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Intro to developmental psych + research strategies > - Development is the systematic changes that occur in an individual between conception + death - temporary mood ,...

Intro to developmental psych + research strategies > - Development is the systematic changes that occur in an individual between conception + death - temporary mood , swings changes in appearance thoughts , behaviours are excluded - Continuity : The ways in which we remain the same > - Understanding change is properly understood by looking at the we remain the same and ways the we do ways. not The 2 processes involved in developmental change I Maturation The of the. : biological to unfolding individual their species typical/ according individual's > ex : - biological inheritance talking at 1 Sexual , development at 11-15 , rough age we die at included ; ie ↳ Psychological changes are. concentrating , solving problems understanding , thoughts + feelings. 2 Learning Whereexperiences produce relatively our : Permanent changes in our feelings , thoughts and , behaviours * Change behaviours is a response to the in our environments (actions/reactions of those around) > Children - actively seek to create of understandings their environments ex : language learning pulling , sounds , meaning , and rulesthat use our govern. Children ↳ actively contribute to their own development by interpreting a given situation differently. I e triggering different.. reactions/ Selectingdifferent environments * Development is always the joint function of maturation , learning , and the active individual Describing development happens through typical patterns of change (normative) and on individual variations in patterns of change Lideographic) -A question they seek to answer is why ? big ↳ Why people develop the way that they do ↳This can help individuals develop more in positive development) ways (Optimizing Development is a continual life-long process * The first 12 years are extremely Important to how a person will experience adolescence and adulthood Holistic : The aspects of physical Cognitive , , social a / eachother All of person are dependent on. which should be looked at to fully understand the 'Why' question Plasicity positive : the capacity for change in response to or negative life experiences Historical/cultural context : different social classes, cultures, races ethnic , groups , play huge roles in the socialization of individuals. ↳ also reliant on major societal changes , wars , technology, environment. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1908) : a founder of experimental Psychology It defined as a scientific discipline "long past but short history " With a a ↳ developmental questions approaching from an empirical approach rather thanphilisophical came (in the late 19th century) Hobbes (1651/1904) : Children are inherently selfish egoists Rousseau (1762/1955) : Children are born innately Pure with intuitive senses of right vs. wrong and this Society corrupts Locke (1690/1913) : Children are a blank slate with inborn tendencies no they're , neither good nor bad. Baby biographies Charles Darwin : Kept records of his son's development ↳ believed that young , untrained infants share characteristics withtheir non human ancestors ↳ has now been discredited Jean Plaget Studied his 3 kids to find more : fine-grained methods for studying the development of logical thinking in children Scientific method : uses describing explaining and , S Optimizing development as goals for answering questions , ↳ Reliability and validity A Clinical method : tests a hypothesis by presenting the participants with a task/stimulus and then inviting a response Other memods : structured Interview naturalistic , observation structured observation , case studies , , time-sampling , ethnography Psychophysiological methods : measures the physiological responses and behaviour this is to understand a - child's perceptual , Cognitive , and emotional responses. ↳ primarily used in infants and toddlers who can't report events heart rate , brain function , sleep.. ie. cycles ↳ reveals Cognitive abilites that are not present in Their verbal responses ↳ mood , hunger , fatigue can disrupt this however , researcher can't know for sure what Kid's attention Caught the  Correlational find design : whether 2 or more variables are meaningfully related Correlation numbered coefficient : way of showing positive/negative relationships between variables. ↳ if the sign is positive , this means one variable increases , the other does too - r = 0. 00 , means they're not systematically related - ex : -0 70 and 0 70 are of.. equal strength ↳ will be than 0 30. stronger. Experimental design participants behaviours are measured : When change has been introduced into their environments Confounding variable : a pre-existing control quality or aspect ↳ experimental : ensuring all variables that could effect the dependent variable are. Controlled Random assignment : When each research equal of exposed participant has probability being to each treatment. Strength ↳ : Ability to establish unambiguously that one ↳Weakness : thing causes another controlled labs don't allow Lightly kids to express themselves naturally * It's possible that conclusions drawn from labs don't to the real world always apply ↳ to counteact this doing a field experiment , where ecological validity can be found ecological validity : fin ang One's research an acurate representation of processes that occurs in a natural environment Natural /or quasi) experiment utilizing naturally : events to answer research questions as Occuring opposed to them (not ethical) creating artifically observe/record the R they merely apparent outcomes of a natural event Cons & : hard to determine