Motor Skills Lecture Notes PDF

Lecture 1 Jan 7ᵗʰ Motorskills Activites ortasksthatrequirevoluntaryheadbodyand orlimbmovementtoachieve apurpose orgoal Motorlearning theacquistion ofmotorskills theperformance enhancementoflearnedorhighly experienced motorskills...

Lecture 1 Jan 7ᵗʰ Motorskills Activites ortasksthatrequirevoluntaryheadbodyand orlimbmovementtoachieve apurpose orgoal Motorlearning theacquistion ofmotorskills theperformance enhancementoflearnedorhighly experienced motorskills thereacquisitionofskillsthataredifficult toperformorcannotbeperformed due to injury diseaseetc Motor Control Howtheneuromuscularsystemfunctions to enable coordinatedmovementsofthemuscles andlimbs during a motorskill Motordevelopment thestudy ofhumandevelopment frominfancy tooldagewithspecificinterestin issues relatedto eithermotorlearning or motorcontrol FactorsthatinfluencemotorskilllearningandPerformance 1theperson whattheybringtothetable motorabilitiesgeneticspastexperiencesdesireattention spanetc 2theskill Difficultylevel 3Theenviornment competition vs PracticeSpectatorspressure playsurfacesweatheretc Relatedterms Skills tasks or activitiesthathavespecific goals motorskills uscognitiveskills Actions Synonymous withmotorskills Movements Behavioural characteristics of aspecificlimborcombinationoflimbs movementsmake uptheactions Whydistinguishmovementsfromskills 1 Peoplelearnmovements whentheybegin tolearn orrelearnmotorskills 2People adaptmovement characteristics toacheivethecommonactiongoal 3 MotorskillPerformanceandmovements areevaluatedwithdifferenttypesofmeasures Lecture2 Jan 9 Three one dimension classification 1Sizeofmusculature 2 Distinctiveness ofmovement 3Stabilityofenviornment 1Size ofmusculatureprecisionof movement Grossmotorskills musclesandpercision involvelarge ofmovement isnotthatimportant Smoothcoordination ofmuscles isessential Finemotorskill requirecontrolofsmallmusclestoacheive agoal usuallyinvolve ahighdegreeofprecisionofmovementand handeyecoordination 2Distinctiveness ofthemovements definingbeginningandendpointsofmovement Discretemotorskills clearlydefinedbeginningandend points Serialmotorskills Aseriesofdiscretemotorskillsperformedin aspecificorder i e Sequenceroutine Continuous motorskills Noobviousbeginningandendpoint ie SwimmingskatingrunningXCskiing 3Stabilityoftheenviornment Closedmotorskills performedin astableandpredictableenviornment Aselfpacedtask Theobjectwaitstobeactedonbytheperformer Openmotorskills Performed in aneverchanging unpredictedenviornment Anexternallypacedtask to to enviornmenttobesuccessful Performerneeds react the Whyassess learning Howdoweknowthatsomeonehaslearnedwhatweareteaching Howdowe assessthatlearning Performance Distinguished fromlearning Performance is observeablebehaviour executionof a skillat aspecifictimeandin a specificsituation Learning Achange inthecapabilitytoperform askillthatmustbeinferredfrom a relativelypermanentimprovementin performance as a resultofpractice or experience Performance us learning Performance Learning Observablebehaviour Inferredfrom performance Temporary Relatively permanentchangesinthecapability toperform ashill maynotbedueto practice Duetopractice maybeinfluencedbyperformance Notinfluencedbyperformancevariables variables whatis a performancevariable Anythingthatmay influenceperformance atanygiventime Alterness Anxiety fatigue Uniqueness ofthesetting Sixgeneralperformance characteristics ofskilllearning 1Improvement 2Consistency 3 Stability 4Persistence 5Adaptability 6ReducedAttensiondemands 1Improvement Performance of askillgenerallyimproves overtime getsclosertothegoaltarget criterion higherlevelofskilllaterusearlier Practiceusuallypositivelyaffectsperformance practicingsomethingincorrectly canleadtodecreased performanceduringandor afterpractice 2 Consistency Lessvariability in performance from one attempt to another performance characteristics becomemoresimilar Starts off as beingvariablewith timeitbecomes more consistent 3 Stability Theinfluence of perturbations unexpected oftensuddenhappenings ontheskill Internal orexternalconditionscandisruptperformance Internal i e stress External i e Enviormental conditions Aslearninghappensincreasedabilitytoperformtheshilldespiteperturbations 4Persistence Improvedperformance lastsoverincreasing lengths oftime i e betweenrehearsalspracticesgames Shows permanence of performanceimprovement 5 Adaptability Performer is able to adaptperformance to different personal task andenvironmental situations Also referred to as generalizability of performance Performance context is neverthesameeachtime Aslearningincreasestheability toperformtasksin differentcontexts Personalfactors skilltasksenviornment 6 Reducedattentiondemand Aslearnerprogresses theamountof attentionneeded toperformthestilldecreases Canperformanotherskillsimultaneous Lecture3 Jan14ᵗʰ Howtoassess motorlearning 1PerformanceinPractice time Performance curves Performance changesover Coordination dynamics developingnewtemporal time andspatialpatterns creating a newpatternfromanoldpatternvs learningsomethingnew 2 learningtests Retentiontests transfertests SixGeneralPerformancecharacteristics ofskilllearning improvement Consistency stability Persistence Adaptability Reducedattentiondemand ObservingPracticePerformance Performance Curves ofperformanceduringpractice Graphical Representation learningcurve time Shows performancechangesover practice