Week 8 Lecture 13: Cognitive & Stability in Old Age PDF

Week 8 Lecture 13: Cognitive & Stability in old age Learning Objectives: - How does ageing affect cognitive abilities? - Which cognitive abilities are maintained and/or grow with older age, and to what extent? - Which cognitive abilities decline with older age, and to what ext...

Week 8 Lecture 13: Cognitive & Stability in old age Learning Objectives: - How does ageing affect cognitive abilities? - Which cognitive abilities are maintained and/or grow with older age, and to what extent? - Which cognitive abilities decline with older age, and to what extent? - Discuss the arguments for and against age-related declines in emotional processing. - Stability & Growth: Focus on crystallised knowledge, abilities, and skills with age. - Cognitive Abilities: Understanding spared versus impaired cognitive functions. - Social & Emotional Growth: Examining improvements in social and emotional processing. Stability & Growth: Focus on crystallised knowledge, abilities, and skills with age: (How does ageing affect cognitive abilities?) 1. Ageing and Spared vs. Impaired Abilities: Ageing does not uniformly affect all cognitive abilities. Instead, it presents a varied pattern where certain abilities are preserved while others might decline. This mosaic nature means that ageing impacts individuals differently and in specific areas rather than a blanket decline across all functions (Light, 1992). It is best conceptualised as a Multidimensional process in which different processes change in different ways. Cognitive ageing involves multiple dimensions, where some cognitive processes may remain stable, improve, or decline. For instance, while memory for specific events (episodic memory) might weaken, vocabulary and general knowledge (crystallised intelligence) are often preserved or even enhanced. This perspective moves away from oversimplified views of ageing as a uniform process. Ageing should not be thought of as a single pathway dominated by inevitable decline (Hess et al., 1996). Instead, it is better understood as a complex interaction of various factors where some abilities may diminish, and others are unaffected or thrive. Contrary to common stereotypes, ageing is not synonymous with deterioration. Many older adults maintain a high level of cognitive functioning in areas like problem-solving, expertise, and verbal abilities. This challenges the  negative assumptions often associated with ageing, highlighting the resilience and adaptability of the human brain over time. 2. 2 Factor Theory of Intelligence (Spearman, 1904) – General vs Specific Intelligence: 2 Factor Theory by Spearman (1904): Spearman proposed that intelligence consists of 2 components: i. General intelligence (g-factor): A universal cognitive ability that influences performance across a wide range of tasks. It represents overall intellectual capability. ii. Specific intelligence (s-factor): Skills or abilities unique to particular tasks, such as mathematical reasoning or verbal fluency, which are independent of the g-factor. Horn & Cattell’s (1967) ‘two factor’ theory: i. Building on Spearman’s idea, Horn and Cattell refined the concept by distinguishing between two types of intelligence that align with real-world applications and developmental changes - Fluid intelligence & Crystallised intelligence. ii. Fluid intelligence (Impaired abilities) refers to the innate ability to think logically, solve unfamiliar problems, and adapt to new situations without relying on pre-existing knowledge. It involves skills like abstract reasoning, pattern recognition, and problem-solving. iii. Crystallised intelligence (Spared abilities) is based on accumulated knowledge, facts, and skills acquired through education and experience. It includes abilities such as vocabulary usage, comprehension, and applying learned strategies to familiar problems. Differentially affected by age: i. Fluid intelligence tends to decline with age, particularly from middle adulthood onwards, as it depends on the brain’s processing speed, working memory, and flexibility—all of which are affected by neurological ageing. ii. Crystallised intelligence consists of the knowledge and skills that have been accumulated throughout life. It includes information such as facts, vocabulary, and expertise, which are learned through education, experience, and culture, and not something a person is born with (Cattell, 1987). Impaired and Spared Cognitive Abilities in Ageing: (How do fluid and crystallised intelligence differ in terms of their response to ageing, and what factors contribute to these differences? OR// How do Horn and Cattell’s two-factor theory of intelligence explain the differences in how fluid and crystallised intelligence are affected by ageing?) 