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Philippine Normal University - Visayas The National Center for Teacher Education Center for Environment and Green Technology Education...

Philippine Normal University - Visayas The National Center for Teacher Education Center for Environment and Green Technology Education Cadiz City, Negros Occidental A. Meaning, Nature and Importance of History ❖ Meaning of HISTORY - originates from the Greek word "historia," meaning knowledge gained through inquiry. At its core, history is an investigation into the past. It involves examining a wide range of sources—including written documents, oral traditions, and archaeological findings—to construct a narrative that explains how and why events occurred. History serves as a record of humanity's journey through time Other Definitions of History o History is a chronological record of events or development of a people, country, or institution o History is the study of the past, a narrative that encompasses the experiences, events, and transformations that have shaped human existence. o History is not merely a collection of dates and facts; rather, it is an exploration of the relationships, ideas, cultures, and institutions that have evolved over time. ❖ Nature of History o History is multifaceted—it is both a narrative of events and a scientific study of the factors that led to those events. o History is inherently dynamic. It is not a static record but a living field of study that adapts as new evidence emerges and perspectives shift. This means that history is subject to reinterpretation and revision. Historical narratives are often influenced by the historian's context, biases, and the societal norms of their time o History is interconnected. Events in one part of the world can have significant implications elsewhere. The rise and fall of empires, trade routes, migrations, and cultural exchanges are all threads in the intricate tapestry of global history. Understanding these connections helps us appreciate the complexities of our world and the interdependence of human societies. ❖ Importance of History o It fosters critical thinking skills. By analyzing historical events, students learn to evaluate sources, distinguish between fact and opinion, and develop arguments based on evidence. These skills are not only vital for academic success but also for informed citizenship in a democratic society o History provides us with a sense of identity. Understanding our past helps individuals and communities define who they are. It connects us to our heritage and gives meaning to our experiences. This understanding foster pride and a sense of belonging. o History serves as a cautionary tale. By examining past mistakes—such as wars, genocides, and economic collapses—we can learn valuable lessons that inform our decision-making today. History reminds us of the consequences of intolerance, discrimination, and neglect. It empowers us to advocate for social justice and to strive for a more equitable future o History enriches our understanding of the present. The issues we face today—climate change, political unrest, social inequality—are deeply rooted in historical contexts. By studying history, we can better understand the origins of these challenges and work towards effective solutions. B. History as a science and as a discipline History is considered as a scientific discipline or endeavor due to its reliance on systematic methods of inquiry and evidence-based analysis. One example of this systematic method is the use of Historical Method or the process of investigating the past. Its various aspect includes the following: 1st – Search for Historical Sources - pictorials/dates/material remains (bones, tools, weapons) oral traditions- myths and legends 2nd – Analyze the sources to infer the facts/analytical process- ✓ External Criticism – deals with the genuineness of the source ✓ Internal Criticism – ascertaining the authors meaning and accuracy and determining the value of the source (written materials); “set the record straight” 3rd – Synthesis – the historian must determine which of the multitude of factors involved in any phase of history are the most relevant to his purpose. Physical and Social Scientists – auxiliary aids to the historian (gathers data and reconstruct the event As a discipline, history encompasses various subfields, each focusing on different aspects of human experience. It is characterized by its interdisciplinary nature Historians often draw from various fields and subfields include sociology, anthropology, economics, geography, political history, social history, economic Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY) Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde history, cultural history, and others to enrich their analyses. Each area of study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the past, allowing historians to interpret complex interactions between different societal factors. This interdisciplinary approach facilitates a more nuanced understanding of historical phenomena, recognizing that events do not occur in isolation but are influenced by a multitude of factors. ❖ History should be studied in Context. Understanding history as a science and a discipline also requires recognizing the significance of context. Historical events do not happen in a vacuum; they are shaped by cultural, social, and political contexts. Context helps historians avoid anachronism, the error of interpreting past events through the lens of contemporary values and beliefs. By situating events within their historical context, historians can