Work and Organisational Psychology PDF

WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 1 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology What will this lecture be about? - Introduction to Work and Organisational Psychology. - Organisation and the context of its functioning. - The role of psychologist in the context of processes throughout the entire o...

WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 1 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology What will this lecture be about? - Introduction to Work and Organisational Psychology. - Organisation and the context of its functioning. - The role of psychologist in the context of processes throughout the entire organization. - Basic concepts in the field of marketing communication. - Psychology of Advertising and Consumer – introduction. - Ethical business - CSR and ESG. - Psychological contract, work engagement and organisational commitment. - Motivation to work. - The role of supervisor and employees’ psychological well-being. How to survive this lecture? - Lecture format, but with elements of student engagement. - Lecture materials available on Classroom. - Exam: based on the topics discussed in the lecture and literature (see syllabus). - I invite you to consultations: online office hours on Wednesdays from 14:00 to 15:00 or via email. - If you have questions, please ask. - Review before the exam – last lecture. - Is there anything else? WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, OR WHAT? Wybrane definicje pracy: “Psychophysical effort, creative, purposeful, and conscious action of a human being in pursuit of good, which has social significance.” philosophical approach (St. Thomas Aquinas) “Any intentional action that is socially useful or socially significant and ensures a certain position in society.” sociological approach (Szumski, 1981) “Work is the incurring of costs to ensure the acquisition of consumer goods and to achieve benefits. The costs incurred are associated with sacrificing time, exerting effort, enduring hardship, experiencing inconveniences, and forgoing the pleasures of leisure time.” economic approach (Nowak, 2011) “Physical or intellectual activity that is required by society or that one imposes on oneself for a specific purpose.” psychological approach (Sillamy, 1995) (as cited in Rożnowski, 2020) "Work is 'a conscious activity that engages all spheres (physical work, mental work, emotional work), aimed at satisfying the needs of others, while also fulfilling the worker's own needs.'" (Rożnowski, 2020, p. 161) So what is the discipline definition.. Work Psychology (also human resource management) is a philosophy about how people should be manager; it is a strategic, intergrated, and coherent approach to the employment, development, and well-being of people working in organisation (Amstrong & Taylor, 2014) Organisational Psychology (also organisational behaviour) studies what people do in worganisations and how their behaviours affect organisations’ functioning and performance; it focuses on the behavoiur of individuals, groups and organisations in the work situation (Robbins & Judge, 2021) (as cited in Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, p. 2) Job Demands-Resources Theory (JD-R) (Demerouti i in., 2001) A moment about history… Step 1: The Industrial Revolution (turn of the 17th and 18th centuries and the 19th century) – a change in the way humans organize, produce, and exchange goods. Step 2: Scientific Management according to Taylor (turn of the 19th and 20th centuries) – measuring employees' activities to increase work efficiency. Step 3: The era of highlighting the role of interpersonal relationships (1920s and 1930s) – Mayo's experiments, followed by Lewin's studies. Step 4: The period of the "humanized organization" (post-World War II) – McGregor's Theory X and Y, McClelland's and Atkinson's achievement motivation theory, and the participatory management system of Likert. Step 5: The concept of "job enrichment" (1980s – now) – Lawler's research on work motivation." (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, p. 2) WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES FACING WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY? Example: the role of HRM strategy in the organisation’s strategy (Guest et al., 2000, as cited in Armstrong, 2007) WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 2 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology WHAT IS ORGANISATION? The origin of the term and definition organizo (latin) – creating orderly, harmonious wholes organisatio (latin) – system Organisation is a structured system, composed of four basic elements (subsystems): - goals - technology - people - structure (Daft, 2015) Characteristics of an organisation: planned establishment to achieve specific goals in accordance with regulations or procedures, formalized structure, clear division of labor, distinct centers of power, exchange of personnel, dominance of material relationships (roles fulfilled, rather than individuals). (Szacka, 2003) LEAVITT’S DIAMOND MODEL OF ORGANISATIONS (1965) (as cited in Wigand, 2007) Some important definitions.. A goal is a specified, future, desired state or result of the organization's actions, which is possible and anticipated to be achieved within a time frame or period that falls within a long-term or short-term action plan. A mission is the subject of aspirations, i.e., the enduring objectives of the organization, usually defined in its statute or strategy, as the scope of its socially desirable activities. An organizational structure refers to the various organizational relationships that encompass different elements of the organization, defining the way tasks are divided, coordinated, and integrated, the relationships associated with the division of authority and responsibility, as well as work processes and communication methods within the organization. Different models of organisational structure (Robbins & Judge, 2024) HOW ELSE CAN WE LOOK AT ORGANISATIONS? Metaphores of organisations by Gareth Morgan - The Machine Metaphor - The Organism Metaphor - The Brain Metaphor - The Culture Metaphor - The Political System Metaphor - The Psychic Prison Metaphor - The Flux and Transformation Metaphor - The Instrument of Domination Metaphor (Morgan, 2006)  Organisation as a social group Management Perspective Psychological Perspective An organisation is a structured system A social group is a collection of individuals: composed of: - among whom there is direct interaction - goals and tasks - who have a common goal - people - who recognise shared norms - material and technological resources - within the group, there exists a structure - formal structure - individuals in the group have a sense of group distinctiveness from others (Leavitt, as cited in Wigand, 2007) (Mika, 1984) The advantage of thinking of an organisation as a social group… - internal bonds become key - the focus is on people within the organization - the functioning and effectiveness of the organization rely on the good utilization of group processes - important aspects include: group cohesion, trust, adherence to group norms, effective conflict management, and active engagement of all team members. LABOUR MARKET GENERATIONS IN THE LABOUR MARKET Baby Boomers - born between 1943 and 1965 - this generation enjoys a positive image among employers and is seen as hardworking and loyal to their employer - work is at the center of their value system - key motivators include financial security and fear of job loss - they have no issues working overtime or sacrificing their personal time for their employer (Kozłowski, 2016) Generation X - born between 1965 and 1979 - characteristics of this group include struggles with finding employment and adapting to a new reality - they entered a job market occupied by the previous generation while facing high unemployment, which led to rebellion and a denial of work as a value - often, individuals from this generation intentionally do not seek employment or only look for jobs that allow them to survive, sometimes expecting assistance from the government (Kozłowski, 2016) Generation Y (Millennials) - born between the late 1970s and the mid-1990s - this generation is the first to have similarities across most countries due to the Internet and highly developed communication networks - they are task-oriented, love working towards specific goals, ideally ones that are not too distant and realistic, yet still challenging - this generation is aware of its own worth, does not give up easily, climbs the career ladder, but moves away from the 'rat race' and values private life - they are highly efficient, take on many tasks, and are mobile (Kozłowski, 2016) Generation Z (digital natives) - born between the early 1990s and the mid-2010s - they grew up in an environment dominated by new technologies, in a world where access to interactions and the time required to connect with acquaintances has significantly shortened - this generation is described as extremely impatient, multitasking, and oriented towards