precisely what factor is responsible for what responses Reliability VS. Validity Reliability Does the test : time ? give consistent outcomes each Validity : Does the test Them to measure really ? measure what you want Cross Sectional design subjects from different : Where age groups are studied at the same point intime Conort groups of people who are the same age and : exposed to similar cultural environments/historical events growing up * cohort effects in cross sectional research : differences observed between age groups be due to development may not changes overtime but rather different experiences/historica contexts ↳. ↳ ex : Studies show intelligence declines with age , but later research shows there's a difference in education levels in conorts than true intelligence changes It's hard to distinguish age-related changes versus specific characteristics of different age groups * Cross sectional studies cannot be used as predictors of behaviour. Simply for certain points in time.  longitudinal design : The same participants being observed over a period of time ↳ pros : you can assess the Stability (continuity of various attributes for each person ↳ can identify normative developmental trends/ processes by looking for commonalities ↳ Cons : can be costly and time consuming Howes Matheson : found + children who engage in more complex forms of play were also rated more and less outgoing aggressive 3snowingthatcomplexityofpretendpyincreases social competencies can threaten the Practice effects : validity of longitudinal studies > - participants can become familiar with procedures and can display performance improvements that are unrelated to normal patterns of development. Selective attrition the loss of participants during : astudy resulting in a non-representative sample Sequential design : a research design where subjects from different are studied age groups repeatedly overtime (months years) ,  > allows researcher - to assess conort effects by Children comparing of the same age but born in. diff years. -> In the of conort effects this absence , study specifically allows researchers to make strong statements about Strength/direction of developmental changes Microgenetic studies : participants are studied intensively over a short period of time as developmental changes occur In attempts to how changes. specify or why those occur & Cons : the intense experience may stimulate development that in the real world wouldn't naturally occur Ethics in research : Based on... I. Autonomy. Non-maleficence 2 3. Beneficience Can be ↳ ethically justified through benefit to risk ratios (minimal risk) Chapter 2 : Theories of human development Scientific a set of concepts and theory propositions : that describe , and explain a set of organize , Observations & theories indevelopmental psych range from broad to more specific issues Good Theories are concise or parsimonious but be , able toexplain broad a range of phenomena -Falsifiable a theory that is able to make explicit : Predictions about future events which can be supported or disconfirmed ↳ They are also heuristic : means that they build on existing knowledge by continuing to generate testable hypotheses leading much to - richer understandings. The 7 broad theories I. Psychoanalytic Theories - Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) : proposed that human motives and conflicts that we're nature is driven by unaware of and that our personalities are shaped life experiences by early & Psychosexual Theory : maturation of the sex instinct underlies of stages personality development  The manner in which parents ↳ manage their child's instinctual impulses determines the traits that child will display ->He used unconscious motive to reveal feelings , experiences , and conflict that influenced their thinking that they're unaware of #Humans have basic sexual drives that must be served , yet dictates that of these society many drives are undesirable and need to be restrained = How parents deal with these from their urges kids influences the kid's personality. , 3 components of (Frend) 1 ID : present personality birth it serves the function only at , of i.e. satisfying Inborn biological drives. crying when hungry. 2 Ego :The conscious and rational component of The personality , shows their abilities to perceive , learn , remember , and reason. 3 Superego : the component of personality that consists of your internalized moral Standar as · Psycho sexual development > if - parents permit too much or too little gratification of sexual needs would cause the child to fixate on that , activity  ↳ ex : infant that was strongly discouraged to Suck on their thumb , will show oral fixation habits in adulthood , Oral Sex etc Smoking , ,. Erik Erikson's (1963) theory of psychosocial development - 1982 ↳ Revision of Freud's theory emphasizes sociocultural , (rather than sexuall determinants of development in the form of conflicts that need to be resolved successfully of display healthy psychological adjustments stages crisis psychosocial 1. Basic Trust (birth-1 year (. mistrust vs 2. Autonomy Vs Shame and doubt (1-3 year) - Failing to acheive independence can illicit feelings of self-doubt. Initiative US 3 guilt (3-6 years). ↳ taking on responsibilities beyond their capacity which conflicts with parents Successful resolution and. learning can eliminate guilt 4 4. Industry. vs Inferiority (6-12 years) & When the child will compare themselves to peers academically. Without learning the proper social/academic skills to feel self-assured leaves them feeling inferior. Identity vs role confusion (12-20 years) 5 " "who Social/work > - understanding am I ? Creating identities will them as adults in what roles to play guide. 