provide a more accurate representation of how and why things occurred as they did. C. Methods and Sources of History It encompasses a vast range of topics, timelines, and sources, and employs various methods to analyze and interpret these events. Historical methods are crucial for constructing an accurate narrative of the past. As historians seek to answer complex questions about human behavior, societal change, and cultural development, they rely on specific approaches to investigate these themes. Some of these methods include archival research, oral history, and archaeological analysis. Archival research involves examining documents, manuscripts, and records from the time period under study. Oral history captures personal narratives and accounts, providing a human perspective on historical events. Archaeological analysis uncovers artifacts and physical remnants, offering tangible evidence of past societies. Some core methods also include: A. Chronological Method - The chronological method involves organizing events in the order they occurred. This approach helps historians understand cause-and-effect relationships over time. By establishing a timeline, historians can identify how events influenced one another and explore patterns in human behavior across different periods B. Comparative Method - Historians often use the comparative method to analyze similarities and differences between events, societies, or cultures. This can involve comparing two or more historical events to understand their unique contexts and outcomes. For instance, comparing the French Revolution to the American Revolution can provide insights into the influences of Enlightenment ideas and the role of social class in revolutionary movements C. Thematic Method - In the thematic method, historians focus on specific themes or issues across different periods or locations. This approach allows for a deeper exploration of topics such as gender roles, economic systems, or cultural exchanges. By examining these themes, historians can draw connections between disparate events and uncover broader trends in human history. D. Quantitative History - Quantitative history employs statistical methods to analyze historical data. This approach often involves the use of databases, charts, and graphs to identify patterns and trends. For example, demographic studies, economic data, and social statistics can help historians understand population changes, economic development, and social mobility over time. ❖ Primary and Secondary Sources Sources of historical information can be divided into two categories: primary and secondary. Both types of sources are essential for building a comprehensive understanding of history. A. Primary Sources - Primary sources are original documents or artifacts created during the time under study. They provide firsthand accounts of historical events and are crucial for understanding the context in which these events occurred. Examples of primary sources include: ✓ Diaries, Journals and Letters: Personal writings offer insights into individual perspectives and experiences during specific historical moments. Personal writings that provide firsthand accounts of daily life and experiences, such as Anne Frank's diary. Correspondence between individuals that reveals personal thoughts and historical context, such as letters from soldiers during wartime. ✓ Official Documents: Government records, treaties, and laws provide information about political structures and decision-making processes. Government publications, treaties, and laws, such as the U.S. Constitution or the Emancipation Proclamation. ✓ Photographs and Artifacts: Visual materials and physical objects can reveal cultural practices, technological advancements, and social conditions of a particular time. Images capturing moments in time, such as photographs from the Civil Rights Movement. Physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, or pottery that provide insight into historical cultures. ✓ Newspapers and Magazines: Periodicals from the time can reflect public opinion, societal norms, and significant events as they unfolded. Articles published at the time of an event, providing contemporary reactions and perspectives, such as coverage of the moon landing in 1969. ✓ Oral Histories: Recorded interviews with individuals recounting their personal experiences and memories, often used to highlight marginalized voices. Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY) Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde  B. Secondary Sources - Secondary sources interpret and analyze primary sources. They are typically created by historians or scholars who study the past and offer insights based on their research. Examples of secondary sources include: ✓ Articles/Journals: Scholarly articles often provide in-depth analyses of specific topics, drawing on primary sources to support arguments. Scholarly articles that analyze or critique primary sources or historical events, published in academic journals. ✓ Books: Historical narratives and textbooks synthesize information from various primary sources to present a coherent account of events. History Books: Scholarly analyses of historical events, such as "A People’s History of the United States" by Howard Zinn ✓ Documentaries: Films that narrate historical events can combine various sources, including interviews with experts and visual materials, to create a compelling story. Films that interpret historical events through narration and expert interviews, such as Ken Burns' "The Civil War." ✓ Encyclopedias: Compilations of information summarizing historical