continuous interaction - they can effectively manage their attention and focus it on the most important aspects of tasks without sacrificing the quality of the results (Kozłowski, 2016) WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 3 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology SELECTED ASPECTS OF THE ROLE OF A PSYCHOLOGIST IN THE CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES But let’s start with the research… study objective: to examine the relationship between employee engagement at the business/work unit level and work performance outcomes a meta-analysis including 736 studies, 347 organizations across 53 industries, among employees from 90 countries Results (Harter et al., 2024) Conclusion the relationship between engagement and performance at the business/work unit level is substantial and highly generalisable across organisations employee engagement is related to each of the 11 performance outcomes practitioners can apply the Q12 measure in a variety of situations with confidence that the measure captures important performance-related information (Harter et al., 2024) The Q12 statements are… (Harter et al., 2024) And so… Human Resource Management is a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an orgnisation’s most valued assets – the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives. (Armstrong, 2014) What should be important for a psychologist working in the HR department? emphasis on strategic human resource management a comprehensive and coherent approach to mutually supportive employment policies and practices importance placed on employee engagement in achieving the organization's mission and values treating people more as assets rather than costs recognition that employee and employer interests are aligned assigning HRM responsibilities to line managers (Armstrong, 2014) Responsibilities of HR department… rectuiting and staffing workforce planning and succession planning employee onboarding HR policy development training and development employee engagement and well- performance management being compensation and benefits diversity and inclusion complience and legan issues exit management employee ralations (own compilation) Tasks of a work and organisational psychologist in a broaden context… explaining individual, group, and organisational behaviour meansuring behaviour and predicting potential contributing to individual, group, and organisational development translating research findings and empowering potential users thereof (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022) COMPETENCIES OF WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022) THE ROLE OF THE PSYCHOLOGIST IN THE CONTEXT OF HRM The role that psychologist in HRM can play in an organisation (Storey, 1992) Another model… (Ulrich, 1997) Case: job description What range of actions will the psychologist carry out in this task? What further steps should she take? WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 4 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology PSYCHOLOGY AND MARKETING Marketing is “the set of strategies and activities by which companies acquire and engage customers, build strong customer relationships, and create superior customer value in order to capture value from customers in return”. (Kotler et al., 2023, p. 5)  The marketing process Engage Understand customers, Capture value Design a Construct an the build from marketplace customer integrated profitable customers to value-driven marketing mix and customer relationships, create profits marketing that delivers needs and and create and customer strategy superior value wants customer equity delight (Kotler et al., 2023) Core customer and marketplace concepts needs – states of felt deprivation wants – the form human needs take as they are shaped by culture and individual personality demands – human wants that are backed by buying power market offerings – some combination of products, services, solutions, and experiences offered to a market to satisfy a need or want exchange – the act of obtaining a desired object from a person or an organisation by offering something in return market – the set of all actual and potential buyers of a product or service (Kotler et al., 2023) Traditional marketing: a reactive consumer control of at least four business instruments: 1) product, 2) price or contract terms, 3) place, and 4) promotion – the so-called marketing mix (4P concept) the model can be extended with additional elements, such as processes, physical evidence, and people it assumes one-way communication with the customer, moving from marketing stimuli (marketing mix) to the buyer’s response consumer responses depend on mediating variables such as age, gender, economic status, education, personality traits, perception processes, learning, emotions, motivations, and attitudes (Fortuna, 2020) AN EXPANDED MODEL OF THE MARKETING PROCESS (Kotler et al., 2023) Digital marketing: e-consumer e-marketing is the process of planning, organising, and executing marketing activities online to meet customer needs while simultaneously achieving organizational goals this approach has given rise to a new type of buyer—the e-consumer or digital consumer it also marks a shift in the marketing mix, such as offering new types of services online and supplementing products with services available through virtual channels (Fortuna, 2020) Marketing 4.0 change in consumer status from reactive to active consumers now take on various roles: as buyers, users, and sources of marketing information Word-of-Mouth Marketing (WoM and eWoM) is a form of informal communication where buyers exchange positive and negative information about organizations, brands, employees, and offers the current goal of Marketing 4.0 is to shape buyers into propagators (Fortuna, 2020) Increasing customer engagement occurs through: 1. Combining online and offline interactions between the company and the customer 2. Mixing different content and styles in building brand identity 3. Utilizing artificial intelligence and machine-to-machine interactions 4. Fostering human interactions EXAMPLE: REAL-TIME MARKETING EXAMPLE: REAL-TIME MARKETING COMPANY ORIENTATION TOWARDS THE MARKET Concepts that guide companies in their marketing activities: production concept – the idea that consumers will favour products that are available and highly affordable, organisation should focus on improving production and distribution efficiency product concept – the idea that consumers will favour products that offer the most quality, performance, and features, organisation should devote its energy to making continuous product improvements selling concept – the idea that consumers will not buy enough of the firm’s products unless the firm undertake a large-scale selling and promotion effort marketing concept – a philosophy in which achieving organisational goals depends on knowing the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired satisfaction better than competitors do societal marketing concept – the idea that a company’s marketing decisions should consider consumers’ wants, the company’s requirements, consumers’ long-run interests, and society’s long-run interests (Kotler et al., 2023) CUSTOMERS’ NEEDS What does it mean when a client asks about…? “Cheap” refrigerator? “Good” powder? “Fast” internet? “Nice” coat? “Quiet” hotel? 5 types of needs: declared needs (the customer wants a cheap vacuum cleaner) real needs (the customer wants a vacuum cleaner with low operating costs, e.g., a bagless one, but not necessarily at a low price) unvoiced needs (the customer expects good service from the seller in the store to provide advice) pleasurable needs (the customer would like the seller to include scented inserts with the purchase of the vacuum cleaner at no extra cost) discreet needs (the customer wants to be perceived by friends as a conscious consumer who bought a good vacuum cleaner at a reasonable price) (Kotler, 2005) Market segmentation is “dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers who have different needs, characteristics, or behaviours and who might require separete marketing strategies or mixes”. (Kotler et al., 2023, s. 194) Segmentation procedure: 1. Stage of research through survey studies 2. Data analysis stage, most often through factor analysis and cluster analysis 3. Profiling stage – naming segments based on various characteristics Major segmentation bases for consumer markets geographic segmentation: nations, regions, states, countries, cities, neighborhoods, population density (urban, suburban, rural), climate demographic segmentation: age, life-cycle stage, gender, income, occupation, education, religion, ethicity, generation psychographic segmentation: lifestyle, values behavioural segmentation: usage occasions, benefits, user status, usage rate, digital proficiency, online activities, loyalty status (Fortuna, 2020) MARKETING IN NON-PROFIT ORGANISATIONS BASIC ACTIONS What should be taken care of when conducting marketing for a non-profit organization? a dedicated website and SEO (Search Engine Optimization) efforts