6 Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 years) ↳ forming strong friendships/relationships to achieve a sense of love and companionship. 7 Generativity vs Stagnation (40-65 years) & The stage where they maintain productivity or risk Stagnation in work Unable or unwilling. to assume responsibilities (looking after younger gen) will 8 Stagnant/self centred become.. (old age) Ego integrity VS despair ↳ looking back on life in a positive or negative light. One's social experiences determine the outcome at this stage. Learning Theories - Behaviourism outlines that human : development should be based on controlled observations of Denaviour rather than speculation about unconscious motives/unobservable phenomena (Watson& 1913) > Habits - Well-learned associations : according to Watson , between external stimuli and observable responses That the stable aspects of one's represent personality. Skinner's operant theory (1953) stated that learning : humans and animals will repeat acts that lead to favourable outcomes and supress those that lead to unfavorable outcomes. Reinforcer anydesirable consequence of an act that : increases the probability that the act will recur Punisher : any consequences of an act that Suppresses that act and /or decreases the probability that it will recur Operant learning : a form of learning where voluntary acts become either more or less probable depending on the consequences they produce. Bandura's Cognitive social learning Theory & He argues that people are cognitive beings (active information processors) - unlike animals are likely - to think about the relationship between their behaviour and its consequences I Learning Theories PROS CONS > - very precise and Has over-simplified -> testable human development by > able to understand - the how kids react to environ downplaying contribution of. important influences emotional , biological in fluences attachments , adopt gender roles , make friends , learn moral ruses & provided Clinical insights Cognitive development age-related changes that occur : in mental activities such as attending perceiving, learning, , thinking and remembering , Piaget (1950) - Cognitive Structure (scheme) : an organized pattern of thought or action thata child constructs to make sense of some aspect of his or her experience infant who ex : a hungry grasps a bottle and brings it To their mouth > - Piaget Thinks humans of assimilation continually rely on both the process and accommodation to adapt to environments. - assimilation a process where children interpret new : experiences by - schemes incorporating them into their existing - accommodation : a process where children modify their to new existing schemes to incorporate or adapt experiences 4 of development (Piget) stages Cognitive I. Sensorimotor (birth-2 years) ↳ acquire a sense of self and others, understand Object permanence internalize , Denavioural schemes to produce images/mental schemes. 2 Preoperational (2-7 years)  ↳ When children become Imaginative in their play , begin to understand others don't always perceive the world the do > uses - waytothey their symbolism represent/understand environment. Concrete operational (7-11 years) 3 - - They aquire the use of logical thought to understand the basic properties/relations among objects and events in the world everyday I &They get better at inferring motives by observing other's benaviour 4. Formal operational (11 + years) & able to ponder issues and become hypothetical may idealistic & They're able to systematically deduct reasoning and come up with multiple solutions to problems and the answer Pick right. ↳ able to think about thinking. Sociocultural theories Lev Vygotsky's theory : stated that children acquire beliefs , and problem their culture's values , solving Strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society > a child - first social interaction with others and then learns through is able to control their gradually learning.  zones of proximal development : the range of tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone but can be accomplished with and guidance from more skillful individual encouragement a Information - processing perspective : the human mind is like a computer where information flows in , processed , and then converted to output ↳"Hardware" : refers to the brain and the peripheral nervous system ↳ "Software" : refers to the mental processes such as attention , , perception memory , and problem solving strategies Ethological and evolutionary theories > Arnold Gesell (1880-1961) - : he believed that Children were like plants and would "bloom" followed a time table laid out in their where they genes ↳ he that how parents raised thought of their children was little importance Ethology The study : of bioevolutionary behaviour and development bases of  (1969 1973) John Bowlby founder of attachment : , theory of , he believed that children benaviours display a variety preprogramed - Ethologists believed that were biologically programmed to certain actions to respond in particular ways baby crying it a > - Emotional attachments don't happen automatically - Infants have to learn faces in order to become Emotionally attached Critical period : a limited time Span where organisms of are biologically development prepared to display patterns Sensitive period period of time that is optimal for : development of specific capacities in environments that foster these attributes * for ex : the first 3 of a child's life years are they vulnerable to the effects of emotional particularily responsiveness. Evolutionary Theory : the study of the bio evolutionary basis of behaviour and development , with a focus on survival of the genes - humans adapt to use these tools to shape their environments to their needs > - Ethologists made major methodological contributions I human development in normal