Generaltypes ofperformance curves a linear Proportional increasesovertime b negativelyaccelerated curve largeimprovements earlysmallimprovements later representsclassicpowerlawfunctional relationship ofskilllearning ThemostProminenttypeofcurveinmotorlearning C Positivelyacceleratedcurve improvementslater Slightimprovementearlylarge d Ogive sshapedcurve combinationof all 3curve Howtoassessmotorlearning 1 Performance inPractice 2learningtest Retention test Transfertests Assessinglearningthroughpractice improvementseeninthegeneraldirection ofthecurve end Consistencyseennear ofpracticesessions HowfartheSDlinesarefromthemean Performancecurvesforkinematicdata commontoshowaverageperformance forablockoftrials Compareperformance to criterion ImprovementSimilarityoftracinginfinalblockoftrialscomparedtocriterion consistencydecreasedSDfromfirsttolastblockoftrials 8 0 Assessing learningfromcoordinationdynamics spatialandtemporal Patterns Learningcoordination dynamics requiresdevelopingnew thatdemonstratelearning Performancecharacteristics Improvement Consistency Persistence Assessinglearningwithalearningtests Compare toperformanceon 1ˢᵗdaybaseline Demonstratesamount of performanceimprovement Compare tomostrecentperformanceattempt test Demonstratespersistence retention or adaptability test transfer ofperformanceimprovement Retentionlearningfromretentiontests PurposeAssesspermanenceoftheperformancelevelacheivedduringpractice Retentiontestsassessthepersistence ofimprovedperformance havelearnedbasedonyourperformance onthetest makeaninferenceabouthowmuchyou Assessinglearningfromretentiontests testperformance ofthesameskillfollowing a periodofnotperformingthatskill amount oftimebetweenendofpracticeandperformanceisarbitaryandiscalledtheretentioninterval 24hours isrecommendedminimum longenoughthattheeffectofperformancevariableswilldissipate ifthedifference betweenthetwotrialsfirstpracticedayandtestday is significant thenyoucanbeconfidentthatlearning hasoccured AssessingLearning fromtransfertests transfertestsassesstheadaptabilityofperformance tests caninvolve Performingthepracticedskillin aperformance contextorsituationdifferentfrompractice Provide novel situation toassess learning a 1 Contextvariations 2 Skillvariations Assessing learning fromtransfertests Novel context characteristics 1AvailabilityofAugmentedfeedback Skillthat is practicedistested i e gamevspracticetestvslecture 2 PhysicalEnviornment fora learningsituation inwhichthegoal istoenablethepersontoperforminlocationsotherthanthose especially effective inwhichtheypracticed i e rehabsettingtohomesetting Golfdomegolfcourse 3Personal characteristics howwell a personcanperformtheskillwhileadaptingto characteristics ofthemselvesthatwerenotpresentduring Practice i e stressanxiety AssessinglearningfromTransfertests Novel SkillVariations Doesthelearningtransferfromonevariationoftheskill to another changes intheobjectbeingmanipulatedspeed ofmovement directionofmovementeat ie changeofwalking change thekindofcopused todrink from passing aballus a puck Pirouetteturnedoutvsparallel Waystoassesslearning Recap 1Performancetests Performance Curves CoordinationDynamics 2 learningtests Retention tests Transfertests CautionInterpreting Performance Curves 1 Performance ismeasurednotcapability 2 PerformancePlateaus groupaveragesarenotsensitivetoindividualdifferencesinperformance 3 Ceilingandflooreffectslimitthesensitivityof a measurement todetectfurtherimprovements 4Scoringcriteriamaychangeperformanceoutcome 1Performance ismeasurednotcapability Practicemayinvolve a performancevariablewhichmay enhance orimpairperformance learningtestscancontrol forperformancevariables byevaluatingpersistence oflearning Retentiontestsovercomethisproblem Transfertestsovercome thisproblembyevaluatingadaptabilitytonovelsituations Practice performance maymisrepresent learning Purpose comparetheeffectsof practicing withdifferenttypesoffeedback forlearningtheskillofpartialweight bearing Participg young adults  Protocol taskplace30 BWon ascale Groups 1 cocurrentfeedback of 2 Terminal feedback knowledge ofresults KR aftereverytrial KR 3 Terminal feedbackKRafter 5trials KR 5 Practice 80times inoneday Retentiontestaverageof20trials two dayslaterwith no knowledge ofresults measurement normalizedabsoluteerror Conclusions concurrentfeedbackwasbeneficial forimmediateperformanceimprovementsbutnotforlearningshownbylackofpersiste Implication practice performance maymisrepresentlearning Howshould youassesslearning byusingdifferentlearning tests transferandretentiontests Whenshouldyouassesslearning At least24hourspostpractice 2 Groupaveragesarenotsensitivetoindividualdifferences inPerformance PerformancePlateau a periodoftimeinwhichthereis noimprovementbutthenexperiences improvement withcontinuedPractice Seenin individual dataduringpractice Possiblecauses 1cessationoflearning 2 Atemporary performance artefact unintended interference Performance artefacts causing Plateaus 1 Transitionbetweentwophases oflearning Developing anewstrategyneeded toimprove  2 PersonalFactorsPeriodof lowmotivation fatiguelackofattentioneat 3 Measurementtype causing ceiling orflooreffects 3 Ceilingandflooreffectslimitabilitytodetectimprovements Flooreffect taskistoodifficult Ceilingeffect taskistooeasy 4ScoringcriteriamaychangePerformanceoutcome measurementmustappropriately reflect performancechanges Sensitive enough to showimprovement