed cataloguing; Z39.71 standard for holdings statements; BS ISO 9735-9:2002 Electronic data interchange for administration, commerce and transport (EDIFACT); Z39.83-1 (NISO Circulation Interchange Part 1: Protocol (NCIP)); Z39.83-2 (NISO Circulation Interchange Part 2: Protocol (NCIP)); ISO/CD 28560-1(Information and documentation — Data model for use of radio frequency; identifier (RFID) in libraries — Part 1: General requirements and data elements); ISO/CD 28560-2 (Information and documentation — Data model for use of radio frequency; identifier (RFID) in libraries — Part 2: Encoding based on ISO/IEC 15962); and ISO/CD 28560-3 (Information and documentation — Data model for use of radio frequency identifier (RFID) in libraries — Part 3: Fixed length encoding); and ISO/IEC 10646: 2003 (Universal Multiple-Octet Character Set or UCS). Apart from these formal standards (de jury standards), there are a few specifications (may be considered as de facto standards) in the domain of library services, which are widely in use across different library systems in different countries. Most of these internationally agreed upon informal standards are developed by national libraries (e.g. Library of Congress) and library associations (e.g. ALA, IFLA etc.). Some of these very important non-formal standards are – MARCXML – MARC 21 data in an XML structure (developed by Library of Congress - http://www.loc.gov/standards/marcxml/) acting as base standard for bibliographic data export/import in place of ISO-2709; MODS (Metadata Object Description Standard) – XML markup for selected metadata from existing MARC 21 records as well as original resource description (developed by Library of Congress – http://www.loc.gov/ standards/mods/); MADS (Metadata Authority Description Standard) – XML markup for selected authority data from MARC21 records as well as original authority data (developed by Library of Congress – http://www.loc.gov/standards/ mads/); METS (Metadata Encoding & Transmission Standard) – Structure for encoding descriptive, administrative, and structural metadata (developed by Library of Congress -http://www.loc.gov/mets/); 23 Library Automation PREMIS (Preservation Metadata) – A data dictionary and supporting XML schemas for core preservation metadata needed to support the long-term preservation of digital materials. (developed by Library of Congress – http:/ /www.loc.gov/standards/premis); SRU/SRW (Search and Retrieve URL/Web Service) – Web services for search and retrieval based on Z39.50 (developed by Library of Congress - semantics http://www.loc.gov/standards/sru/); and OAI/PMH Version 2.0 – Open Archive Initiative/Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (developed by Open Archive Initiative). 1.4.2 Software You already know that library management software forms the core part of integrated library automation. You also know what are the prerequisites for an ILS, what are the standards that need to be supported by ILS, and how procedural model of library automation is guiding development of ILS all over the world. The rapid development in utility of hardware, software and connectivity along with the reduced costs paved the path for integrated library automation systems. Current library automation software also known as Library Management Software (LMSs) are integrated systems of a set of related modules responsible for the management of different operational subsystems. These LMSs are based on relational database architecture. Most of the LMSs are presently based on procedural model of library automation and follow a modular approach to perform the tasks related to housekeeping operations. Generally, the whole package is divided in modules for each operational subsystem. Modules are divided into sub modules and each sub module supports various facilities to carry out tasks related to the procedures. Library Automation Modules Sub-Modules Facilities Package For example, the SOUL package library automation software developed by INFLIBNET, Ahmadabad) includes six modules of which four are for operational subsystems. The other two, namely administration and OPAC are meant for setting up various administrative parameters and searching and retrieving the library resources respectively. Another example may be cited from KOHA – an open source library management software, developed by Horowhenua Library Trust (Katipo team), Newzealand and running at libraries all over the world. It includes one common module for acquisition and cataloguing and other five modules are related with circulation, OPAC, administration etc. A typical LMS supports selection, ordering, acquisition, processing, circulation, serials control, dissemination of information services and also extend help in library administration, planning & decision making process as a management tool. The individual tasks carried out by an ILS under each prime functional subsystems may be identified as below (see Unit 2 in this block for a detail discussion on housekeeping activities): Ordering and Acquisition Ordering Receipting 24  Claiming Introduction to Library Automation Vendor database management Budgeting and Fund accounting Currency conversion Suggestions (from users) management Enquiries (order status, receiving status) Accessioning (in MARC 21 format) Bill processing Payment Reports and Statistics. Cataloguing Standard formats support Authority control (in MARC 21 authority format) Integration with Linked Open Data (LOD) Unicode-compliant multilingual data processing Retrieval with sophisticated search operators Integration with virtual keyboard for multilingual searching Shared cataloguing Z39.50 based copy cataloguing Output generation and holdings information User services (interactive and participative). Access Services Online access Public access interface (OPAC) Web access and Remote access Social-network enabled OPAC Gateway services. Circulation Control Setting of user privileges Circulation rules Issue, return and renewal Reservation (user-driven) Fine calculation User management Reminders and recalls Enquiries (about item, borrower, reservation) Reminders and notices Reports and statistics and patron self services. 