everyday Studying settings 2 development that of. Comparing human with other species * Infants are sociable creatures who can sustain social interactions and promote them - this contrasts behaviourists who Infants portray as 'asocial Ecological System Theory : Bronfenbrenner's model that the emphasizes developing person is embedded in a series of environmental systems that interact with one another and with the person to influence development ↳ he assumes that natural environments are a big influence on developing persons ↳ developing persons are said to be the Center of several environmental systems ↳ from immediate such as ranging settings the family to more remote contexts such as The broader culture Microsystem : Bronfenbrenner's Innermost environmental layer consists of immediate - role relationships/activities) (including settings That that actually encounters person Bronfenbrenner's model of the ecology of environments >The - Mesosystem the connections or interrelationship : among microsystems (schools , homes peer groups) , * The Second of Bronfenbrenner's environmental layers or contexts >The - 3rd environmental the contexts exosystem : layer , That children are not part of but still influence their development -The Macrosystem larger Cultural/subcultural/social : context in which microsystems , mesosystems , and exosystems are embedded -The emphasizes chronosystem : this that changes in The child or in of the ecological contexts of any can affect the direction that development development is likely to take - How Family fits in : & families are considered social systems and is a holistic structure - they're a complex network of relationships , interactions and patterns of influence that characterize a familywith 3 or more members - There's debates on the > theory of nature us. Nurture >Also debates on the - - Whether children theory of activity/ passivity are active contributors to their own development or they're passive Continuity/discontinuity theorists issue debate developmental : a among about whether changes are quantitative and continuous or qualitative and discontinuous. - Positional aspect of Stability : an continuity where the stability of an individual's relative position in a with characteristic group regard to a psychological ex : babies that are highly irritable and cry a lot compared to others may result in lower emotional Stability as adults. >Absolute - no in a person's attribute Stability change : over the course of development Theories and world views > Mechanistic model - : View of children as either passive entities whose developmental paths are mainly (environmental) influences determined by external > - children are active entities Organismic model : whose developmental paths primarily are determined by forces from within Themselves Contextual model : the > - interplay between nature and nuture influences - Developmental system view : assumes the bidirectional influences between biological Ongoing , and social systems that snape the psychological , course of an individuals self development. Chapter - Hereditary Influences on Development 3 > Basic - background terms & Genotype : genetic endowment that an individual inherits ↳ which Phenotype : the ways In a person's genotype is expressed in observable or measurable characteristics & epigenetics dynamic: operation that changes a gene Without the DNA altering sequence From the beginning... - starts at conception once the sperm meets the , egg new cell is formed called a a zygote BDNA is made up of genes - We have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) Base pairs : DNA has 2 strands comprising base pairs complementary Then... & The zygote begins to replicate itself through mitosis (When a cell duplicates its chromosomes divides into 2 and then genetically identical cells * daughter This cell separate until there's 46 continues to chromosomes (Chromatid : the original or duplicate of a chromosome)  Also... There are which also form at the germ cells same time which serve one function which is gamates (sperminmale ova in female) produce to , & gonads sexual organs that produce germ : cells -> Gamates develop through a process of meiosis = where cells divides I germ producing gamates - Sperm/ova) that each contain half of the parent's cell reproduction of cells (producing sperm/eggs) (growth , replacement repair) , leggs-once a month) (sperm-continuously) Production of gamates through meiosis > in - cell regular division (mitosis) , a cell duplicates its 40 chromosomes and then splits to form 2 identical cells. >But in the special - kind of cell division for cells (spermlegg) germ something different happens. =>once the chromosomes are duplicated , the chromosomes matching from the momt dad Will pair up  ↳ Thesepairs then exchange small parts in a process called "crossing over" which mixes up The genetic information ↳ This helps create unique combinations of genes in The germ cell which is important for , genetic diversity in the offspring Twins (Monozygotic) - When the zygote Splits into separate but identical cells Fraternal twins (dizygotic) - When 2 eggs are released at the same time and each is fertalized by a different sperm - They don't have more genes in common than regular Siblings 3 main patterns of genetic inheritance and now they Affect how the are displayed 1. genes Simple dominant-recessive inheritance/alleles. 