appropriate content marketing, such as a professional blog email communication with audiences, focused on donor acquisition, education, and support for online fundraising social media presence is important, with key aspects to define, including the purpose of the presence, the target audience, the chosen social media platforms, the frequency and type of content to be published, and monitoring statistics! also, engaging with users is crucial paid advertising, including Google Ads or paid promotions on social media (own work) WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 5 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology ADVERTISING AND ITS EFFECTS What is advertising? is “a paid, mediated form of communication from an identifiable source, designed to persuade the receiver to take some action, now or in the future”. (Richards & Curran, 2002) Advertising as an element of promotion promotion – a process aimed at informing, persuading, and influencing consumer decisions related to purchasing. other forms of promotion include public relations activities, acquisition, direct marketing (such as telemarketing and personal selling), and supplementary promotions. - what distinguishes advertising from other forms of promotion: - indirect and impersonal communication: advertising delivers messages to consumers through paid media, without personal interaction. - legal requirement for paid space: advertising requires payment for the media space where messages are placed, a regulated aspect distinguishing it from other promotional forms. (Albin, 2000) Marketing-mix and promotion-mix CLASSIFICATION Personal presentation Sales acquisition OF PROMOTION Intesity of contact with the consumer Direct communication TOOLS Salesperson’s attitude Intermediary acquisition Trade fairs and exhibitions Customers acquisition Public Relations Advertising Sponsorship Internet Merchandising POD advertising Publicity Traditional advertising Brand identity elements References Product placement Application for consumable products Application for non-consumable products (Mantura, 2000) Promotion planning is a multi- step process 1. Mission 2. Market 3. Money MODEL 6M 4. Message 5. Media 6. Measurement (Lal i in., 2005) Classification of advertising ATL: refers to a form of marketing that targets a wide audience through mass media BTL: marketing activities include promotional events, direct mail campaigns, and targeted advertising TTL: involves using both ATL and BTL marketing strategies to create a comprehensive, integrated campaign that targets a wide range of consumers across multiple channels (Solomon, 2024) AMBIENT MEDIA (EXAMPLES) AMBUSH MARKETING (EXAPLMES) GUERILLA MARKETING (EXAMPLES) CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR (Engel et al., 1968 as in: Jisana, 2014) What does the purchase desision-making proces look like? Does a consumer, when seeking information from the environment during the purchase decision-making process, tend to selectively notice arguments that align with their initial hypothesis while ignoring those that do not? Does a consumer make purchase decisions in a simplified, less rational way, or for reasons they may not be fully aware of? Does the vast number of products available today, from which consumers can choose, mean that individual factors play a very important role in decision- making? THE MORE, THE BETTER consumers are more likely to choose products from brands that offer a wide assortment additionally, they rate these brands more favorably than those with a narrower range of products TOO MUCH CAN BE OVERWHELMING an excessive number of choices can be dysfunctional – it may hinder decision-making and reduce consumer satisfaction with the purchase made. Examples of areas of interest in consumer behavior psychology Perception - how do consumers perceive and process information about products? Emotions – what impact do negative emotions have on the effectiveness of social advertising? Motivation – how important are the needs for belonging and individuality in brand choices? Attitudes – what is the relationship between attitudes toward products and brands and purchasing decisions? Decisions – what is the decision-making process when consumers have either little or a large amount of information? Personality – what role do individual differences play in reactions to marketing messages? (Stasiuk & Maison, 2014) LET'S APPLY PSYCHOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE TO ADVERTISING... AIDA model Attention Interest Desire Action (Sugiyama & Andree, 2010) Attention – what can be done? Catchy headline – for example, one that suggests a solution to a specific problem and is filled with strong emotions. Intriguing introduction – for example, by highlighting a unique selling point, a new product, or suggesting that you have a solution to a problem the customer is facing. Personalized phrasing – for example, "Are you looking for the best job offer?” Metaphoric language and sharp negation of literal meaning in imagery – for example, a clash of visual elements that creates a sense of surprise, novelty, or "similarity in dissimilarity." Interest – what can be done? Clarity of content – for example, through engaging subheadings and bullet points. Storytelling – drawing the customer into our story. Formulating answers to potential questions that the customer may ask. Using data and statistics that will confirm the credibility of the message. Ensuring consistency between the image and the content. Desire – what can be done? Providing examples, emphasizing benefits and advantages. Appealing to the needs and expectations of the customer. Building associative connections. Provoking to make judgments. Indicating consequences and outcomes. Action – what can be done? Using a call to action tailored to the target audience, for example, "Let's get to know each other," "Contact us," "Sign up for our newsletter," "Buy now," etc. More elaborate call to action supplemented with an additional persuasive message, such as "If you want to learn more about the product, contact us," "Have any questions? Write to us – we'll gladly clear up your doubts," "By using this offer now, you get a 10% discount on your purchase." AISAS model Attention Interest Search Action Share (Sugiyama & Andree, 2010)  ELM model (Elaboration Likelihood of Persuasion) The choice of persuasive technique depends on: The degree of motivation to purchase the product (engagement with the purchase, likelihood of purchase). The cognitive abilities of the recipient. The attitude toward the product (rational vs. emotional). The recipient's perceptual capabilities. (Petty i in., 1983) Example: the important of attention processes in advertising Emotions in advertising - the co-occurrence of information with positive emotions is important for more favorable evaluations of ads and their memorability, although when negative emotions are present, the information is processed more thoroughly (Maison et al.., 2006) - positive emotions attract attention, but they can also serve as a distractor, diverting attention away from the information being conveyed (Dyga, 2001) - negative emotions play a different role – various negative emotions, such as sadness and anger, can lead to different decision-making choices (Rucker & Petty, 2004) (as in: Stasiuk i Maison, 2014) WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 6 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology CSR WHAT IT IS? CSR (corporate social responsibility) is defined as a business approach that contributes to sustainable development by delivering economic, social, and environmental benefits for all stakeholders. (Carroll, 1979) The essence of CSR… … involves the organisation taking responsibility for the consequences of its business decisions and actions within the environment and society to uphold principles that contribute to sustainable development, societal health, and well-being. Factors contributing to the development of CSR: increased stakeholders awareness and expectations regulatory and governmental pressure globalisation and supply chain transparency regulation and brand management risk management (Chudzicka-Czupała, 2020) Important areas of CSR: External Area of the Organization: Investor Relations: such as reliability and quality of information provided to investors Customer Relations: including customer acquisition, advertising, and loyalty programs Production and Service Environment Relations: covering approaches to handling business partners, mergers, and acquisitions processes Internal Area of the Organization – focused on resource management and directed toward employees, such as resolving workplace conflicts, supervisor- subordinate relations, and prevention and resolution of workplace bullying Environmental Context – activities aimed at improving environmental conditions, preventive measures, and pollution prevention (Rok, 2013; as cited in: Chudzicka-Czupała, 2020) CSR tools: Community Engagement Initiatives: such as collaborating with local organizations on programs for children and youth Eco-Friendly Initiatives: implementing