25 Library Automation Serials Control Order placement and renewal of subscriptions Kardex management Receiving and claiming Binding control Fund accounting Cataloguing of serials Enquiries (arrival of serials issues) Reports and statistics. MIS Reports and statistics Analysis of statistics Usage statistics (compliant with COUNTER). Inter Library Loan (ILL) ILL protocol ILL management. Outreach Services Community information services Social-networking support Library blog Online help for users. Digital Media Archiving 1) Full-text search 2) Support for media formats 3) Federated search facilities. System Administration Privileges control Branch management Backup and restoration System configuration. A library may procure commercially available ILS or may opt for implementing an open source ILS. But the above-mentioned basic tasks of an ILS are common to all types of ILSs or LMSs. 26 Self Check Exercises Introduction to Library Automation Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below. ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit. 11) What is a standard? Why an ILS should support global standards? List the standards required for a globally competitive ILS............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12) Discuss the typical tasks performed by an integrated library system............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.5 AUTOMATED LIBRARY SYSTEM: GLOBAL RECOMMENDATIONS Libraries of developed countries started taking benefits of ICT through library automation during mid-seventies. Libraries in developing block of the world realised advantages of library automation in early eighties and the process is still going on. But the socio-economic and socio-technical environments within which these libraries operate are changing more rapidly than libraries (in developing block of the world) are changing to meet it. However, in general we can say that present library systems are outgrowing their traditional organisation and discovery tools. Almost all the basic library activities and services are now maintained in an Integrated Library System (ILS) that manages acquisitions, cataloging, circulation, reporting, resource discovery and automatic alerting services. With the advent of socio-technical changes all over the world users expectations have expanded to demand more services in an interactive, quicker and easy way. In many cases, such demands go beyond the scope of a typical ILS. Users now want to find, locate, navigate and obtain resources available in his/her library, at nearby institutions and from open access public domain through a single-window search interface seamlessly. They also want full-text search facility from a single- window federated search interface and when they do find something of interest, they expect to use the library’s services for obtaining resources from wherever possible. This situation calls for a set of global recommendations in developing new generation ILS. Such global standards are also required to act as pathfinders for library professionals as well for ILS developers. There are three such sources that can guide us in shaping integrated library systems in view of the future requirements – 1) Open Library Environment (OLE) project recommendations; 27 Library Automation 2) Digital Library Federation (DLF) - ILS Task Group (ILS-DI) recommendations; and 3) study of Request for Proposals developed by different libraries. 1.5.1 OLE Recommendations Open Library Environment project (OLE project - http://oleproject.org) or the OLE project, funded by Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and participated by more than 300 libraries, started with following objectives – i) to analyse library business processes; ii) to define a next-generation library technology platform; iii) to design Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) for library software; and iv) to frame a community-source model of development and governance. The principal aim of OLE project is cost-effective integration of library management with other institutional systems. The OLE project published the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) based Abstract Reference Model (http://oleproject.org/overview/ ole-reference-model) in 2009. This model shows the relationship between OLE middleware, OLE components, entities, and third-party components, such as Identity Management, Institutional Repositories, and Course Management Systems. As a whole, the OLE framework for future library system is characterised by – 1) Flexibility (Supports for wide range of resources; accessed by a wide range of customers in a variety of contexts); 2) Community ownership (Advocates systems that are designed, built, owned, and governed by and for the library community on an open source licensing basis); 3) Service Orientation (Prescribes technology-neutral service-oriented framework that ensures the interoperability of library systems); 4) Enterprise-Level Integration (Facilitates integration with other enterprise systems such as research support, student information, human resources, identity management, fiscal control, and repository and content management); 5) Efficiency (Provides a modular application infrastructure that integrates with new and existing academic and research technologies); and 6) Sustainability (Creates a reliable and robust framework to identify, document, innovate, develop, maintain, and review the software necessary to further the operation and mission of libraries). See Unit 3 in this Block for a summary of OLE recommendations. The Open Library Environment Project Final Report is available at http://oleproject.org/final-ole-project-report/. 