2 codominance /2 heterozygous but equally powerful alleles. sex-linked inheritance 3 are expressed equally) Sex-linked characteristics attribute determined by a : recessive that appears on the X-chromosome gene - more likely in males Polygenic inheritance The most ↳ important human characteristics are influenced by many pairs of alleles and are called traits polygenic This includes height , weight ↳ intelligence , skin , colour , temperment and susceptibility to cancer. , -These traits aren't just 'black and white' there's infinite possibilities in the middle The role of epigenetics > - DNA makeups Can be identical (like in twins) yet they can still show some differences ↳ This difference could be due to experiences having biological effects on DNA. ↳ our genome undergoes epigenetic modifications That affect gene expression (how genes are turned on or off) buthave no effect on our DNA. -ex : Stress response metabolism , Immune system , , Cancer related > - Turning genes environments "on or influence off "gives how insight are to how expressed genetics ↳ Genes turn off through a process of methylation Where technically carbon speaking a single , Molecule + 3 molecules are added to the hydrogen DNA and "turns off" the gene (s) region  Hereditary disorders Cognital defects ↳ are present at birth , though a are not detectable many until later ↳ May stem from and prenatal genetic influences or from complications during birth. Chromosomal abnormalities - When a cell divides meiosis , the distribution germ during can be uneven so some have too too , may many or little chromosomes Abnormalities of the sex chromosomes ↳ involves the 23 pair (The Sex chromosome) where There's extra you X chromosomes There's different. developmental implications depending on the extras Down Syndrome or trisomy 21 : where the child inherits all or part of an extra 21st chromosome Mutations : genetic abnormality where there are changes in the chemical structure of one or more that genes produce a new phenotype  harmful chemicals ↳ could be caused by , environmental nazards (toxic industrial waste) Genetic a service that helps prospective counselling : Parents to assess the likelihood that their children will be free of hereditary defects. - Amniocentesis method of amniotic fluid : a extracting from a pregnant woman so that fetal body cells within the fluid can be tested for chromosomal abnormalities and defects other genetic & Chorionic villus (CVs) alternative to sampling : amniocentesis where fetal cells are extracted from The placenta for testing & Non-invasive of prenatal-testing (NIPT) : Analysis DNA in the placenta that reveals the genetic profile of the unborn child Treating Hereditary Disorders > - many can be minimized or controlled by surgery , drugs , hormones Therapy etc. , Phenylketonuria (PKU) - infants are screened for this and being routinely other metabolic disorders. They can be placed on diets to help disorder manage the Behavioural genetics : of how genes and the study environment contribute to individual variations in development Methods of Studying Hereditary = Heritability The amount : of variation in a trait or a class of behaviour within a specific , population , that is attributable to hereditary factors > Selective - method of breeding - studying genetic : influences by bred in animals determining whether traits selective can be through mating &> Family Studies collecting : data from multiple people in a family (genetically , related not or Estimating the Contribution of Genes and Environment > Scientists have developed mathematical formulas to - I determine whether a trait is genetically influenced. estimate 2 the environment account degree to which heredity and for individual differences in that trait. Concordance ↳ rates the of cases in percentage : which a particular attribute is present for one member of a twin pair if it is present for the other > - Heritability coefficient : shows the amount of Variation in an attributable to factors hereditary H = (videntical twins - ~ fraternal twins) X2 > Nonshared environmental influences (NSEs) - NSE = 1-r /identical twins reared together) Shared environmental influences > - (SEs) SE = 1. 00 - (H + NSE) Hereditary contributions to personality > - Many of our core dimensions of personality are genetically influenced > ex introvert vs extrovert - :. and our empathetic concern Hereditary contributions to mental health > abnormal - benaviour/conditions include alcoholism , , depression , criminality hyperactivity , bipolar , and others. The canalization principle ↳ Conrad Waddington introduced The Idea that : traits are strongly guided by genes with very little influence from the environment & however traits like and , temperament intelligence , personality are less controlled by genes and more So the environment 1 there for individuals to. are multiple pathways develope. nature vs 2. Nurture combined to determine these paths 3 either or environment limit the extent genes may. To which the other factor can influence development Range of reaction principle : the Idea that genotype sets limits on the range of possible phenotypes that a person to different environments might display in response. Passive genotype/environment interactions ↳ The notion that the child's influenced by genes are their parent's genes. They also create an environment That matches their own genetic tendencies Evocative genetic genotype/environment interactions our : traits can influence how others treat us , which affects The environment we in child grow up to - Ex : > a being outgoing can allow other people by being more social/supportive Thus creating - respond , , a positive environment Active genotype/environment interactions The notion of : that genotypes affectThe types environments that our we prefer to seek out Contributions Criticisms and of the benavioural generics approach > has been - criticized as an incomplete theory that describes but fails to explain how either genes or environment influence our abilities , conduct , and character. > there have been recent advances in the molecular - and cellular mechanisms of epigenetics are providing explanations of the plasticity of phenotypes