environmentally sustainable technological processes Social Campaigns: raising public awareness on specific topics, such as consumer education Employee Programs: promoting equal opportunities through flexible employment arrangements Quality Management Systems: e.g., ISO 14000 (environmental management systems) Employee Volunteering: involving employees in activities such as renovating a playground at a children's home Supply Chain Management: implementing standards for business partners Product Labeling: informing consumers about the environmental impact of products, such as bathroom cleaners (PARP)  Stage / Level of CSR CSR activities Amorality, self-interest, The organisation does not engage in CSR activities unsupportive culture Limited morality, enlightened The organisation engages in CSR activities, but self-interest (economic and legal these are driven by a sense of duty, legal responsibility) requirements, and clear social expectations – the organisation's primary goal is profit generation Morality, concern for others, The organisation strives for harmony between supportive culture (ethical economic goals and ecological and social responsibility) objectives, meets societal and employee expectations, and is guided by the principle of sustainable development Morality expressed through The organisation adopts CSR as its overarching concern for the world, people, strategy, and all aspects of its operations are and all living beings aligned with it (own work based on Chudzicka-Czupała, 2020) The key to Recognising the social consequences of one's own effective CSR activities Identifying opportunities to benefit both society and the company Selecting CSR actions that would guarantee the best outcomes and a significant improvement in the organisation's competitive position CSR ACTIVITIES: EXAMPLES „Share a meal” (Danone) Start: 2003 Program objectives: funding hot meals for the most needy children raising social awareness about the scale of child malnutrition in Poland inspiring actions that can help reduce this issue Actions by Danone: direct consumer engagement, where the purchase of products marked with the program logo results in Danone funding a specific number of hot meals social mobilization through participation in the Nationwide Food Collection "Share a Meal," carried out in cooperation with Food Banks civic mobilisation in local communities – Danone allocates financial grants Project outcomes: 1 million hot meals for children 16 grants supporting local initiatives (Responsible Business Forum) „Less plastic” (Credit Agricole) Start: 2020 Program objectives: increasing social awareness about the issue of plastic waste production promoting and teaching eco-friendly habits collecting plastic waste introducing business solutions to reduce plastic waste production Actions by Credit Agricole: launching the first eco-friendly card made from materials that decompose faster than plastic sponsoring Dawid Podsiadło's concert tour and collaborating on a project to produce and auction vinyl records made from plastic waste organising a waste collection event involving company employees and volunteers from outside the company Project outcomes: over 500 employee volunteers and 1,000 non-bank participants engaged in the waste collection around 2,000 kg of plastic waste collected (Responsible Business Forum) Creation of a Beehive, Flower Meadows, and Tree Planting (Aldi) Start: 2019 Program objectives: funding initiatives undertaken by the Gaja Club in collaboration with the State Forests, including tree planting and the creation of flower meadows raising awareness and sensitizing consumers to the role of bees and other pollinators in human life Actions by Aldi: partnering strategically with the Gaja Club on initiatives, including tree planting and the establishment of an educational beehive preparing land and planting flower meadows at Aldi store locations Project outcomes: over 10,000 trees planted (data over 3 years) creation of flower meadows covering over 50 m² (data for 2021) (Responsible Business Forum) Course on Well-being (Carlsberg Polska) Start: 2022 Program objectives: psychological and developmental support for company employees Actions by Carlsberg: providing employees with webinars, podcasts, and training in 4 areas of support: professional, physical, psychological, and social enabling employees to have online consultations with psychologists, psychodieticians, or business mentors Project outcomes: 400 employees participated (Forum Odpowiedzialnego Biznesu) Benefits of responsible business sustainable growth atracting and retaining talents enhanced reputation and brand loyalty increased customer satisfaction access to capital legal and regulatory compliance ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance) refers to the concept that businesses should be evaluated and managed based on not just their financial performance but also their impact on the environment, society, and governance structures. (Galbreath, 2012) Indicators for assessing ESG: ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL GOVERNANCE CO2 Emissions: The total amount Working Conditions: Workplace Management Structure: Composition of greenhouse gases emitted by safety, employment levels, wages, of the board, independence of the the company. and employees' social conditions. supervisory board, transparency in the selection of leaders. Energy Consumption: An Human Rights: The company’s indicator showing how much Business Ethics: Indicators related to policy on respecting human rights, energy the company consumes combating corruption, bribery, and avoiding forced labor or child labor. and what proportion comes from other unethical practices. renewable sources. Equality and Diversity: The Financial Transparency: How the Water Management: The amount participation of women, people company reports its financial results of water used and methods of its from different ethnic groups, and and the mechanisms of its internal protection and purification. people with disabilities in control. employment and management. Waste Management: Recycling Risk Management: Risk management indicators, waste reduction, and Local Community systems, particularly in the context of management of hazardous waste. Engagement: Cooperation and compliance with regulations and crisis investments in the development of management. Biodiversity: The impact of the company’s activities on local communities. Compensation Policy: Transparency ecosystems and the protection of in compensation, including the ratio of Employee Satisfaction: Surveys biological diversity. executive pay to employee pay. and indicators related to employee satisfaction. (Armstrong, 2020) WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 7 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT...it is the perception that the employer and employee have about their mutual relationship, including what can be expected from the other party and what obligations one has towards them (Adamska, 2020, p. 405) A positive assessment of the employer’s fulfillment of obligations leads to positive outcomes affective, e.g., a sense of psychological safety, identification with the organization attitudinal, e.g., job satisfaction, attachment to the organization behavioral, e.g., fulfilling duties related to the role. (Adamska, 2020) Basic principles of labour law (Labour Code, Journal of Laws from 1974, No. 24, Item 141, Act of June 26, 1974) Art. 10 § 1. Everyone has the right to freely chosen work. No one, except in cases specified by law, can be prohibited from practicing a profession. § 2. The state determines the minimum wage for work. § 3. The state pursues a policy aimed at achieving full productive employment. Art. 11. Establishing an employment relationship and determining working conditions and pay, regardless of the legal basis for this relationship, requires a mutual declaration of will by the employer and the employee. Art. 111. The employer is obliged to respect the dignity and other personal rights of the employee. Art. 112. Employees have equal rights for fulfilling the same duties; this particularly applies to the equal treatment of men and women in employment. Art. 113. Any form of discrimination in employment, whether direct or indirect, especially based on gender, age, disability, race, religion, nationality, political beliefs, union membership, ethnic origin, religious affiliation, sexual orientation, or the type of employment (fixed-term or indefinite, full-time or part-time) is unacceptable. Art. 13. An employee has the right to fair remuneration for work. The conditions for realizing this right are determined by labor law provisions and the state’s wage policy, particularly through the establishment of a minimum wage. Art. 14. An employee has the right to rest, which is ensured by regulations concerning working hours, days off, and vacation leave. Art. 15. The employer is obliged to provide employees with safe and hygienic working conditions. Art. 16. The employer, depending on possibilities and conditions, meets the employees' basic, social, and cultural needs. Art. 