havetheability toshowindividualchanges lecture4 Jan21 WhystudythemeasurementofmotorPerformance Performance measurement is essentialfor 1Performance assessmentevaluation 2Motorlearningandcontrolresearch measuringmotorskillperformance Twogeneralcategoriesof performancemeasurements 1 Performance outcomemeasures Categoryofmotorskillperformancethatindicates the outcome or resultof performing amotorskilleghowfar did apersonthrow aball limbsofthebodythatledtotheoutcome Doesnottellusaboutthebehaviourofthe Doesnotprovideinfoabouttheactivityofvariousmusclesinvolved 2 PerformanceProduction measures measures ofmotorskillperformancethatindivatetheperformanceofspecificaspectsofthemotorcontrolsystem during theperformance i e EMGEEGrecordings TwoCategories of motorskillPerformanceMeasures table ErrorMeasures errormeasuresallowusto evaluateperformanceforskillsthathavespatialortemporal accuracyactiongoals showshowwellweperformagainst a criteriongoal SpatialandtemporalAccuracy Spatial Wheresomething isoccurring i e throwingdartshigh jump Temporal whensomething isoccuringorthetiming oftheskill i.e onetimersmusicalinstrumentvolleyballspikeserve Assessingerrorforskillswithonedimension accuracy goals Absoluteerror sizeoferror Constanterror direction oferror Variableerror Consistencyvariability AbsoluteerrorAE AE goal actual tellsusthemagnitude oferror Tellsushow accurate we are Average oftheabsolutevalues Constanterror CE CE performance criterion oftrials Direction oferror provides anindex oftendencyforthe performanceerrortobedirectionally biased VariableerrorVE VE SDof CEscores Consistency of error thestandarddeviation of constanterrorscores How variable thetrialsare highervariable lowerconsistency Assessing errorfor twodimensionmovementgoals Skillrequiresaccuracyintheverticalandhorizontal directions MeasuringErrorintwodimensional Accuracy 1 RadialError SimilartoAE inonedirectionaccuracy calculatethehypotenuseoftherightangle triangleformed bytheintersectionofthexaxisandyaxis 2 QualitativeAssessmentofbiasandConsistency Generalapproachtoassessingbiasandconsistency lookatthegroupof locations easiertodo Errormeasurement Twodimensional Radialerror Torinnight orinlngth errors difficultyinlearningthe Consistency skill Biaserrors difficultyinadaptingtheskill Assessingerrorforcontinousskills Some continousskillsalsorequireaccuracy oftime Continousskillsrequirespatialaccuracyoveraperiod i e walkingalong apath xcountry 1Rootmeansquarederror RMSE errormeasureforcontinousskill toindicatetheamountoferrorbetweentheperformancecurveproducedandthecriterion performance curve foraspecific performanceis sampled AEfor acontinoustask i.e pursuittraining Errormeasurement skills continous E Rootmean squarederrorRMS amount oferrorsampledatdifferenttimes throughouttask kinematicmeasures kinematicsDescription ofmotionwithoutregardstoforceormass includesthefollowing measures  Displacement over a periodoftime spatialpositionofalimborjoint Velocity rateofchangein anobjectpositionwithrespecttotimespeed displacementtime Acceleration changeinvelocityduringmovement velocitytime kineticmeasures kineticsforceas acourse ofmotion Humanmovementsinvolvebothinternalandexternalsourcesofforce internalmuscles external Gravity wind Important All3ofnewton'slaws ofmotionrefertoforce Forcemeasurement Directforceplatesstraingaugesforcetransducers IndirectUsecalculationsto determineforce Measuringkinetics kinetics thestudyoftheroleofforce asacauseofmotion InternalandExternalforces Forceplatesstrain gaugesforce transducers forcesandmoments Fluiddynamics liftanddragforcesthrough airandwater Ipading unloading MeasuringMuscleActivity Electromyography EMG measurementoftheelectricalactivityofmuscle Insightintoneuralcontrolofmovement onset magnitude Duration wholemuscle mechanomyography WMMG Nearinfared spectroscopy NIRS BrainActivityMeasures Adoptedbrainactivitymeasures commonlyusedin hospitalsand clinics fordiagnosticpurposes CommonMeasures formotorlearningandcontrolResearch EEG PET FMRI MEG MeasuringbrainactivityEEG Electroneephalography EEG detection ofcorticalactivityviascalpelectrodes Activebrainregionsproduceelectricalactivity limitation onlyrecordssurface activity Doesnotshowwhichanatomicalstructuresareactive Brain computerinterfaces measurebrainactivityusingEEG transform activityintomotion robots Wheelchairs Someoneelse's arm MeasuringbrainactivityPET Positron emissiontopography FET detection ofmetabolicbrainactivity Radioactive positrons interactwithblood Scansdetectactivityinvariouslocations limitations bestationary subjectmust Injectionofisotope Measuringbrainactivity fMRI functionalmagneticresonance imagingfMRI brainactivitydetectedbychanges inbloodoxygenation blood oxygenationleveldependent BOLD amplitudes limitation subjectmustbestationary Measuringbrainactivity MEG Magnetoencephalography MEG measuresmagneticfieldscreatedbyneuronal activity highertemporalresolutioncomparedtofMRI andPET Increased accuracy of activitylocationcomparedEEG Limitation Subject mustbestationary Doesnotshowanatomical structuresthatare active Measuringtheeffectofbrainstimulation on movementTms TranscranialmagneticstimulationTms magneticpulsedelivered tobraineitherexcites orinhibitsbrainactivity movement caused artificially through stimulation Temporary limitations mustestimatelocationof stimulus mayhave discomfort at stimulationsite Measuring peripheral nerveactivity micronerography Measuresimpulses