1.5.2 ILS-DI Recommendations In regards to the integrated systems of libraries (automation and digitisation), DLF ILS Discovery Internet Task Group (ILS-DI) Technical Recommendation is playing a pivotal role. These recommendations are framed in view of the variations in user demands and developments in ICT. As per these recommendations library software systems should – i) improve discovery and use of library resources; ii) support a clear set of expectations (framed systematically) for users (end users and power users) and developers; iii) be open and extensible for recommendations applicable to existing and future system requirements; iv) support interoperability, inter-operation and cooperation; and vi) be responsive to the user and developer community. ILS-DI recommendations can be logically related with a set of twenty-five interlinked functions. Each of the twenty-five (25) functions can be grouped into one of four overall categories: 1) Data aggregation (harvesting and distributed searching); 2) Search (simple and advance search operators); 3) Patron services (general and interactive interfaces); and 4) Integrated service framework (on-the-fly integration of open contents, data sets etc.). A summary of ISL-DI recommendations is provided in 28 Unit 3 of this block. For DLF ILS Discovery Internet Task Group (ILS-DI) Introduction to Library Automation Technical Recommendations visit www.diglib.org/architectures/ilsdi/DLF_ILS_ Discovery_1.0.pdf and for DLF ILS Discovery Internet Task Group (ILS-DI) Technical Recommendations see www.diglib.org/architectures/ilsdi/DLF_ILS_ Discovery_ 1.1.pdf. 1.5.3 Request for Proposals (RFPs) RFPs, developed by different libraries, library associations and ILS experts, are good source of information to trace the recent developments in automated library systems. Study of RFPs helps us to determine requirements, prescribing standards and demanding services from ILS vendors and developers. It acts as a guiding document for ILS developers and library automation managers. A request for proposal (RFP) is a formal request for a bid from suppliers of library systems. The RFP provides the ILS vendor with the outline, purpose, scope, description, minimum service requirements, minimum standards requirements, administration and security issues etc. for the automated library system in a comprehensive manner. The RFP process is useful in identifying the needs and priorities of the library including the future plans related with library automation. The RFP prescribes the resources that need to be acquired, the services that need to be offered, the standards that need to supported, the selection criteria for ILS, and the requirements for the software vendor. It also sets the timeframe for the project of automating a library. A RFP for library automation is a critical document in the process of implementing an ILS. L. T. David (2001) advocated consulting following online resources for developing RFP on ILS: Cohn, John M. and Kelsey, Ann L. Planning for automation and use of new technology in libraries. Online. URL: http://web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/ NIT’96/96-065-Cohn.html Integrated Library System Reports. Sample Request for Proposals (RFPs) and Request for Information (RFIs) for library automation projects. Online. URL: http://www.ilsr.com/sample.htm Kirby, Chris. and Wagner, Anita. The Ideal Procurement Process: The Vendor’s Perspective. Online. URL: http://www.ilsr.com/vendor.htm Planning and Evaluating Library Automation Systems. Online. URL: http:/ /dlis.dos.state.fl.us/bld/Library_Tech/Autoplan.htm Sample RFP. Library HQ. Online. URL: http://www.libraryhq.com/rfp.doc. Self Check Exercises Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below. ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit. 13) Discuss how ILS-DI and OLE recommendations may help in shaping futuristic ILSs......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29 Library Automation 14) What is a RFP? How RFPs may help us in library automation?.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1.6 AUTOMATED LIBRARY SYSTEM: DEVELOPMENT OF RFP You already know what RFP is and how these documents may help us in planning and implementing integrated library system for developing automated library system. It’s already clear to you that the first logical step in library automation is to develop RFP. The RFP acts as a base document in developing automated library system, just as a blueprint helps in developing a building. A comprehensive RFP aims to achieve two broad groups of tasks – 1) guides the library in evaluation of integrated library systems; and 2) helps the library to choose and acquire the most appropriate system. Although not all libraries in India (also in abroad) that purchase ILS prepare RFPs, the process of preparing an RFP helps the library identify its needs, priorities, options and also in setting future course-of-action for ICT-enabled library services. Moreover, it may guide a library in customising open source ILS according to goals and requirements set in RFP, if the library decided to use open source software. Needs for developing RFP You already know that the widespread use of Integrated Library Systems (ILS), global communications via the Internet, increasing numbers of digital library initiatives, availability of web 2.0 tools, rising of cloud