17. The employer is obliged to facilitate employees in raising their professional qualifications. Art. 18. § 1. The provisions of employment contracts and other acts on which an employment relationship is based may not be less favorable for the employee than the provisions of labor law. § 2. Provisions of contracts and acts referred to in § 1, which are less favorable for the employee than the provisions of labor law, are invalid; the relevant provisions of labor law shall apply instead. § 3. Provisions of employment contracts and other acts on which an employment relationship is based that violate the principle of equal treatment in employment are invalid. Instead of such provisions, the relevant provisions of labor law shall apply, and in the absence of such provisions, these provisions must be replaced by appropriate non-discriminatory provisions. Can these formal provisions be considered as part of the employer’s obligations included in the psychological contract? Właściwości kontraktu psychologicznego subjective develops and changes over time has cognitive limitations formed based on observations made considered from an individual perspective (Alcover et al.. 2016) WHAT CAN THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT BE ABOUT? Examples of content Employer’s obligations Employee’s obligations Safety at work Taking on tasks beyond the job requirements Interesting and challenging job Performing assigned tasks with full engagement Favorable conditions for teamwork Helping other team members Support in developing new skills Developing new skills Support with problems related to job Loyality responsibilities Autonomy in the workplace Suggestions for innovative solutions (Adamska, 2020) Two types of psychological contract Relational: Transactional: includes elements related to the includes content related to material socio-emotional aspects of and financial aspects organizational reality focuses on short-term exchange focuses on long-term does not require deeper involvement commitments in relationships (Coyle-Shapiro & Kessler, 2000) Determinants of the content of the psychological contract: Individual characteristics of the employee: engagement in the adaptation process and proactivity equity sensitivity neuroticism conscientiousness and self-esteem Role of the social and cultural context: organizational culture, business strategy, presence and activity of trade unions, and HRM practices (Adamska, 2020) Consequences of a psychological contract breach: decreased well-being increased intention to leave the organisation reduced job satisfaction and trust in the organisation weakened organisational commitment greater cynicism towards the organisation decline in the quality of work performed (as cited in: Adamska, 2020) ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT AND WORK ENGAGEMENT Organisational commitment... the psychological bond of the employee with the organization, represented by emotional attachment to the organization, a sense of loyalty towards it, and the intention to remain a part of it. (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012) Organisational Commitment Model by Meyer i Allen affective commitment – reflects the desire to identify with the organization and engage in its affairs and issues continuance commitment – is instrumental in nature and relates to the belief that leaving the organization would be too costly normative commitment – is associated with a sense of moral obligation to continue employment. (za: Łaguna i in., 2015) Different types of commitment occupational commitment career commitment job commitment Work engagement... a positive, satisfying, work- related state of mind characterized by vigor, absorption, and dedication. (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) Components of work engagement by Schaufeli and Bakker vigor – associated with energy, mental resilience, and a willingness to invest effort in work absorption – refers to being focused and fully engrossed in work, to the point of losing track of time, yet retaining the ability to stop when needed dedication – relates to being deeply involved in work, accompanied by a sense of its importance, feelings of enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and viewing work as a challenge (as cited in: Łaguna et al., 2015) Job Demands-Resources Theory (JD-R) (Demerouti et al., 2001) Different types of engagement job involvment work involvement employee engagement WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 8 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology THEORETICAL BACKGROUD Job Demands-Resources Theory (JD-R) Personal Resources Job Demands: Job Resources: work pressure (tight deadlines, heavy autonomy (control over how tasks are workload) performer) emotional demands (dealing with difficult support (from coleagues, supervisor, customers, emotionally taxing situations) organisational policies) role conflict (conflicting expectations, opportunities for development unclear responsibilities) (trainings, mentorship programs) physical demands (prolonged standing, feedback (constructive information about repetitive movements) performance) (Demerouti et al., 2001) What happens when there are too many job demands or resources? Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Demands Resources Demands Resources Demands Resources The most optimal (Hakanen i in., 2005) Pay attention to these relationships (Demerouti et al., 2001) Affective Events Theory (AET) (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) BROADEN-AND- BUILD THEORY ( B B T) - positive and negative emotions play different roles in shaping people’s repertoires of thought and action - positive emotions broaden individuals’ views of their environment - negative emotions narrow people’s repertoires of though and action (Fredrickson, 2001) NEGATIVE ORGANISATIONAL PHENOMENA Stress in the Workplace a few important terms Stress – a generally unpleasant perception and appraisal of stressors Stressor –conditions or events that an individual perceives as challenging or threatening Strain – the psychological, physiological, and behavioral consequences of stress Challenge stressors - stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency Hindrance stressors - stressors that keep you from reaching your goals—for example, office politics, and confusion over job responsibilities (Robbins i Judge, 2024) A model of Stress (Robbins i Judge, 2024) Stress and Employee Physical and Mental Health cardiovascular problems weakened immune system decreased productivity musculoskeletal and gastrointestinal issues absenteeism sleep disturbances presenteeism anxiety and depression higher turnover rates emotional distress workaholism burnout (Robbins i Judge, 2024) Burnout is a work-related mental health syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. (Maslach i in., 2001) Antecedents of burnout Situational: job demands such as role conflict, work overload, and role ambiguity can contribute to workplace stress (Alarcon, 2011) lack or limited job resources, such as support from colleagues and supervisors, opportunities for development, feedback from supervisors, the ability to work on varied tasks, and autonomy at the workplace can also lead to stress and burnout (Bakker et al., 2005) Individual: hardiness, locus of control, Type A personality, self-esteem, achievement motivation (Schaufeli i Enzmann, 1998) neuroticism and extraversion (Judge i in., 2000) self-efficacy, positive and negatve affectivity, optimism, and proactive personality (Alarcon i in., 2009) (as cited in: Bakker i in., 2014) Consequences of burnout Health-related: depressive and anxiety disorders, alcohol addiction, musculoskeletal disorders, and cardiovascular diseases (Ahola, 2007) symptoms of depression and dissatisfaction with life (Hakanen i Schaufeli, 2012) sleep disorders, headaches, respiratory infections, and gastrointestinal infections (Kim i in., 2011) Work-related: decrease in work performance (in-role job performance) but only when linked to the dimension of emotional exhaustion (Taris, 2006) higher absentieeism (duration, not frequency)(Schaufeli i in., 2009) (as cited in: Bakker i in., 2014) Preventing burnout reduction of job demands increase in job resources strengthening of individual employee resources training in job crafting training in leveraging strengths training in recovery techniques (as cited in: Robbins i Judge, 2024) Job crafting …helps the employee restore meaning in the tasks they perform, thereby increasing engagement. The employee takes responsibility for their well- being at work and for ensuring the meaning in what they do on a daily basis. 