1. Impaired ability: Fluid intelligence: Fluid intelligence composed of:  - Ability to be flexible and adaptive. This refers to how well a person can adjust their thinking and problem-solving strategies when faced with new or unexpected situations. It is an essential part of reasoning and abstract thinking. - Ability to respond to novel situations. Fluid intelligence enables individuals to handle tasks they’ve never encountered before, such as solving puzzles or thinking critically without relying on past experiences or acquired knowledge. Baltes (1993) refers to fluid intelligence as the “mechanics” of intelligence, which encompasses the basic cognitive functions—such as memory, processing speed, and logical reasoning—that are essential for problem-solving but tend to be more vulnerable to the effects of ageing. Additionally, to use fluid intelligence effectively, one must engage in complex cognitive processing that demands mental effort, concentration, and sustained attention. As we age, these processes may become more difficult, as attention and working memory may decline, affecting fluid intelligence. 2. Spared Abilities: Crystallised abilities (Cattell, 1987): Crystallised intelligence consists of the knowledge and skills that have been accumulated throughout life. It includes information such as facts, vocabulary, and expertise, which are learned through education, experience, and culture, and not something a person is born with (Cattell, 1987). Baltes (1993) describes crystallised intelligence as the “pragmatics” of intelligence because it reflects practical knowledge and wisdom gained through experience. This type of intelligence helps people navigate daily life and use their accumulated knowledge in real-world contexts. Unlike fluid intelligence, crystallised intelligence tends to remain strong or even improve with age. Many older adults continue to enhance their expertise and knowledge, particularly in areas they have been practising or studying throughout their lives, such as language skills or professional expertise (Forshaw, 1994). Crystallised intelligence typically only declines in very late life, and even then, this decline is often attributed to health issues, such as dementia or other age-related diseases, rather than the normal ageing process. This suggests that the decline in crystallised abilities is not inherent to the ageing process itself, but rather to factors like illness or cognitive disorders (Fromholt et al., 2003). Crystallised Cognitive abilities: (How do crystallised abilities help older adults adapt to cognitive ageing?) 1. General knowledge (Kaufman et al., 1989): Older adults often retain and enhance their ability to recall factual information and general knowledge stored in their long-term memory. This reflects a lifelong accumulation of information, particularly in areas like history, geography, and cultural trivia. Middle-aged and older individuals tend to perform better in knowledge-based games like trivia, as they draw on a broader base of stored knowledge from decades of learning and experience. 2. Verbal memory: Vocabulary, a key component of verbal memory, tends to improve with age due to continued exposure to language through reading, conversation, and problem-solving activities like crosswords. These gains are evident in assessments like the verbal scale of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (Kaufman et al., 1989). 3. Numerical ability: Older adults often excel in basic arithmetic and mathematical reasoning tasks due to repeated use of these skills throughout their lives (Jones & Conrad, 1993). The strong performance of older individuals may partly be due to differences in education. Earlier generations often underwent rigorous practice of maths drills, which led to automatized arithmetical skills that persist with age. 4. Autobiographical memory: Older adults can vividly recall personal life events, even into their centenarian years, as these memories are deeply ingrained through repeated rehearsal over their lifetime (Fromholt, 2003). Rehearsal over lifespan leads to distinct memories. As we grow older, some memories, particularly from earlier in life, become more vivid or distinct because they have been rehearsed or recalled often, while recent memories may not be as well-established or easy to recall. This idea suggests that memory retention improves for older, well-established memories due to the continuous mental rehearsal over the lifespan. Significant events, such as weddings or historical moments, are often rehearsed, that is, talked about or revisited frequently, making these memories distinct and durable. 5. Prospective memory: This refers to the ability to remember to perform specific tasks at a later time, which is crucial for daily functioning. i. Event-based prospective memory (EBPM): Remembering tasks triggered by external events (e.g., buying milk when at the store). ii. Time-based prospective memory (TBPM): Remembering tasks at a specific time (e.g., checking blood pressure at 10 a.m.). Research shows that older adults generally perform worse than younger adults on prospective memory tasks in controlled laboratory settings. For instance, in experiments where participants must push a button every two hours, older adults struggle more. However, in real-life situations, such as calling an experimenter every two hours, older adults often perform just as well as younger individuals. This discrepancy suggests that older adults might use compensatory strategies, like setting reminders, to support their prospective memory in everyday contexts.  