topics, such as the Encyclopedia Britannica. ✓ Biographies: Accounts of someone's life that provide context and interpretation, such as "The Life of George Washington" by John Marshall. ✓ Textbooks: Educational materials summarizing historical events and themes, often used in classrooms to teach history. ✓ Reviews and Critiques: Analyses of primary source materials or interpretations of historical events, often published in academic journals or magazines ❖ Challenges in Historical Research While historians have access to numerous methods and sources, they face several challenges in their research: A. Bias in Sources - Primary sources can be biased, reflecting the perspectives of the individuals who created them. For example, a letter written by a soldier during wartime may only present one side of the conflict. Historians must critically evaluate sources to identify potential biases and understand the broader context. B. Availability of Sources - Not all historical events are well-documented. Some periods may lack sufficient primary sources, making it difficult for historians to reconstruct an accurate narrative. In such cases, historians may rely on secondary sources or even oral histories to fill gaps in the record. C. Interpretation of Evidence - Historians must interpret evidence carefully. Different historians may draw varying conclusions from the same set of sources based on their perspectives and methodologies. This subjectivity can lead to debates about historical interpretations, emphasizing the importance of critical thinking in historical studies. D. Approaches to the study of History The study of history is a complex field that encompasses various methodologies and perspectives. Historians seek to understand past events, societies, and cultures through different lenses, leading to a rich tapestry of interpretations. The diverse approaches to the study of history also includes other related disciplines that contribute to the understanding of the human experience. 1. Traditional Historical Methodology - Traditional historical methodology primarily relies on the analysis of primary and secondary sources. Historians utilize documents, letters, official records, and artifacts to reconstruct events and understand their contexts. This approach emphasizes chronological narratives (organizing events in a linear timeline) and often focuses on key figures or pivotal moments in history. For instance, the study of Philippine history may involve examining the books of Rizal or the writings of revolutionary heroes to gain insight into the establishment of the nation. The traditional method often involves a critical evaluation of sources for authenticity and bias. Historians must consider the perspective of the author and the social, political, and economic contexts in which the sources were created. This critical analysis helps to construct a more nuanced understanding of past events and their impacts. 2. Social History - Social history emerged as a reaction to the political and military focus of traditional history. It emphasizes the experiences of ordinary people rather than just notable figures. Social historians analyze various aspects of daily life, such as family structures, work, leisure, and social movements. This approach often incorporates quantitative data, such as census records and demographic studies, to paint a broader picture of society. For example, social historians might explore the lives of women during the Industrial Revolution, examining their roles in factories and households. By focusing on social structures and relationships, this approach allows for a more inclusive understanding of history that recognizes the contributions of marginalized groups. 3. Cultural History - Cultural history examines the beliefs, values, and practices of societies. It investigates how culture influences and shapes historical events. This approach often intersects with other disciplines, including anthropology, literature, and art history. Cultural historians may analyze literature, art, music, and rituals to understand how they reflect and inform societal values. For instance, an analysis of Renaissance art might reveal insights into the societal shifts of the period, such as humanism and the changing role of religion. Cultural history provides a rich context for understanding how cultural expressions influence and are influenced by historical circumstances. 4. Economic History- Economic history focuses on the role of economic forces in shaping historical events. It explores how trade, production, and consumption patterns affect societies over time. Economic historians utilize quantitative methods to analyze data such as trade records, prices, and labor statistics. For example, the study of Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY) Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde the Silk Road involves examining cultural exchange, knowledge infusion of east and west, and the expansion of nations through trade. By understanding economic factors, historians can better grasp the causes and consequences of significant events, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of history. 