3 main areas in which an employee can shape their work: the nature and manner of performing the work the way of thinking about the work workplace relationships (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001) IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANISATIONS AND MANAGERS  Both stress and health have substantial legal, financial, and effectiveness implications— managers would do well to have a stress and health management strategy. Resist the temptation to consider stress as uniformly a challenging, productive, “good” feeling. Encourage employees to proactively and constructively manage their health by getting enough good quality sleep and staying home and resting when they have contagious illnesses (or if their performance could be affected). Although job insecurity cannot be avoided, recognise its effect on employees as a stressor. Drastic cost-cutting measures like downsizing can reduce morale through its effect on job insecurity. To reduce burnout and other psychological distress, discourage workaholism and encourage employees to focus on their health and safety as major priorities. When addressing health issues in your organization, consider the effects that demands and resources have on the experience of strain and engagement, along with the factors that can help (e.g., autonomy, support). (Robbins i Judge, 2024, p. 657) WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 9 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivation is....a set of forces originating both from the person and from outside of it, these forces initiate behavior, determine its forms, direction, and intensity, as well as its duration. (Latham i Pinder, 2005) WORK MOTIVATION EARLY APPROACHES Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory only unmet needs influence human behaviour human needs are organised in a specific hierarchy an individual's needs are arranged in 5 levels, and satisfying lower-level needs allows for the achievement of higher levels the hierarchical system of needs is dynamic (Maslow, 1943, as cited in: Chrupała-Pniak, 2020) Theory X and Theory Y by McGregor Theory X: Assumes that people have an inherent dislike of work, that individuals are lazy at work, lack ambition, and tend to fake their engagement. Theory Y: Based on the assumption that work is as natural an activity for people as play or rest, and that individuals are naturally ambitious, eager to work, and diligently perform their duties. (McGregor, 1960, as cited in: Chrupała-Pniak, 2020) Herzberg’s Two- Hygiene factors are characterised by their "external" nature and Factor Theory relative independence from the individual; they are beyond the individual's control and are part of the work environment; if these factors do not reach a minimum acceptable level, they result in job dissatisfaction Motivational factors are the key elements that evoke a sense of satisfaction from performing the work (Herzberg, 1968, as cited in: Chrupała-Pniak, 2020) McClelland’s Need need for achievement: sets the level of aspirations and goals that for Achievement a person strives for in relation to Theory social standards need for power: manifested by the desire to exercise control over others and influence tchem need for affiliation: defines individuals' aspirations for cooperation and close interpersonal relationships (McClelland, 1965, as cited in: Chrupała-Pniak, 2020)  Vroom’s Expectancy Theory valence: the attractiveness of the reward, encompassing the subjective significance of the received reward for the individual instrumentality: the subjective probability of achieving the reward (goal) expectancy: the assessment of the effort required to achieve the goal and the probability of reaching it (Vroom, 1964, as cited in: Chrupała-Pniak, 2020) WORK MOTIVATION IN THE DIRECTION OF SELF-DETERMINATION Self-Determination Theory core assumptions a human being is naturally active and engaged, enjoys exploring new things, and taking action three universal human needs are identified, the fulfillment of which is essential for ensuring proper functioning and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2008) Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation the search for activity and activates human activities based engagement in it for its own sake on factors that are externally the activity does not lead to controlled or partially internally external rewards controlled generates spontaneous aperson engages in behaviors satisfaction and joy because they strive to obtain an represents the natural tendency attractive reward or seek to avoid of an individual to seek novelty, punishment challenges, learning, and improvement (Ryan & Deci, 2000) Continuum of motivational states (adapter from Ryan & Deci, 2000) WHAT ABOUT EXTERNAL REWARDS? Do external rewards really decrease an employee's intrinsic motivation? What we know from research? intrinsic motivation is an important predictor of job performance, and even after the introduction of external motivators, it does not disappear (Cerasoli et al., 2014) extrinsic motivation is a stronger predictor of better job performance in the case of quantitative tasks (Jenkins et al., 1998) external rewards can both increase and decrease intrinsic motivation depending on the conditions (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Lepper et al., 1999) external rewards do not necessarily weaken creativity; in some situations, they can enhance it (Byron & Khazanchi, 2012; Lin et al., 2022) Satisfaction of the needs for autonomy, competence, and relationships with others at work is positively related to: professional well-being job satisfaction work engagement intention to stay in the organization higher job performance and productivity and negatively related to burnout (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Van den Broek et al., 2008; as cited in: Chrupała-Pniak, 2020) APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT EMPLOYEES MOTIVATION TO PRACTICE Performance Management is an ongoing process of communication between a manager and an employee that occurs throughout the year, to support accomplishing organisational strategic objectives and the development of the employee. The process includes clarifying expectations, setting objectives, identifying development needs, providing feedback, reviewing results and creating a transparent link between the individual’s contribution and the rewards received. It is designed to engage, retain and motivate employees. (own material) Roles and responsibilities Managers Employees Human Resources ✓ Ensure quality Conversations, as frequently ✓ Ask for, be prepared for and ✓ Communicate, schedule and as needed—at least once per quarter participate actively in the support activities Conversations ✓ Agree on SMART Team and Individual ✓ Provide ongoing coaching, Objectives ✓ Understand how the criteria which training and assistance to you are measured on link to the ensure high quality experience ✓ Facilitate Conversations through coaching Organisational Strategy ✓ Facilitate Round-table ✓ Assess the Performance, Development and ✓ Seek feedback on performance and meeting, ensuring a Talent of employees in People Review development comfortable atmosphere and ✓ Contribute to employee’s assessment ✓ Provide feedback to the manager safe discussion environment discussions, providing feedback, sharing impressions and challenging appropriately ✓ Take ownership of your own ✓ Coach and challenge development managers to inspire critical ✓ Share with employees their Performance and thinking and deeper ✓ Feel recognized and rewarded (STI & agree on Individual Development actions understanding ASR) for performance ✓ Recognize and reward the performance in a ✓ Analyze data and ensure ✓ Document Conversations, Objectives transparent and fair manner. transparency and Development Plan in the System ✓ Document Conversations, Objectives and Development Plan in the System ✓ Work to continuously improve performance and capability Ongoing conversations This includes Employee’s Actions Scheduling meetings as frequently as Be prepared for the meetings - have a list of topics, needed update current status of Objectives and Individual Using the Conversation Guide to check Development Plan actions in on the 3 areas; Since last meeting, Review your own achievements and lessons learned Current status and Looking Ahead during the year Reviewing, at least once a quarter: Request others feedback to increase your self- The status of your Objectives and awareness Individual Development Plan Document self-review, conclusions and others’ feedback in the System under “Feedback” Your current performance Your career aspirations Outcome for an employee Work Conditions, and any other Your personal and professional growth things that influence your wellbeing at work Understanding of the link to the Organisational Strategy and what is Giving and receiving feedback expected of you in the coming years Receiving coaching from your manager Input to your Performance “Feedback” feature to collect multiple Input to Individual Development Plan perspective feedback and Input to the People Review documentation of conversations and self-review Feedback summarising and documenting conversations Recognition – Conversations – Managers can give Employee and Our Behaviors manager can badges to the document employees in their conclusions during structure the year Employee can make the Self Review Manager can throughout the year, request Feedback substituting the task from anyone, e.g. in the end of the year Employee, Dotted- Line