computing, evolving of linked open data have made the need for compliance with standards for a library system more crucial than ever. But which standards are important when considering a library system, what services are necessary for next generation library users, what software architecture is suitable for rapidly changing computing environment, what data formats are the most comprehensive? And how can one determine if a commercially available ILS or an open source ILS really complies with global standards related to functional subsystems of a library? Here lies the importance of developing RFP for library automation. The RFP aims to answer these questions through: Setting criteria for evaluating RFP responses and ILS products; Prescribing standards compliance needs; Identifying the current national, regional and international standards including de facto standards; Conforming requirements specific to the library system; Assisting in effective and clear communication between library managers and ILS developers; and Guiding application of relevant standards for major functional areas of library automation, e.g. Bibliographic Format, Record Structure, Information 30 Retrieval, Serials, etc. Components of RFP Introduction to Library Automation The RFP requires being a structured document. The components of a typical RFP are as follows: 1) Background information about the library What are its mission, vision and goals? What services does it offer? What is the size of its collection, circulation and user community? 2) Detailed Statement of needs What are the objectives of the library automation? What are the needs for compliance with standards for a library system? What are the service level requirements? What are the functional requirements? 3) Vendor name and contact addresses and numbers Who are the potential ILS vendors that may satisfy library requirements? How these vendors can be contacted? Who are the third-party service providers for potential open source ILSs? 4) Time frame What are the steps/activities and when should each be finished? What are the priority-level for required activities? What should be the schedule for completion of tasks? 5) Evaluation criteria and method What are the critical factors that must be present? How to frame parameters for evaluating different responses against RFP? What should be the method for evaluating ILS products? 6) Systems requirements and specifications What specific features of the system must be present? What are infrastructural requirements? What are the software-level requirements? 7) Request for quotation What should be the format for quotation? How much will the system cost? What are the conditions for on-site services and updating of software? How to calculate ROI (Return on Investments)? Steps in the development of RFP The above-mentioned components of a typical RFP require to be developed methodically through appropriate steps. David, L. T. (2001) prescribed a set of steps for developing RFP in his guide book entitled Introduction to integrated library systems published by Information and Informatics Unit, UNESCO 31 Library Automation Bangkok, Thailand. The steps are as follows: 1) Needs assessment 2) Studying available ILSs (including open source ILSs) 3) Listing potential vendors of the ILSs (third-party vendors for open source ILSs) 4) Specifying needs and standards compliance 5) Specifying criteria for evaluation for ILSs 6) Developing a time frame for task completion 7) Writing the RFP (with necessary components) 8) Submitting to legal office for comment on contract agreements 9) Rewriting according to the specifications of the legal office 10) Submitting to vendors for requesting proposals 11) Receiving proposals from vendors 12) Evaluating proposals against a set of parameters 13) Preparing a short list of vendors/third-party service providers 14) Requesting a demo of the system 15) Purchasing/commissioning the system 16) Preparing the final contract 17) Implementing the system 18) Evaluating the implemented system. Experts recommend that the actual evaluation (both software and responses received from vendors and third-party service providers in case of open source ILS) must be done by a team, and not by an individual. Time frame for completion of steps needs to bet set and follow strictly to achieve targets. David (2001) suggested a time frame for steps to provide standard length of time need to complete each stage of the process. Table 1.3 is an illustration of the time frame developed by Davis (2001) for the RFP and selection processes. Table 1.3: Time frame for steps in RFP development (source: David, 2001) Steps Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Month 5+ Needs assessment × Studying available ILS × Listing potential vendors of the ILS × Specifying needs × Specifying criteria for evaluation Developing a timeframe × Writing the RFP × 32  Introduction to Library Submitting to legal office Automation for comment × Rewriting according to the specifications of legal office × Submitting to vendors × Receiving proposals from vendors × Evaluating proposals × Preparing a short list of vendors × Requesting for a demo of the system × Selecting your system × Preparing the contract × Implementing the system × Evaluating the implemented system × Self Check Exercises Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below. ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit. 15) What is need of a RFP in developing automated library system? Enumerate essential components of a typical RFP..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16) Discuss the steps for developing a RFP as suggested by L. T. Davis............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................