in peripheralnerves Used to understand function ofvariousnerves E.g cutaneousresponsesfromthefeetforbalancecontrol E.g muscle spindleresponses Limitations finewireneedlemustbeinserted Onlysmallmovements tested Lecture 5 modelsofmiotorlearning FittsandPosner3 Stagemodel Gentile's 2 stagemodel Fittsandposner3stagemodel modelwasintroducedin 1967 continues to bereferred to in motorcontrolandlearning Motorskillinvolvesthreestages 1 Cognitivestage Developmentofbasicmovementpattern 2 Associative stage of movementpattern Refinement 3AutonomousstagePerformanceofmovement virtuallyautomatic 1 Cognitive stage Beginnerfocuses onsolvingcognitively orientedproblems cognitiveeffortrequiredtofocusonmovementfeedbackand intentions highamountoferrorandvariance evenknowtheyaremakingerrors mightnot 2Associative refining stage works torefineperformance lessthought Associationsbetweenenviornmentandmovements aremade fewererrors moreconsistency refiningstage focus onbecomingmoreconsistentfromoneattempttoanother 3Autonomousstage Skillis almostautomatic lowvarianceandorerrors Performerscandetectandcorrect their ownerrors Performtheshillwithoutconscious thought Stagesoflearningareon a continuum Gradual changesbetween stages eemgssta Beginner f.fi Expert Progressionsthroughstagesdepends on 1Skillbeinglearned grossvsfine openvs closed 2Practice conditions Feedback massedus distributed Blocked us random 3 Personalcharacteristics oflearner Agetypeoflearnerhealthmotivation Gentile's 2 stagemodel motorlearningprogressesthroughtwostagesandis presented fromtheperspective ofthegoalofthelearnerineachsta Type ofskillreview closedskills Stablestationary Nothing inthe environmentchanges or moves Involves a stationarysupportingsurfaceobjectandor otherpeople Performerinitiatesthemovementinvolveinperformingthe skill i.e buttoning ashirtpickingup a copwhenseatedat atableshooting astationarytarget Openskills unstabledynamic enviornment inwhich supporting surfacesobjectsand otherpeoplearein motionwhentheskillisperformed or initiationoftheir Performermusttimethe withanexternalfeature movements Enviornmentfeaturesdeterminewhen tobeginaction i esurfingstriking a movingtargetcatching athrownobject Conditions in Openclosedskills Regulatory conditions thingsthatdirectlyimpactyourabilitytocompletethemotorskill i.e Sizeshapeoftheopponenttheweightoftheobjectspeeddirectionofobject Nonregulatoryconditions thingsthatdonotinfluence movementitselfbutmaybepresent ie colouroftheobjectsoundsintheenviornment Gentile's2stagemodel 1InitalStage 2laterstage Initalstage 2goals 1Acquiremovementcoordinationpatterto matchregulatory conditions 2Discriminatebetweenregulatory andnonregulatory conditions Laterstage 3 goals 1Developcapability ofadaptingmovement pattern 2 Increase consistency 3Improve efficiency ofmovement Laterstages thegoalsdepend onthetypeofskillbeinglearned closedskills requirefixation of movementpatterns Refinethemovementpatternto consistentlyrepeattheoptimalaction worktowardperformingthemovementpatternwithlittletono consciouseffortandminimum physicalenergy Openskills Requirediversification of movementpatterns Refinethemovementpattern toenable application tochangingenvironmental contexttemporalandspatial Becomeattuned totheregulatoryconditionsmodify movements tomeettheirconstantlychangingdemands ontheperformer Examples Earlystage Focus on acheivingtheaction goal developingthebasicmovementconditionpattern Establish practicesituationsthatprovide opportunities todiscriminatebetween regulatory andnonregulatory characteristics Laterstage closedskills practicesituationssimilar as possible toeveryday worldenvironment i e writingwiththesamepenonthesamesurface shootingbasketballfreethrows inthesame environment asthegameshootingarrowsundermatch conditions Openskills practice varythecontrollable regulatory conditionsof theperformance situationlettingother characteristi Occurnormally i e walkingdown a hallway controlthenumberofpeople butthepeoplewalkatwhateverspeed direction theywant Performerandperformancechangesacrossthestagesoflearning 1changesin rateofimprovement 2 changes inaltering anold orpreferredcoordinationpattern 3 change in consciousattentionwithperforming askill 4 changesin brainactivity Rateoflearning powerlawof practice Mathematicaldescription oflargeimprovementsduringearlypractice followedbysmaller improvementsduringlaterpractice Negatively accelerated patternismosttypicalof motorlearning Change in rate ofimprovement Rateofimprovementdifferencesbetweenearlyandlatepracticearedueinparttotheamountofpossibleimprovement DevelopingcoordinationpatternsDegrees offreedomproblem learnersdecreasethedegrees offreedomDOF atbeginningstagesoflearning Freezing reducesthecomplexity ofmovementinordertoacheivemovementgoal Aslearning progressesjointsbecome unfrozenandmusclesoperatein afunctional synergyforoptimalperformance egbabythrowing aballvs professionalbaseballplayer  offreedomproblems Developingcoordination PatternsSolvingthedegrees Examined changesin hipkneecoordinationpatternsofbeginnersoccerplayerswithpractice Initalmovementshowedlimitedkneeflexion withpracticeplayersdeveloped akneehipfunctionalsynergy resultedinincreasedkickingvelocity Changes in attentiondemands Fi fage.imalylearnerthinksaboutalmosteverypartofperformance g Autonomous stage skilledlearners maybeable toperformthatskillautomatically General performancecharacteristics ofmotorlearning