Mgr. or Peer Employee can request Feedback from anyone for themselves Individual Development Plan This includes Creation of Development objectives Employee’s Actions with actions or trainings to close the Analyze the competence gaps identified gaps based on: Create an Individual Development Plan Competencies required for current Complete the actions and/or trainings position Share your inputs—achievements, barriers, as well as Competencies required to achieve required changes—during the the System career aspirations Evaluate effectiveness of your actions, at least once a Our Behaviors that support year, and define new Development objectives with development and objectives actions or trainings 70-20-10 Model A competence gap analysis performed Outcome for an employee by you and your manager during a Your personal and professional growth conversation Understanding of the link to the Completion of the defined actions Organisational Strategy and what is and/or trainings expected of you in the coming years On-going follow-up during Input to your Performance Conversations Input to the People Review Evaluation of the IDP effectiveness Documentation of competencies for TS Requirements Individual Development Plan three elements competencies required for the current job position and role within the organisation competencies needed to achieve the employee's developmental aspirations behaviors stemming from organisational values Individual Devepment Plan 70:20:10 model Objective setting This includes Employee’s Actions Organizational Objectives, which are Understand the business priorities and propose assigned by your Manager—usually Team/Individual objectives measured by organisation’s financial Understand your contributions and how they link to statements the overall achievements of the team and overall Team/Individual Objectives - Organisation results developed in the dialogue between Work to achieve excellent results your manager and you. Final approval Share your inputs—achievements, barriers, as well belongs to the manager as needed changes—during the conversations with Alignment between you and your your Manager manager on the Rating Criteria to describe performance expectations based on a 5-point scale Outcomes Weighting of Objectives by the Your personal and professional growth manager, to reflect the importance of Final Objective Rating to be used in the organizational, team and individual calculation of the Short Term Incentive objectives Understanding of the link to the Rewarding of your results based on Organisation Strategy and what is expected Pay-for-performance - better results of you in the coming years mean a better short-term incentive Input to your Performance payout Input to the People Review  Objective setting stretched objective rating criteria Level 1 - Not meet the objective at all Identify your baseline/starting point – minimum/threshold performance (0%) Level 2 - Only meet a portion of the objective Calculate half way between level 1 and 3 (50%) Level 3 - Meet the objective Set an ambitious target based on the principles of the SMART model (100%) Level 4 - Exceed the objective Calculate half way between level 3 and 5 (125%) Level 5 - Significantly exceed the objective Calculate half way between level 1 and 3, then add on top of level 3 (150%)-Maximum Rating Criteria Operations Sales Purchasing Level of improvement Scale Reliability Net Sales Supplier lead time 1 Threshold 0% 92.0% 12.0 mEUR 37.0 days 2 50% > 93.5% > 13.5 mEUR < 34.5 days 3 Expected Outcome 100% > 95.0% > 15.0 mEUR < 32.0 days 4 Improvement 125% > 95.8% > 15.8 mEUR < 30.8 days 5 Improvement (max) 150% > 96.5% > 16.5 mEUR < 29.5 days People Review People Review performance rating People Review performance rating scale Overall Rating Description Performance Employee fails to meet performance expectations as agreed in performance Does Not Meet objectives or improvement plan, or for overall duties and contribution to team 1 Expectations success. Employee does not demonstrate Our Behaviors and/or requires high degree of direction setting. Employee meets most performance expectations as agreed in performance Meets Most 2 objectives, and for overall duties and contributions to team success. Often acts Expectations in line with Our Behaviors. Requires direction setting. Employee meets performance expectations as agreed in performance Meets objectives, and for overall duties and contributions to team success. Regularly 3 Expectations demonstrates Our Behaviors. Requires limited direction setting and is self- driven. Employee significantly exceeds performance expectations as agreed in Exceeds performance objectives, and for overall duties and contributions to team 4 Expectations success. Achieves significant results. Proactively demonstrates Our Behaviors. Actively contributes to direction setting. Consistently Employee achieves outstanding results which are above and beyond performance expectations as agreed in performance objectives, and for overall 5 Exceeds duties and contributions to team success. Influences others to demonstrate Expectations Our Behaviors. Motivates and coaches others to set direction.  Rewards - ASR & STI payout Annual Salary Review includes: Short Term Incentive program includes: Conversation between you and your Conversation between you and your manager about the manager about your performance and results of your Team/Individual Objectives, and results of compensation Organizational Objectives Recommendation of your salary increase Assessment of all of your objectives resulting in the Final based on your performance and your Objective Rating country frame The Final Objective Rating corresponds the percentage of 4 eyes principle—your manager decides the your STI target you should receive. This is called Attained STI increase and your manager’s manager percentage approves it The Attained STI % is multiplied by your Accumulated Base Salary and the result is your STI Payout Outcomes for an employee: Outcomes for an employee: Feedback on your Performance Feedback on your objectives results Possible salary increase in April based on STI Payout in April your Performance Differentiation of high performers—higher reward when Differentiation of high performers—higher performance targets are met or exceeded and lower performers have the potential to receive a reward when performance targets are not met higher base salary increase, significantly above lower performers WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 10 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology THE ROLE OF SUPERVISOR IN AN ORGANISATION The bases of power coercive power – based on the ability to apply punishment or the threat of punishment, for example, demotion, withdrawal of privileges, or termination of employment reward power – derived from the ability to provide rewards for desired behaviors or outcomes, such as bonuses, recognition, or promotions legitimate power – Stemming from a person's position, role, or function within an organizational hierarchy, giving them the right to issue commands, e.g., a manager's authority expert power – Linked to possessing specialized knowledge, skills, or expertise that others recognize as valuable referent power – Arising from identification with or admiration for a person in power due to their charisma, attractiveness, personal authority, or ability to build relationships (Carson et al., 1991; as cited in: Wojcieszke, 2011) Who is a supervisor? - Leader? - Manager? - Director? - CEO? - Head Leader?  Leadership Management The leader's task is to create an The manager's task is to develop inspiring and unifying vision, establish strategies and set goals, organize networks of genuine communication, human resources and create an build trust, and empower others organizational structure, as well as (Kożusznik, 2005), as well as to develop solve problems and oversee their future leaders (Kotter, 2005). subordinates in the implementation of plans (Kotter, 2005). (as cited in: Kożusznik et al., 2020) Management functions planning organising motivating controlling (Penc, 1998) LEADERSHIP THEORIES Trait theories leadership is associated with older age, verbal fluency, better academic performance, intelligence, originality in problem-solving, dominance, the ability to accept the consequences of one's decisions, a high degree of responsibility, self- confidence, optimism, and a readiness to alleviate frustration and tension (Stogdill, 1974). the traits of a leader include the ability to adapt to situations, sensitivity to the social environment, ambition, a drive for achievement, assertiveness, self- confidence, and a collaborative attitude (Yukl, 1990). leadership behaviors are most strongly linked to extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and neuroticism (Judge et al., 2002). Behavioural theories the leadership style, understood as a set of relatively stable behaviors, significantly determines managerial success Likert’s typology of management Blake and Mounton’s managerial grid (1981) styles (1961) concern for people authoritarian style concern for tasks