Older adults commonly use external aid tools like calendars, reminders, and alarms to support prospective memory, making up for any cognitive decline in this area. 6. Automatic tasks (Jacoby et al., 1999): Repeated practice transforms tasks into automatic processes, reducing the need for conscious attention. Skills that have been practised extensively (e.g., typing or driving) do not decline significantly with age because they rely on procedural memory rather than conscious processing. Initially, driving demands attention to multiple tasks (e.g., steering, braking). Over time, these elements become automatic, freeing up cognitive resources and allowing the skill to remain intact with age. 7. Familiar contexts: In familiar situations, older adults can draw on well-practised skills and knowledge, allowing them to perform better than they do in artificial laboratory settings (Park, 2000). Familiar environments activate automatic, practised responses, which remain robust even as other cognitive abilities decline (La Voie et al., 1994). 8. Recognition memory: Recognition of familiar faces or objects is maintained into old age, as this relies on implicit memory, which is less affected by ageing. This is because implicit memory (subconsciously acquired information) remains stable, allowing older adults to perform well in recognition tasks. 9. Tacit knowledge: Another type of procedural memory, is the ‘on the job’ tacit knowledge, which increases with age. Tacit knowledge refers to practical, experience-based know-how that is often difficult to articulate or formally teach. This includes intuitive problem-solving, situational judgement, and expertise developed over years of professional or personal experience. The Future of Retirement Study (Dychtwald, 2006) interviewed 20,000+ older people in 20 countries. This study highlighted the global importance of older adults' skills and expertise, particularly in professional settings. It emphasised how older adults’ accumulated knowledge and wisdom benefit organisations, families, and communities. 77% of UK employers concerned will lose valuable knowledge and skills when older workers retire. The study revealed that a significant percentage of employers in the UK recognize the risk of a "knowledge drain" as older workers leave the workforce. This knowledge often includes industry-specific practices, efficient workarounds, and historical context that newer employees may lack. Employers need to attract and motivate older workers and to mitigate this loss, organisations are encouraged to reimagine retirement. Offering part-time roles or consulting opportunities, creating mentorship programs where older workers share their experience with younger employees or promoting workplace flexibility, allowing older adults to remain active in the workforce without compromising their work-life balance. Factors Associated with Maintained Cognition: (What lifestyle and environmental factors contribute to maintaining cognitive function in older age?) 1. Good physical health (Colcombe, 2003): i. Physical health plays a critical role in maintaining cognitive function. Regular exercise improves blood flow to the brain, supporting neural health and reducing the risk of cognitive decline. ii. Additionally, managing chronic conditions like hypertension and diabetes can protect against age-related brain deterioration. 2. Good education (Shimamura, 1995): i. Higher levels of education are linked to better cognitive outcomes in older age. ii. Education stimulates brain development early in life and provides a cognitive reserve that helps mitigate the effects of ageing on brain function. 3. Complex job (Smart, 2014): i. Engaging in complex or mentally demanding work promotes cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. ii. Such jobs require consistent mental activity, which strengthens neural pathways and helps maintain cognitive abilities over time. 4. Bilingualism (Alladi et al., 2013): i. Bilingual individuals tend to have better cognitive resilience and a lower risk of developing dementia. ii. Constantly switching between languages strengthens executive functions, such as attention and working memory, which are crucial for cognitive maintenance. Importance of Psychosocial Factors in Maintaining Cognition (Cognitive Health): (How do positive attitudes towards ageing and the ability to adapt to change contribute to maintaining cognitive health in older adults?) 1. Personality and attitudes towards ageing play a crucial role in mental and physical abilities as we get older, and even influence life expectancy (Levy, 2002). People who view ageing in a positive light, seeing it as a natural and manageable process, tend to experience better cognitive outcomes and maintain better physical health. 