Attentiondemands reduce Changes inbrainactivity 2 circuits 1Corticocerebellothalamo cortical moreinvolved inearlylearning 2Corticobasalganglia thalamo cortical moreinvolvedinwelllearnedskills Changesinbrainactivity Neuroplasticity supports motorlearning cortex primarymotor somatosensorycortex withlearning Excitabilitychanges Earliestchanges insomatosensorycortex changes insomatosensorycortexcanpredictthe of extent learning Aslearningprogresses corticalactivityreduceswithautomaticity Neuralstructurechanges Greymatterdensityincreases whitematterorganizationchanges Expertise Anexpert apersonwhoislocatedattheextremerightendofthelearning stages continum Expertsinallskillperformance areashaveincommonsome distinct characteristics 1Amountandtypeofpracticethatresultedinexpertise 2knowledge structure organize concepts 3 use ofvision Similaritiesbetweenexperts 1Amountandtype ofpracticeleadingtoexpertise Deliberatepracticedesigned toimprovespecificaspectsthroughreptitionandrefinement expertise isdomain specific 10000hoursofpractice 2 knowledge structure Moreknowledgeaboutthatmovement ofknowledge Differentorganization bettermemory of discreteevents morerulesfordecisionmaking fastermoreaccuratedecisions 3useofvision Searchenviornmentfaster Selectmoremeaningfulinformation in a shorteramount time of Relevance totalnumberofthings consideredin theenvironment Lecture 6 Over learning over training Overlearning continuedpracticeBeyondtheamountnecessary toacheivespecificperformance criterion orgoal Implemented bydeterminingtheamountofpractice necessary toacheive criterionandthenpracticingmore Overlearningexample Performance criterion get a scoreof0.5 onthestarmirrortracingtask oftrials ittakestoearn0.5 10trials Overlearning protocol training 20trials 100 over 150 overtraining 25trials training 30trials 200 over OverlearningEffect onperformance overlearningusuallyhasapositive effectonretentionperformance greateramountsofoverlearningmayleadtogreater improvements inperformance Proceduralskilldefined Skillsthatinclude a combination ofcognitiveandmotorcomponentsandrequire performanceof aseries ofrelatively simple movements Movementsmay beeasysimple Selection andorder ofmovements isimportant Examples changingoil in acar assembling abike kneereplacementsurgery Overlearning Proceduralskills Purpose toassesstherelativecostsandbenefits oftrainingapproachesformaintaining performance of amachinegundisassemblyover aprolongedinterval Participants 38USarmyreservesoilders Ages1859yrs average 28yrs Protocol Practiceassemblinganddisassembling a machine gun Performancecriterion 1 correctassemblydisassembly training 100 moretrialsthanittooktoreachcriterion over Groups 1Intermediate overtraining OT trainingduringfirstpracticesession over 2 Refresher overtraining RT overtraing 4weekslater 3 Control Noovertraining Retentiontest 8wks followingfirstpractice session Measurement oferrors trialofretentiontests duringfirst Results Resultssuggestthattheamountoftraining moreimportantthanthe timingoftraining is Conclusions theimmediateovertraininggroupslearnedthetaskbetterthan thecontrolgroup Nodifferenceinperformancebetweenimmediateandrefresherovertraininggroup theamountoftrainingwasmoreimportantthanthe timingofthat training Implications Provideovertraining experience to enhanceretentionof a proceduralskill Immediate overtraining isrecommended overdelayed overtraining because it is morecost andtime effective Overlearning Point ofdiminishingreturns Pointofdiminishingreturns amountofpracticewherethebenefitsarenot proportionaltotheamountofpractice Negativeeffectofoverlearning Over learningstrategycanleadto poorlearning Whatwouldaccountforpoorlearning 1Reducedcognitiveeffort extendedpractice ofrelativelysimpleskillsresultedin learnersnotcontinuingtoengageinappropriate amounts of cognitiveeffort Acertainamount of attention is required toimprove askill ifzoneoutfromboredomlesslearning occurs 2 Noimprovement to adaptability ofthesame relativelysimple movementresultin decreased capability toremember extended practice themovements aswellas totransferto a movementvariation needforpracticevariability OverlearningYes orNo learningcannottakeplacewithoutpractice learning proposedpracticingbeyondtheattainment ofacertaingoalcriterion over mostoverlearning researchsuggestsoverlearning isnotessential otherfactorshavea strongerinfluence onmotorlearning Distribution ofpractice thepracticedistributionproblem Youhave aspecific amountoftimetopracticeforafuturetest Whatisthebestway toscheduletheavailabletimeintermsof thelength andfrequency ofthepracticesessions fewerbutlongermorebutshorter thelengthofrestintervalsbetweentrialsduringeach practicesession Norestshortlong PracticeDistributionsdefined massedpractice a practiceschedulewithveryshort intervals ofrestbetweensessions ortrials sessions longerandfewer Restintervals None short orveryshort DistributedPractice A practiceschedulewithrelativelylong intervals ofrestbetweensessions ortrials Sessions shorterandmore Restintervalslongerthanmassed Relativelyshort Whichdistribution is moremassed distributed Mostmassed B mostdistributed D ChallengeswithMassedPractice 1Increasedchanceforfatiguetonegativelyinfluencedmassedpractice 2Massedpracticereducestheamountofcognitiveeffort how learners getbored orpractice ismonotonous 3Consolidationofmemoryrepresentation of ashillmaytakemoretimethanis permitted in massedpractice Notimeforneuro