authoritarian benevolent style consultative style participative style (as cited in: Kożusznik et al., 2020) Situational Leadership the effectiveness in achieving both organizational and personal goals results from a leadership style that not only meets the demands of the situation but also addresses the needs of subordinates for whom the style is applied the model emphasizes the importance of the environment, particularly the maturity of subordinates—specifically their readiness to take on tasks there are four leadership styles identified: directing, coaching, supporting, delegating (Hersey & Blanchard, 1977) FULL RANGE OF LEADERSHIP (AVOLIO & BASS, 1991) Transactional leadership the approach focuses on the search for mutual interests and benefits, while fulfilling needs based on individual skills and abilities it involves setting and negotiating exchange rules defined by the mutual expectations of both parties, in this context: employees expect rewards for completing tasks or seek to avoid punishment for failure or improper execution. the leader maintains a privileged position due to their role within the organization, reinforcing their authority and influence. this style of leadership emphasizes transactional relationships, where both the leader and employees engage in a quid pro quo arrangement, seeking to balance benefits and expectations Transformational leadership the leader shapes and elevates both goals and capabilities to improve the functioning of the organization through shared interests and joint actions, they are characterised by: Idealized Influence: the leader serves as a role model, inspiring respect and trust Inspirational Motivation: communicate a compelling vision, uniting and motivating the team Intellectual Stimulation: the leader encourages innovation and challenges conventional thinking. Individualized Consideration: focus on the personal growth and needs of each team member a key aspect is a strong personal identification with the leader and a collective commitment to the group's vision the leader aims to connect emotionally with employees by inspiring, spreading knowledge, and motivating them Laissez-faire approach the leader either delays decisions or avoids making them altogether, in such cases: delayed decision-making: the leader permits or accepts situations where decisions are postponed or not taken at all resistance to change: the leader exhibits resistance to change and apathy, often showing a tendency to be more reactive rather than proactive in their leadership style avoidance of responsibility: the leader may avoid their responsibilities associated with managing employees, demonstrating a lack of involvement in directing or guiding the team this style often leads to low morale or confusion within the team, as employees might feel unsupported or directionless  THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND WELL-BEING OF EMPLOYEES What do we know from research? leadership behaviors explain 29% of job satisfaction (Chiok Foong Loke, 2001) the transactional leadership style increases work-related tension and contributes to higher levels of perceived stress among employees (Salem, 2015; Dartey-Baah & Amporo, 2015) in contrast, transformational leadership negatively correlates moderately with stress (Harms et al., 2016) the laissez-faire leadership style generates the strongest negative emotions (Einarsen, 1999) the dimensions of transformational leadership, specifically intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and idealized influence, positively correlate with a lower likelihood of employees wanting to leave their jobs (Nyberg et al., 2005) DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT STAFF Main goals of management development improving leadership skills enhancing organisational effectiveness succession planning building a positive organisational culture adapting change personal development (Armstrong, 2007) Effective management development includes: personal initiative organisational initiative initiative of the head leader (Mumford, 1993) Methods used in management development: Training programmes Coaching and mentoring Job rotation Leadership development programmes Feedback and self-reflection Succession planning Assessment and Development Centres (Armstrong, 2007) EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP QUALITY Emotional Intelligence components self-management – the ability to control destructive impulses and moods, direct them, and regulate one's behaviour, it involves the capacity to pursue set goals with energy and perseverance self-awareness – the ability to recognize and understand one's moods, feelings, and impulses, as well as their impact on others social awareness – the skill to recognize the emotional state of others and respond appropriately to their emotional reactions social skills – proficiency in managing relationships and building networks to achieve desired outcomes and personal goals, this also involves the ability to find common ground and foster positive relationships (Goleman, 1999; as cited in: Armstrong, 2007) Steps in developing emotional intelligence assessment of the requirements of a given position assessment of the emotional intelligence level of individual employees assessment of the readiness for change convincing employees that learning will bring them benefits encouraging employees to independently manage change focusing on clear, achievable goals preventing the repetition of mistakes providing feedback encouraging practice presenting models of desired behaviors encouraging and reinforcing assessing the outcomes of learning (Goleman, 1999; as cited in: Armstrong, 2007) WORK AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 12 Aleksandra Penza, MSc in Psychology Well-being a positive state associated with experienced emotions and the evaluation of a specific area of life, in the case of occupational well-being – one's work (Deci & Ryan, 2008) Hedonic and eudaimonic occupational well-being? a high frequency of experiencing meaning in work, a conscious pleasant emotions and moods at pursuit of personal goals, and work while rarely experiencing actions performed at work that align negative emotions and moods, with or stem from the employee's along with a high level of job deeply rooted values. satisfaction. But a small problem arises... Is an employee's occupational well-being driven by person-job fit or person-organization fit? Job satisfaction as job attitude Job satisfaction – an evaluative state that expresses contentment with and positive feelings about one’s job Job attitude – evaluations of one’s job that express one’s feelings toward, beliefs about, and attachment to one’s job Attitude - a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor (of which job attitudes are examples) (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012) Dimensions of job satisfaction the work inself pay opportunities for promotion supervision cooworkers (Smith et al., 1969, as cited in: Winkler, 2009) Determinants of job satisfaction Environmental factors: job characteristics (variety of skills used in the job, task identity and significance, autonomy, and feedback) (Hackman & Oldham, 1975) the nature and scope of duties (Christen et al., 2006) characteristics of formal communication within the organization and the quality of interpersonal relationships (Makin et al., 2000) Individual factors: core self-evaluation (Judge et al., 2000) alignment between the employee's values and organizational culture (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005) The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) Emotions at work Five categories of emotions that can be adopted into work and organizational psychology: unpleasant feelings (e.g., anger, rage, envy, jealousy) existential feelings (e.g., fear, guilt, shame) feelings triggered by unfavorable situational conditions (e.g., sadness, frustration, depression, hope, relief) feelings triggered by favorable situational conditions (e.g., joy, excitement, happiness, pride, love) empathetic feelings (e.g., gratitude, compassion) (Muchinsky, 2000) Affective Events Theory (AET) (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) Job-related Affective Well-Being Scale (JAWS) Meaning of work Perceiving one's work as important, a subjective experience that includes three key elements defining it as meaningful work: the work must have significance for a personal reason (personal meaning) the individual must feel that their work enhances the meaning of life and is even an important source of meaning for life as a whole (building meaning through work) the ability for the employee to perceive their impact on something larger and objectively good for others, society, etc. (greater good) (Steger & Dik, 2009) Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI) A high level of employee well- being is associated with... more efficient use of work time increased quality of work improved interpersonal relationships at work loyalty to the employer civic attitude towards the organization increased organizational innovation. (Ford et al., 2011)