2. When individuals perceive a low level of control over their lives, it is linked to declines in memory and physical health. This sense of helplessness often results in fewer efforts to adopt compensatory strategies, such as using memory aids or engaging in preventive health behaviours. Those who feel they have less control are also less likely to take proactive steps like staying active or seeking out medical care, which can lead to faster cognitive and physical decline. 3. Having a positive attitude towards ageing is associated with better memory, greater physical ability, sharper hearing, and even a longer life (Levy, 2006). People who maintain a positive view of growing older often take better care of themselves, stay mentally active, and experience less stress, which translates into improved cognitive function and greater overall health. Positive attitudes can also improve sensory abilities and increase life expectancy by encouraging healthier lifestyle choices. 4. Negative stereotypes about ageing, which often focus on decline, not only promote prejudiced attitudes and behaviours but can also become a public health issue. When society holds negative beliefs about older adults, it can lead to discrimination and discourage older individuals from seeking help or participating in healthy behaviours. This stigma can prevent older adults from engaging in cognitive enrichment activities, negatively affecting their health and well-being. 5. Stereotype-busting attitudes, such as being open to change and embracing new hobbies, technology, and ways of thinking, can positively impact cognitive health. Older adults who accept change and engage in activities like travel, education, reading, volunteering, or joining clubs tend to maintain better cognitive function. These activities keep the mind sharp, provide opportunities for social interaction, and foster a sense of purpose, all of which are vital for healthy ageing. Growth in Social and Emotional Processing: 1. The Role of Social and Emotional Processing in Enhancing Cognitive and Social Well-being in Older Adults: (How does the growth in social and emotional processing contribute to the cognitive and social well-being of older adults?) Social and Emotional Processing: As people age, they often become better at managing emotions, showing increased empathy, and navigating social situations. Older adults tend to regulate emotions more effectively, handle stress better, and understand others' feelings with greater clarity. This is a result of years of life experience and improved emotional intelligence. More Crystallised Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities: With age, individuals gain more crystallised knowledge, including social and emotional wisdom. This accumulated knowledge enhances their ability to understand social dynamics, make informed decisions, and respond to situations based on past experiences. These skills help older adults navigate social interactions more effectively. 2. Memory for Emotional Material: (Why do older adults tend to recall more emotional material compared to younger individuals, and what does this reveal about their attention and memory processing?) In a study by Carstensen (2003), participants were asked to read a passage of text and later recall the information. This study aimed to explore how memory for emotional versus neutral information differs across age groups. Younger participants tended to recall more information overall, including both emotional and neutral details, compared to older participants. This suggests that younger individuals typically have a broader memory capacity for general information. Older participants, however, remembered a greater proportion of the emotional content from the text, even though their overall recall was lower than that of younger participants. This indicates that as people age, they become more focused on emotionally significant information. Heightened attention to emotional material in older age? Why? The increased recall of emotional material in older adults is thought to be linked to a heightened attention to emotional content. Older adults may prioritise emotional information due to its perceived relevance to personal well-being, or it could be part of an adaptive strategy to focus on emotionally meaningful experiences. This shift allows older individuals to enhance emotional regulation and focus on positive aspects of life. 3. Emotional & Social Processing 1: (How do older adults’ emotional regulation strategies and increased empathy contribute to their ability to handle complex social and emotional situations?) Older adults often rely on a wider range of emotion-regulation strategies, such as reappraisal, acceptance, or problem-solving, to manage their emotions. These strategies help them cope with challenges and stress more effectively, leading to better emotional well-being in later life (Blanchard-Fields, et al., 1995). Older adults typically exhibit better emotional regulation, such as controlling anger or frustration. This can be attributed to their increased