biochemicalprocesstooccurortostore memory Sleepisimportant Distribution of practice study Purpose toexaminetheeffects of distributedpracticeonmotorlearning Participants 14undergradstudents Protocol Taskbalance onstabilometerfor90seconds Bothgroupsrecievedcocurrentaugmentedvisualfeedback 2 sessions 7trialssessions 1daygroup bothsessionsonsamedaymassed 20minsapart 2daygroup onesessiondayoverconsecutivedaysdistributed 24hoursapart Retentiontest 7trialswithoutfeedback24hoursfollowingpractice Measurement RMSerrorfromhorizontal degree Results Bothgroupsimprovedoverpracticesessions Bothgroupscontinuedtoimproveoverretentiontrials 2daygroupshowedbestperformance lessRMSonretentionsignificantlylesserror conclusions distributedpractice wasmorebeneficialthanmassedpracticeforlearning a continousbalancetask Implications Distributedpracticeacrossdaysbenefits performanceandlearning ofcontinousmotorskillscompared tomassed practicewithinoneday Conclusionsandapplication Distributedpracticeresultsinbetter performance on retentiontests Distributed practice isbeneficial forcontinousskills massedpractice is benefical fordiscreteskills moreshortersessionsisidealscheduleforlearning Whatif longerlessfrequentpracticesis allyouhave Shorterbut moretrialswithin apracticesession fordiscreteskillsthing thattakeashortamount timetoperform of restbetweentrialsshort the keep Lecture 8 PracticeVariabilityandspecificity Concept Variabilityofpracticeexperiences is moreimportantforlearningmotorskills in allsettings i e rehabilitationteaching coaching Practicevariability Practicevariability Referstothevariety ofmovementandcontextcharacteristicsthelearnerexperiences whilepracticinga skill movement andcontextcharacteristicsthatcanbevariedin practice 1Skillvariationsthatwillbereviredinthetestperformance conditions 2 physical context inwhichtheskill isperformed enviornment 3 Situation in whichtheshilloccurs emotionalstate fatiguestate ThefuturePerformanceBenefitofPracticeVariability Researchshowsthatmore practicevariability isbetter learningandperformance infuture test for performance game competition situations Practicevariabilitybenefitcanbereleate totheincreasedamountof performance errorduringpractice i e morevariability moreerror greaterlearning rememberthatperformance is NOTlearning Implementing Practicevariability need to assesscharacteristics ofthephysical contextandskillcharacteristics ofthatperformance Note abouttransferoflearningeffectivetransferneeds similaritiesbetweenskillcontextandcognitive processing characteristics practice to test cant be in aclosed enviornment fortoolong if beingtested on anopenshilled Closedskill Nointertrialvariability VarynonregulatoryconditionsNoisecolourectwillbepresent DoNotvaryregulatoryconditions trialsarethesamefromrepetitiontorepetition Intertrialvariability Varyregulatory andnonregulatoryconditions Openskill Varyregulatoryandnonregulatory conditions OrganizingVariablePractice ContextualInterference thedisruptionofmemoryandperformancethatresultsfromperformingvariations of ashillwithinthecontextofpracticin i e throwingindifferentwaysoverhandunderhandwindmill Blocked keeppracticingthesameversionoftheskillover andoverandoverconsecutively Serial Differentversionsoftheskillbutinthesameorder Random Differentversionsofthe skillnever inthesameorder Thelearningbenefitresultingfromperformingmultipleskills in ahighcontextualinterferencepractice schedule random ratherthanperformingthe skillsin a lowcontextual interferencescheduleblocked Laboratoryexperiments SheaandMorgan1979 Participantspracticed 3variationof movementpatternswiththegoal tomoveonearmthrough aseriesofsma woodbarriers as rapidlyaspossible onegroupfollowed a blockedscheduleandarea randomschedule bothgroupspracticedforthesamenumberoftrials ResultsRandompracticeschedulehadpoorerperformanceduring practicebutperformedbetteron retentionand transfertests Contextualinterference andjudgements aboutlearning A characteristic ofblockedpracticeschedules Metacognitionwhatweknowaboutwhatweknow learnersoverestimatetheirlearning Performance duringpracticemisleadsthemtojudgetheyarelearningmorethantheyactuallyare SimonandBjork2001 5 keysequence on acomputer Randomvsblocked Askedtopredicthowwelltheythinktheywilldo PracticalApplication in rehab settin Hanlon1996 an application ofthecontextualinterference effecttothephysicaltherapyofstrokepatients 24adultpatientswithchronichemiparesisdueto aunilateralcerebrovascularaccident CVA orstroke movementsequenceusedhemiparetic arm toperform a 5 step sequencedesignedto approximatestepsneededto 1Opena cupboarddoor 2 Grasp acoffeecupbythehandle 3 liftthecupoffitsshelf 4 placethecuponthecounter 5releasethegrasp Practiceconditions Randompractice 10trials in onesessionperdayuntilparticipantsacheivedtheperformancecriterionof 3 consecutivecorrecttrials Betweeneachtrial participants performed 3 othertasks 1pointing 2 Touchingspecific objects 3 touchingspecificspotson ahorizontalsurface BlockedPracticeschedule 10trialsinonesessionperdayuntilparticipants acheivedtheperformancecriterionof 3consecutivecorrecttrials Nopracticecontrolcondition Retention tests Allparticipants performedthe 5stepmovementsequencefor5trialstwoand 7daysaftertheendofthepracticesessio Results PracticetrialsNostatistically significantdifferencebetweentherandomandblockedpracticegroups forthemeannumberof trialsrequired to acheivetheperformancecriterion Retention testsTherandom