Week 2: Sexuality Lecture Slides PDF

WEEK 2: SEXUALITY Johannes Machinya Sexuality: The politics of women’s fertility and infant feeding Overview: Sociopolitical dynamics surrounding female sexuality in terms of fertility, use of emergency contraception, and infant feeding choices Focus The politics of women’s fertility and use o...

WEEK 2: SEXUALITY Johannes Machinya Sexuality: The politics of women’s fertility and infant feeding Overview: Sociopolitical dynamics surrounding female sexuality in terms of fertility, use of emergency contraception, and infant feeding choices Focus The politics of women’s fertility and use of emergency contraception; The politics of women’s infant feeding choices; How these are shaped by healthcare professionals’ attitudes, societal norms, and moral judgments.  Female sexuality Sexuality is multidimensional, involving aspects like sexual orientation, pleasure, emotional intimacy, reproductive health, and body autonomy. Female sexulaity broadly encompasses how women express and experience their sexual identity and desires, including reproductive health, as well as how these are shaped by biological, social, and cultural factors. Historically, female sexuality has been framed in ways that reflect both societal anxieties and a desire to regulate women’s reproductive choices. As a result, it has been subject to various social, philosophical, religious, and cultural constructions/controls. Religious constructions of female sexuality located women in binary opposition as either the ‘virgin’ (Mary, Mother of Christ) or the ‘whore’ (Eve) (Barret and Harper, 2000) Philosophical constructions of women’s sexuality as “uncontrollable” are rooted in the writings of Aristotle who described women as “mutilated males” – defective versions of the male prototype, morally weaker than men (Seale and Pattison 1994). ❖ Such constructions positioned women as either pure and virtuous (and therefore in need of protection) or promiscuous and dangerous (and thus requiring control). Female sexuality in the modern context In the modern context, female sexuality is increasingly recognised as complex, involving an interplay of individual choices, desires, consent, and the freedom to explore sexual identity without stigma. Yet, societal, religious, and political values and beliefs continue to influence and control how female sexuality is expressed and perceived, e.g., we see this in debates about issues like reproductive rights, contraception, sexual freedom, and gender roles.  The politics of women’s fertility and contraception Societal norms and religious institutions have long regulated women’s sexuality and fertility (Barret and Harper, 2000) Such regulation was reinforced by thinkers like Aristotle, St. Augustine, and Thomas Aquinas, who portrayed women as morally weak or defective versions of men. In the 18th and 19th centuries, female sexuality was viewed as passive due to Victorian ideals of respectability “A respectable bourgeois woman was therefore characterised as one who was chaste, virtuous and aided male sexual self- control” (Nead 1988). ❖ The rise of contraception in public debate during the 19th century triggered concerns that it would pose a “threat to the morality of women (by detaching sex from reproduction) and was opposed by the Churches and most members of the medical profession” (p. 199) Despite medical acceptance of contraception, persistent anxieties about female sexuality continue into modern times, especially regarding younger women and the use of emergency contraception. These are based on assumptions of irresponsibility, unpredictability, and even deceit.  The deregulation debate on emergency contraception Proponents of deregulation argue that deregulating emergency contraception will empower women, improve access, reduce NHS costs, and contribute to reducing unplanned pregnancies, especially among teenagers. Prescription requirements create obstacles for women seeking emergency contraception, particularly outside of regular working hours or during public holidays. Support from medical bodies: The medical community, including some doctors and pharmacists, increasingly supports deregulation, citing the benefits of timely access and preventive health measures. Opposition from religious groups: Opposition is grounded in religious beliefs, with concerns that emergency contraception is an abortifacient (drug that induces abortion), though this method does not meet the legal definition of abortion under current legislation. Women’s use of emergency contraception is seen as a threat to traditional norms linking sex to reproduction (Control over female bodies) Fear of increased sexual promiscuity among young women is often used as an argument against deregulating emergency contraception Concerns about abuse and misuse: Fear that women would abuse EC by using it repeatedly, lie about their history of EC use, or stockpile the drug if it became more accessible. These concerns were tied to assumptions that Politics of infant feeding decisions Moral frameworks around breastfeeding The slogan “Breast is best” dominates health policy and societal views on infant feeding Promotes breastfeeding as superior due to its numerous health, psychological, and developmental benefits for infants. Breastfeeding vs. Formula feeding: Women who choose to formula feed face moral judgments, with breastfeeding being framed as a marker of "good motherhood" The "good mother" is framed as one who sacrifices her own comfort for the benefit of her child. Deviance and maternal morality The social construction of deviance: Judgments of maternal deviance are not solely based on the act of formula feeding itself but on the perception of the mother's agency – whether she knowingly and intentionally broke the "rules" of good motherhood. Deviance is ascribed when a mother intentionally chooses to formula feed, despite the expectation that "good mothers" breastfeed. For behaviour to be labelled as deviant, it must also be seen as intentional (theoretic) and avoidable (conventional). If the behaviour meets these criteria, it may be subject to social or moral sanctions. However, the possibility remains for women to challenge this ascription of deviance through linguistic strategies, categorized as "excuses" and "justifications" by Scott and Lyman (1963).  Deviance and maternal morality Excuses and justifications Women can resist the charge of deviance by offering excuses or justifications. Excuses argue that the act was unintentional or unavoidable, (e.g., claiming lack of choice or knowledge). Justifications accept the rule-breaking but reject the idea that it should be morally or socially sanctioned, i.e., the act is not wrong under the circumstances (e.g., health issues preventing breastfeeding). The paper highlights the flexibility in social rules and the possibility of neutralising the deviant label by challenging the interpretation of formula feeding as morally wrong. The role of "accounts" (excuses and justifications) is central to how women navigate social judgments about their infant feeding choices. The ultimate outcome for a mother depends on her success in either refuting the charge of deviance or justifying her actions. If unsuccessful, she risks facing moral and social sanctions for failing to conform to the norms of "good motherhood." Infant feeding politics: key takeaways Women’s feeding decisions are framed within moral discourses that reflect broader societal expectations about motherhood and femininity There are societal pressures on women to conform to breastfeeding norms and consequences for deviating from these expectations Health policies that promote breastfeeding can contribute to the stigmatization of those who cannot or choose not to breastfeed Intersection of feeding decisions with broader themes of gender roles and societal expectations about self-sacrifice and care  How do societal norms influence women’s reproductive choices? What role do healthcare professionals play in shaping Discussion questions moral discourses around contraception and breastfeeding? In what ways can these political and moral pressures be resisted or reformed? Conclusion The politics surrounding women's fertility and infant feeding choices are deeply rooted in societal norms about gender, sexuality, and morality. These norms are reinforced by healthcare systems, but they also offer points of resistance for women asserting control over their bodies. Understanding the sociopolitical forces at play can help us critically engage with healthcare policies and support women in making informed and autonomous decisions.