life experience and greater emotional maturity, allowing them to respond more calmly to emotionally charged situations (Gross et al., 1997). As people age, they tend to develop higher levels of empathy and social tolerance. They become more attuned to others’ emotions and perspectives, which enhances their ability to navigate complex social interactions and foster positive relationships (Weiner & Graham, 1989). Older individuals are often better at resolving complex moral and social issues. This is due to their accumulated life experiences, which give them a broader perspective and a deeper understanding of human emotions, social dynamics, and ethical dilemmas (Baltes & Staudinger, 1993). In many cultures, such as in China, older adults are respected for their wisdom and experience. They hold important roles in their families and societies, and their knowledge and perspective are highly valued, often seen as essential for guiding younger generations. 4. Problem Solving Example: ‘Unfaithful Husband’: (How do older adults' approaches to problem-solving, such as dealing with complex moral or social dilemmas, differ from those of younger adults?) i. Older people approach: Older individuals tend to approach sensitive issues, like a suspected affair, with more caution and less aggression. They often prefer to calmly confront the situation, seeking clarity on the truth without escalating the conflict. Older adults are more likely to question their assumptions and consider that their suspicions might not be accurate. They may seek concrete evidence before jumping to conclusions. Older individuals often recognize that complex problems have multiple solutions and different perspectives, and they take time to weigh the evidence and consider all possible outcomes. ii. Younger people approach: Younger individuals may act more impulsively or assume a more confrontational or dramatic approach to the situation. They may be quicker to accuse or assume the worst without fully considering all perspectives or evidence. 5. Decline in Emotional Processing: As people age, they often show a decline in their ability to accurately label facial expressions, especially those reflecting negative emotions like sadness, fear, or anger. This may be due to a decrease in the processing of subtle emotional cues, which becomes more challenging as we get older. Older adults also tend to struggle more with interpreting negative emotions when shown images of eyes, a task that taps into "theory of mind" – the ability to understand others' thoughts and feelings. This decline may reflect a reduction in the ability to read emotional expressions, which is important for social interactions (Phillips et al., 2002). Older adults often report perceiving less emotional intensity in sad faces compared to younger individuals. This could reflect changes in how older adults perceive and respond to negative emotions, possibly due to emotional regulation strategies developed over time (Phillips & Allen, 2004). 6. So are older people unable to interpret/remember negative emotions?:  No, older adults are still capable of feeling and recalling intense emotions, including sadness. The apparent decline in their emotional processing is not due to an inability to experience negative emotions, but rather a processing bias. They are more likely to focus on positive emotions and downplay negative ones. For example, while older people report lower levels of emotional intensity in sad faces (Phillips & Allen, 2004), it’s not because they cannot feel intense sad emotion, as no age differences exist in intensity of feelings when recalling sad experiences. This demonstrates that older individuals do experience sadness with the same intensity as younger adults when recalling past events. The difference lies in how they process and focus on the emotional stimuli in the present, tending to underreport negative emotions. 7. This bias against negative emotional information reflect better emotional adjustment with age, supported by: Older adults typically report feeling less anxious or depressed than younger individuals. This may reflect better emotional regulation and a greater focus on positive experiences. Many older individuals report feeling more calm and secure, with an increased sense of self-efficacy (belief in their ability to manage life’s challenges). This suggests that emotional regulation improves with age. Socio-Emotional Selectivity Theory (Carstensen et al., 1995, 2003): This theory posits that as people age, they prioritise emotional well-being and focus more on positive, meaningful experiences. Older adults are more likely to invest in emotionally rewarding relationships and reduce exposure to negative emotions, contributing to a better emotional adjustment in later life. Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST) (Carstensen et al., 1995, 2003): 1. What is SST? i. Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) is a life-span model that proposes that the reduced social activity often seen in old age reflects a lifelong selection process (Carstensen, 1991, 1995). ii. The number of individuals in a person’s social network may be smaller in older adulthood than it was in young adulthood. However, close social relationships are maintained in older adulthood, while more superficial ones are filtered out, and age- related reductions in social interactions can be adaptive. 2. Two main goals or motives: Carstensen and her colleagues (Carstensen, Gross, & Fung, 1997; Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999) emphasise that there are two goals, or motives, when it comes to social interactions, that is information seeking and emotion regulation.  - Information-seeking: i. In youth and young adulthood, the primary goal of social interactions is to acquire information—meeting new people, finding life partners, building friendships, and exploring career interests. ii. But as people age, the need to seek new information decreases, and social interactions shift from discovering new things to relying on familiar partners who affirm one’s identity. In later life, there's less motivation to develop a new identity, making relationships with trusted, familiar individuals more valuable. - Emotional regulation: i. Social interactions, especially pleasant ones, fulfil emotional needs. According to SST, emotional regulation becomes more important in older adulthood. Older adults prefer to socialise with familiar partners because they place great importance on the positive feelings that come from intimate and gratifying social interactions. In contrast, interactions with new people may not offer the same emotional satisfaction. ii. Older adults often prioritise socialising with close friends or family, seeking emotional stability and avoiding the uncertainty or potential emotional strain of new relationships. 3. Time perception and social interactions: i. The choice of social partners may be influenced not only by chronological age, but also by the perception of time (Carstensen et al., 1999). ii. When time is perceived as open-ended, or unlimited, our main motivation for engaging in social interactions is acquiring information and we tend to seek out new social partners. In contrast, when time is perceived as limited, emotional regulation becomes the primary motive. iii. Fredrickson and Carstensen (1990) tested how time influences social partner preferences by asking young and older adults to imagine 30 minutes of leisure time with no commitments and choose between a family member (familiar partner) or a recent acquaintance (novel partner). iv. The results showed that 65% of older adults chose the familiar partner, while only 35% of young adults did. This suggests older adults prioritise familiar relationships. v. However, when young adults were told they were moving across the country and leaving loved ones behind, 80% chose the familiar partner, indicating that time limitations increase the preference for familiar partners. vi. A similar study in Hong Kong (Fung, Carstensen, & Lutz, 1999) found that older participants preferred familiar partners regardless of emigration, while young adults did so more when told about an imminent move. vii. The findings suggest that when time is perceived as limited, the preference for familiar partners increases for both young and older adults. viii. These studies highlight how perceived time limitations influence social preferences, with both age groups prioritising familiar relationships when time feels limited. 4. In sum: i. In sum, SST predicts that social preferences are related to the perception of time. Information-seeking motives and novel social partners take precedence when time is unlimited. ii. In contrast, emotional goals and familiar social partners are more important when time is limited. In general, time is likely perceived as more limited in older adulthood than in young adulthood (Carstensen & Fredrickson, 1998). iii. This selective engagement aligns with Disengagement Theory (Cumming & Henry, 1961), which suggests that individuals gradually withdraw from society in middle age. Disengagement Theory (Cumming & Henry, 1961): i. According to disengagement theory, social and psychological withdrawal is a necessary component of successful ageing. Older adults withdraw voluntarily from roles they played in middle age. ii. At the same time, society withdraws from older adults, expecting them to step aside to make room for the upcoming younger generation. iii. This mutual withdrawal of older individuals and society from each other benefits them both (Passuth & Bengston, 1988). iv. Older adults who disengage meet with society’s approval and experience a high level of life satisfaction (Cumming & Henry, 1961). v. The idea that older adults willingly withdraw and are satisfied doing so conflicted with Activity Theory, which suggests older adults disengage due to circumstances beyond their control. Activity Theory: i. According to activity theory, older adults strive to maintain their level of social interaction by substituting new roles when old roles are lost. For example, a