5. Political History - Political history is centered on the study of political events, movements, and institutions. This approach often involves analyzing laws, treaties, elections, and governmental structures. Political historians focus on how power dynamics shape societies and influence historical outcomes. For instance, the study of the People Power movement in the Philippines involves examining political changes, court rulings, and grassroots activism. Political history provides insights into the mechanisms of power and how they are challenged or upheld throughout time. 6. Interdisciplinary Approaches - Many historians today adopt interdisciplinary approaches, drawing from various fields to enrich their analyses. For example, the integration of psychology into historical studies can provide insights into the motivations and behaviors of individuals and groups. Similarly, the use of geography helps historians understand how physical landscapes influence societal development. The collaboration between history and disciplines such as sociology, archaeology, and gender studies lead to a more holistic understanding of the past. Interdisciplinary approaches allow historians to ask broader questions and uncover connections that may not be immediately apparent through a single lens. Moreover, Comparative history is also a subset of the interdisciplinary approach that involves analyzing similarities and differences between different societies or time periods. E. Other disciplines related to history. History is also interconnected with several other disciplines. The study of history is a complex endeavor that goes beyond just memorizing dates and events. Several disciplines intersect with history, enhancing our comprehension of the past. History is an intricate web of narratives that rely on various disciplines to provide depth and understanding. By examining related fields, historians can gain insights into the social, economic, political, and cultural contexts that shape human experience and offers a more comprehensive view of the past. 1. The Role of Anthropology and Archeology in History - Anthropology, the study of human societies and cultures, provides historians insights into the daily lives, beliefs, and practices of people from different times and places. Archaeology focuses on material remains, offering insights into daily life in ancient civilizations. Anthropologists employ ethnographic methods—such as participant observation and interviews—to gather qualitative data that can illuminate historical narratives. For instance, the study of indigenous cultures through anthropological lenses has revealed how traditional practices and worldviews influence historical events, such as colonization. By examining artifacts, rituals, and oral histories, anthropologists help historians appreciate the complexities of cultural identities and their evolution over time. This anthropological perspective encourages historians to consider not just political events, but also how social structures and cultural practices shape human experiences. 2. The Intersection of Sociology and History - Sociology, the study of social behavior and society. Sociologists analyze patterns of social relationships and institutions, which can shed light on historical movements and transformations. For example, the rise of industrialization and its impact on urbanization can be better understood through sociological studies of class structure, labor movements, and migration patterns. Additionally, sociological theories about social change and collective behavior inform historical interpretations of revolutions and social movements. By applying sociological frameworks, historians can explore how societal forces influence historical events, and conversely, how those events transform social structures. For example, the Civil Rights Movement in the United States can be examined not only as a political struggle but also as a social phenomenon that reshaped race relations and social norms. 3. Economics and Its Historical Significance - Economics is a discipline that focuses on the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Economic history examines how economic factors, such as trade, production, and labor, influence historical development. Historians use economic data to analyze patterns of wealth distribution, the impact of economic policies, and the causes of economic crises. For instance, the Great Depression of the 1930s can be understood through economic theories that explain market failures, government intervention, and the global economic landscape. By integrating economic analysis into historical study, scholars can unravel the complex causes and consequences of historical events, leading to a deeper understanding of societal changes. 4. The Influence of Political Science on Historical Analysis - Political science, the study of government systems and political behavior. It provides historians with tools to analyze political ideologies, governance structures, and power dynamics throughout time. By examining the motivations and actions of political leaders and institutions, historians can better understand the context in which events unfold. The examination of political revolutions, such as the French Revolution or the American Revolution, benefits from political science theories that elucidate concepts like state power, legitimacy, and authority. Analyzing these events through a political lens allows historians to contextualize the struggles for power and the implications of political decisions on societal development. 5. The Contributions of Geography to Historical Understanding - Geography, the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographic factors, such as climate, resources, and location, profoundly influence human activities and historical events. Historians utilize geographical analysis to examine how terrain and environment shape human behavior and societal development. For example, the geographic distribution of resources such as water and arable land has historically dictated settlement patterns, trade routes, and conflict. The study of geography helps historians understand how environmental factors can lead to both cooperation and competition among societies. The rise and fall of civilizations, can be better understood through the lens of geography, revealing how environmental constraints and advantages affect human societies. Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY) Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde Other Related Disciplines - Archaeology focuses on material remains, offering insights into daily life in ancient civilizations. Additionally, fields like political science and economics contribute frameworks for understanding power dynamics and economic systems throughout history. Together, these disciplines create a comprehensive framework for analyzing complex historical phenomena. F. Periods in History History is often divided into distinct periods, allowing for a clearer understanding of the progression of human societies. Common divisions include: 1. Prehistory/ Prehistoric era: The time before written records, divided into three main stages: the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic eras. This period focuses on the development of early human societies and cultures. a) Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age): This was the longest phase of human history, characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies. People created simple tools from stone and lived in small groups. The development of language and art, including cave paintings, illustrates the cognitive advancement of early humans. b) Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age): This transitional phase saw the development of more complex tools and a gradual shift from nomadic lifestyles to settled communities. Mesolithic peoples began to domesticate plants and animals, setting the stage for agricultural practices. c) Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): Marked by the advent of agriculture, this period led to the establishment of permanent settlements. The Neolithic Revolution was pivotal, as it allowed for surplus food production, which in turn facilitated population growth and the development of social structures. 2. Ancient Civilization/History - Following the Neolithic Era, several ancient civilizations emerged, laying the foundation for modern societies. This period is characterized by the development of writing, centralized governments, and complex social structures. It spans from the emergence of written records (around 3000 BCE) to the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE). This period includes the rise of civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. 3. Medieval History: Covering approximately 500 to 1500 CE, this era is characterized by feudalism, the spread of religions, and the emergence of nation-states. a) Classical Period - is marked by the rise of empires and significant cultural developments in Europe, Asia, and Africa from approximately 500 BCE to 500 CE. This era includes notable civilizations such as Greece and Rome. b) Middle Ages - spanning from the 5th to the late 15th century, is often characterized by feudalism, the spread of Christianity, and the rise of Islamic empires. This period saw significant social, political, and economic changes. Significant events include feudalism, crusades, early renaissance. 4. Early Modern History: Extending from the late 15th century to the 18th century, this period includes the Renaissance, the Age of Exploration, and the Reformation. 5. Modern History: Beginning in the late 18th century and continuing to the present, this era encompasses significant events such as the Industrial Revolution, World Wars, and the Cold War. ❖ Historical Timeframes: BC, AD, BCE, and CE Scholars and historians utilize various systems to organize and understand the timeline of human events. Two of the most common designations used are BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini, which translates to "in the year of our Lord"). These terms have been widely used in Western contexts to denote years before and after the birth of Jesus Christ. However, as our understanding of history has evolved, so have the terms we use to describe these periods. ❖ The BC & AD System and the BCE & CE The BC and AD system was established in the 6th century by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus. He created a calendar that centered around the birth of Jesus Christ, marking the years before this event as BC and the years following as AD. The timeline begins with 1 AD, which is considered the year of Christ's birth, while the years before this event are counted backwards from this point. For instance, 500 BC is 500 years before the birth of Christ. Despite its widespread use, the BC and AD system has faced criticism for its religious connotations and Eurocentric perspective. In a globalized world, where diverse cultures and religions coexist, many scholars argue for a more inclusive approach to timekeeping that does not favor one religious’ narrative over others. To address the limitations of the BC and AD system, the terms BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Common Era) have been introduced. BCE corresponds to BC, while CE corresponds to AD. This system maintains the same chronological framework but removes the explicit reference to Christ, making it more secular and universally applicable. The BCE and CE designations have gained traction in academic settings, particularly in works of history, archaeology, and anthropology. They provide a way to discuss historical events without promoting a