practicegroupperformed significantlymoresuccessfultrialsonboth retentiontes thantheblocked group andcontrolgroup Blockedpracticedidnotdifferfromthecontrolgrouponthefirstretentiontestbutsignificantlybetter onthe secondretentiontest conclusion it ispossibletocreatethecontextualinterference effectin aclinicalsettingby interposingotheractivities betweentrials or repetitionsoftheskill oractivity being rehabilitated thefunctionalbenefitis alongerlasting performance improvement thanwouldresultfrom repeatingrepetitions withouttheinterviewactivities Application in theclinicsetting Yogaclasses Physio Blockedpractice forthefirst fewweeksthenserialthenrandom Nextlevelofclassoneweekofreviewblockedandthenrandom Exerciseprescription Blockedfirstthenrandom amongtheirotherexercisesthat added are Limitsofthecontextual interferenceEffect Researchshowsmuch supportforthecontextual interferenceeffectbutalsoshowsthat isnotNOTapplytoallmotor skilllearningsituations Characteristics related tothelimitsof theeffect Motorskillcharacteristics inthelabwhentheskillsaremoredissimilarthansimilar it isbetterbutinthe realworldtheoppositeistrue Learnercharacteristics ie age youngerlearnersbenefitfromblockedpractice i e skilllevellow skillbenefitsfromblocked ie Taskdifficultly higherClwillbeoptimalforlearningskillswiththelowestlevelsofdifficultybutlessoptimalfor skillswith thehighestlevelsofdifficulty Whydoescontextualinterferenceeffectoccur Twopredominanthypotheses 1Elaborationhypothesis Theeffectisrelatedtotheelaborationofthe memoryrepresentationof theshillvariationsthata learnerispracticing 2 Actionplanreconstruction hypothesis highamountsofcontextualinterferencebenefitlearningbecausetheinterferencerequires aperson to reconstruct an actionplan onsubsequentpracticetrialsforeachskillvariation Regardlessofwhichhypothesistwoimportantcharacteristicshavebeendemonstrated 1higherlevelsofcontextualinterferenceinvolvesgreaterattentiondemandsduringpractice 2 Peoplewhopracticeaccordingto ablockedscheduletendto overestimatehowwelltheyarelearningduringpractice Practicespecificity specificityofpracticehypothesis testperformance is directly related tothesimilaritybetweencharacteristics ofthepracticeandtestconditions oneoftheoldestprinciplesofhumanlearning early1900s 3 practicetestcharacteristics relatedtothepracticespecificityhypothesis 1Sensory perceptualcharacteristics 2 Performance contextcharacteristics 3 Cognitiveprocessingcharacteristics Sensory Perceptualcharacteristics motorskilllearning isspecifictothesourcesof sensoryperceptualinformationavailable duringpractice i euseofvision ifvisionisusedinperformancethenitshouldbeavailableduringpractice i e watching askilledperformerrightvslefthandonlyhasbenefitwhenperformingwiththerighthand Visual metronome Performance contextcharacteristics themorethememorytest contextresemblesthepracticethebetterretentionperformancewillbe Intentionalremembering when youmustrememberspecified characteristicsof anenviornmentcontext Incidentalremembering remembering ofrelatedbutnonessentialpartsofthecontext peoplelearnmoreaboutthecontextthan theyareexplicitlyinstructedtolearn i e testinginthesameenvironmentaspracticecuesaidstohelpthemretrieveinformation CognitiveProcessing characteristics practiceneedssometype of cognitiveprocessing asis requiredintransfertest transferappropriateprocessingtheory thetypeofpracticethatisbestwhen apersonislearning askillrequires thesametipe ofcognitiveprocessingactivitythatwillrequire in atransfertestregardlessofthephysicalsimilaritybetweenthepracticeandtestskills iftestsituationrequiresrapiddecisionmakingpracticeshouldconsistofactivitiesthatrequirerapiddecisionmaking i.ebalancewithcognitivetaskusjustbalance Relatingthepracticevariabilityandspecifichypotheses Althoughtheyseematoddsresearchindicatesthat eachhypothesismaypertaintospecificaspects thepracticecontext of thepracticeVariability hypothesisexplainstheretentionand transferbenefitassociatedwithpracticingmultiplevariationsof askill Hepracticespecificityhypothesisexplainswhyretentionandtransferperformancetendtobebetterwhenthepracticeandtestsconte aresimilarto 1Sensoryperceptualinfo 2Theenviornmentcontext 3 thecognitiveprocessing requirements Worthnotingthehigherthecontextualinterferenceduringpracticethemoresimilartothetestsituationitactually is Lecture8 Twotypesofperformancerelatedfeedback 1Taskintrinsicfeedback Naturallyoccuringfeedbacksensory perceptualinformationthatis anatural partofperforming a skill i e seethetargetfeeltheballheartheswooshproprioception 2 Augumented feedback performancerelatedinformationadding toorenhancingtaskintrinsicfeedback TwoformsofAugumentedfeedback 1knowledgeofresults HR Additional orenhancedinformationaboutthemovementoutcomeor ofmovementgoal achievement ie movementoutcomeyour shotwas5amtoolongYourtunewasflexed10degreestoomuch ie ofmovementgoalRedlightshotmissedgreenlight shotmadebuzzersoundswhenappropriateflexion activement reached 2knowledgeofperformance up Additional orenhanced information aboutthemovement characteristicsleadingtotheperformanceoutcome i e youdidntbringtheclubbackforenoughwatchingvideobuzzerorlightwhencertainmusclesfires biofeedback HowdoesAugmentedfeedbackenhancemotorlearning 1facilitatesache of ivement action goal 2Motivateslearnertocontinuewithlearning Whendoyouneedaugumatedfeedback Augumentedfeedbackis essential if 1Skillperformancedoesnotproducecriticalsensoryfeedback 