woman who loses her husband might join a new social group. ii. To the extent that older adults are successful in replacing social roles, they will enjoy high life satisfaction or high morale and feelings of well-being (Passuth & Bengston, 1988). iii. Most contemporary researchers do not subscribe to activity theory in its original form. Yet elements of this theory are evident in popular media communications urging retired older adults to remain engaged by doing volunteer work and participating in social groups. - Over time, it became clear that neither theory alone could explain all variations in older adults' social interaction or life satisfaction. Both theories  (Disengagement and Activity) contributed to the development of more nuanced ideas about the role of social interactions in older adulthood. Some Final Social and Emotional Skills which Improve with Age: 1. Older adults often make better occupational decisions (Perlmutter, et al., 1990) due to accumulated tacit knowledge (practical, experience-based knowledge) and improved social problem-solving skills. Their experience allows them to approach work-related challenges with greater wisdom and efficiency. 2. As people age, they tend to have more time to develop their creative abilities. With fewer distractions or obligations, older adults become more comfortable expressing themselves and exploring creative pursuits. This process is known as the ‘Swan Song’ phenomenon, where older individuals may produce their most innovative or reflective work later in life. 3. With age, individuals accumulate a wealth of knowledge through personal and professional experiences (Baltes, et al., 1995). This accumulated wisdom helps older adults navigate complex situations, providing them with a deep understanding of the world around them. 4. Despite cognitive declines, older adults retain a vast knowledge base, which helps them solve problems and address everyday challenges. This preserved learning compensates for age-related declines in cognitive processing by relying on previously acquired knowledge. It allows older adults to perform tasks that may require significant cognitive effort in younger adults, like managing complex social or work-related situations. While it doesn’t entirely prevent cognitive decline, it helps minimise its effects (Schaie, 1996). —----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Which cognitive abilities are maintained and/or grow with older age, and to what extent? Crystallised Abilities: ○ These include accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, and cultural understanding, which remain stable or even improve in older age. ○ Research (Baltes et al., 1995) shows that life experience enhances the ability to address familiar problems and perform tasks that require existing knowledge. ○ Practical problem-solving also benefits, especially when applying past experiences to similar challenges (Dixon et al., 2001). ○ These abilities grow because they rely on long-term memory and practice, which are less affected by aging compared to fluid intelligence.  Emotional and Social Processing: ○ Older adults excel in emotion regulation and focusing on positive experiences, consistent with Socioemotional Selectivity Theory. ○ Improved decision-making in emotionally charged scenarios stems from better social and emotional understanding developed over time. Creativity: ○ Older adults often experience a surge in creativity due to more time, comfort with self-expression, and accumulated wisdom. This is referred to as the "Swan Song" phenomenon. 2. Which cognitive abilities decline with older age, and to what extent? Fluid Intelligence: ○ Abilities such as processing speed, problem-solving with new information, and working memory show marked decline with age. ○ Tasks requiring quick adaptability or novel learning become more challenging due to slower cognitive processing. Memory Declines: ○ Short-term Memory: Declines in the ability to store and retrieve new information occur as the hippocampus and other memory-related areas experience age-related changes. ○ Working Memory: The capacity to juggle multiple pieces of information simultaneously decreases with age, affecting multitasking and complex problem-solving. Cognitive Flexibility and Attention: ○ Older adults may find it harder to switch between tasks or focus on multiple streams of information at once. ○ Selective attention to detail, particularly in unfamiliar or high-stress situations, can become less efficient. To What Extent? Mild Cognitive Declines (Normal Aging): These declines do not significantly impair day-to-day functioning and can often be compensated for by relying on crystallized knowledge. Pathological Declines (Abnormal Aging): More severe losses, as seen in conditions like dementia, extend beyond normal aging and result in profound impacts on independence and quality of life. Overall, while some cognitive abilities decline, others are maintained or even grow, creating a balance that supports healthy aging when combined with adaptive strategies.