specific religious viewpoint. For instance, instead of stating that an event occurred in 300 BC, one might say it happened in 300 BCE, allowing for a more neutral discussion of history. ❖ Geologic Time Understanding geological time requires a structured approach to the various divisions used to categorize significant events in Earth’s history. Below are definitions and examples for the major subdivisions of geological time, including eons, eras, periods, epochs, ages, millennia, decades, and others. These various subdivisions of time provide a framework for understanding the complex history of Earth and human civilization. Each category—eons, eras, periods, epochs, ages, millennia, decades, centuries, and others— Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY) Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde serves to categorize significant geological and biological events, helping to convey the progression of life and the evolution of societies through time. By recognizing these divisions, scholars and students can better analyze and interpret both geological and historical narratives. 1. Eons Definition: The largest division of geological time, spanning hundreds of millions to billions of years. Eons are often broken down into eras. The entire age of the earth is divided into four eons: Hadean Eon, Archean Eon, Proterozoic Eon, and Phanerozoic Eon. Example: Phanerozoic Eon (approximately 541 million years ago to present): Characterized by the abundance of fossil evidence and the development of complex life forms. 2. Eras Definition: A subdivision of an eon, typically lasting tens to hundreds of millions of years. Eras are marked by significant geological or biological events. Example: Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago to present): Known as the "Age of Mammals," marked by the rise of mammals and birds after the extinction of dinosaurs. Five Great Era in Earth’s History Era 1. Archeozoic - 4.5 B years - no traces of life, development of the seas and the atmosphere 2. Proterozoic - age of primitive marine invertebrates - soft bodied living things (sponges, corals and jellyfish) Archeozoic and Proterozoic - Pre Cambrian time - bacteria and algae, great volcanic activity 3. Paleozoic- 300 M invertebrates, fishes, amphibians. 500 M First land, animals, forest, seed plants 4. Mesozoic - 140 M - age of reptiles, dinosaurs, flowering plants 5. Cenozoic- 60 M (most recent) - mammals, rise of primates and man’s ancestors; Great Ice Age, fruits, grains and grasses, apes, extinction of mammals and mastodons, man.. 3. Periods Definition: A subdivision of an era, lasting tens of millions of years. Periods are characterized by specific events, changes in climate, and the evolution of life. Example: Jurassic Period (201 to 145 million years ago): Known for the dominance of dinosaurs and the emergence of early birds and mammals. Cenozoic is divided into 2 periods: a) Tertiary - lasted about 6o M years - age of mammals, earliest primates (order of mammals) - apes, monkeys and man developed b) Quaternary - 1M years -appearance of Homo Sapiens 4. Epochs Definition: A subdivision of a period, lasting several million years. Epochs represent smaller time intervals within periods and are often defined by distinct geological or climatic changes. Example: Holocene Epoch (11,700 years ago to present): The current epoch, marked by the development of human civilizations and significant climatic stabilization. Quaternary Period is Subdivided into: Pleistocene - glaciers period - 10000-15000 years ago Holocene - recent epoch- man lives Each stage in animal development took a million years. These living things had to struggle with one another and with the forces of nature in order to survive 5. Ages Definition: A subdivision of epochs, often lasting a few million years or less. Ages can be characterized by specific events or developments within an epoch. Example: Late Pleistocene Age (approximately 126,000 to 11,700 years ago): Characterized by the last glacial period and the presence of large mammals like woolly mammoths. 6. Millennia Definition: A period of one thousand years. Millennia are often used to delineate significant cultural or technological changes in human history. Example: The Third Millennium (2001 to 3000 CE): The current millennium, characterized by rapid technological advancements and globalization. 7. Centuries Definition: A period of one hundred years. Centuries are often used to mark significant historical changes and developments. Example: The 18th Century (1701 to 1800): Characterized by the Age of Enlightenment, revolutions, and the rise of modern science 8. Decades Definition: A ten-year period. Decades are commonly used to discuss trends, cultural movements, and significant events within a shorter timeframe. Example: The 1960s: Notable for the civil rights movement, counterculture, and significant changes in music and fashion in the United States. 9. Chron Definition: A subdivision of time that can refer to a specific span of years or significant events within a broader context. Example: The Age of Enlightenment (late 17th to 18th century): An intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights. 10. Intervals and Phases Definition: These terms refer to specific spans of time, often used to denote significant historical or geological changes within a defined context. Example: The Industrial Revolution (approximately 1760 to 1840): A period marked by significant technological advancements in manufacturing and transportation, leading to urbanization. Course: 2S SOC O3 (WORLD HISTORY) Instructor: Gerly May M. Garde