2Injurydiseasehasremovedsensoryinformation 3Performercannotusecriticaltask intrinsic feedbackappropriately Whendoyounot needaugumentedfeedback Augumentedfeedback isnotessentialif taskintrinsicfeedback Performanceprovides sufficient sometimesaugumentedfeedbackisredundantanddoesnot enhancelearning Augmentedfeedbackcanimpairmotorlearningwhen 1taskintrinsicfeedbackisminimal ordifficulttointerpret learnerends substitutingagumentedfortaskintrinsic up 2Augmented feedback isincorrect itscorrectornot learners especiallyearlywilluseaugmentedfeedbackwhether laterlearnersmaybeabletodetectifthefeedbackiscorrectornot willuseaugmented feedbackevenifits redundant learners 3 Concurrent augumentedfeedback 4 Augumentedfeedbackisprovidedtoofrequently Augumentedfeedbacktiming Timing 1Whenshouldfeedbackbeprovided during After Frequency 2Howoftenshouldfeedbackbeprovided Aftereveryattempte.g100 lessfrequente.g5025 eat Timing ofaugumented feedback Terminal vs concurrent Terminal agumentedfeedback is providedafterthemovementperformance attempt Concurrent agumentedfeedback is provided during themovementperformance usuallyenhancestask intrinsicfeedback i.etonelightindicatingwhenin out ofboundaries i.e Realtimedisplay ofkinematics i.e Auditorytonethatsoundswhen a certainmuscleactivatesfor amovementgoalishelpfulwithspecific muscle activation i.eVerbal feedback ConcurrentAugmentedFeedback it Concurrentaugmentedfeedbackcanhave a negativelearningeffect performerbecomesdependent onthattypeof feedback Whenconcurrent augumented feedback is removed in alearningtestperformance is impaired Concurrent augmented feedback canimpairmotorlearning KR 1 andCF areprovidedwiththesamefrequencybutwithdifferenttiming Purpose investigatetheeffects ofterminalkineticfeedbackfrequencyandconcurrentkineticfeedback ontheperformance andlearningofon isometricforceproductiontask Participants 24healthy righthanded adults Protocol taskproduce a 5 secondisometricelbowextensionforce Augumentedfeedback forceproductiontracing Groups 1Concurrentfeedback 2Terminalfeedbackaftereverytrial 3 Terminalfeedbackaftereveryothertrial Protocol Retentiontest No agumented feedback After 5minutes rest IMM After 48hr DEL Measurement RootmeansquareError RMSE Results Data pointsrepresents 10trials forpracticeacquisition 30trials forretention test Conclusions timing concurrentfeedback is lessdesirable formotorlearningthanterminalfeedback Implications Concurrentaugmentedfeedback canhave a negativeeffecton motorlearning Howdoyouknow if concurrentfeedbackwillenhance orimpairmotorlearning 1 Informativeness if task intrinsicfeedback isnotinformativeandtheaugumentedfeedbackis highlyinformative then concurrent augmentedfeedback willlead to a dependencyontheaugmentedfeedback 2 If it facilitatesthelearningofthecriticaltaskintrinsicfeedbackthenconcurrentfeedbackwillenhancelearning Negativelearningeffect if augmentedfeedbackdistracts attentionfromcriticaltaskintrinsicfeedback Positive learningeffect if augmented feedbackdirectsattentiontocriticaltaskintrinsicfeedback Frequency ofAugmentedfeedback conclusionsfrequency 50 feedbackwasmoreeffectivethan100 forlearning Implications Optimalfeedbackfrequency is 100 Whyisreducedfrequencysometimesbetter Guidance hypothesis feedback aftereverytrial mayleadto adifferenttypeoflearning lessfrequentfeedback encouragesdifferentlearningstrategieslikeactive problem solving anddoes not create a dependency Techniques toreduce augmentedfeedbackfrequency 1Performancebased Bandwidths feedbackbasedonperformance criterion 2Yoking pairparticipants torecievethesamefrequencyoffeedback 3 SelfselectedFrequency learneronlyrecievesfeedbackuponrequest 4Summary andaverage augmentedfeedback provides a listafter a certainnumberoftrials Performance basedbandwidth Performancebandwidth arangeofacceptableerrors inwhich augmentedfeedbackisNOTprovided bestifperformerknowsin advancethatno Techniqueworks KRmensthemovementwascorrect providingfeedbackbasedon criterion of performance error reducedthefrequencyoffeedback Allowstheindividual reduction offeedbackfrequencyspecifictothelearners andhishertheirrateoflearning Yoking Pairingparticipants torecievethesamefrequencyoffeedbackbutfordifferent ParticipantIa recievesfeedback basedon10 errorbasedperformance bandwidth participant Ib is yoked to participant Ia andrecievesfeedback onthesametrialsregardless ofthishertheir performance Selfselectedfrequency learneronlyrecievesfeedbackupon request Shown toenhance motorlearningand is usuallylessthan 100 notconcurrentfeedback Enhancedlearningis due tomorethanjust a reducedfrequency offeedback Allowsbeginners toengagein problem solvingstrategiesduringlearning provides motivationtocontinuepracticing Summary andaveraged augmented feedback provide a list ofinformation after a certain beroftrials useful if feedback cannotbegivenaftereverytria Evidence showseffectiveness inlearninglikelydueto reducedfrequencyofher Simpleskillsmaybenefitfromlongersummariescomplexskillsmaybenefitfromshortersummaries Augmentedfeedbackcanenhancemotorlearning improvetherate Augmentedfeedbackcan oflearning orthelevelofperformancebeyondwhatis possiblewithonlytaskintrinsic feedback i e speedbasedmovements performercandetectlarge improvements inspeedduringearlystagesoflearningbutnot on Smallimprovementslater ie complexskillrequiringcoordination sometimesnot easytofeelsee Slowmotionvideo Examples ofaugmented knowledgeofperformance VerbalKP 1DescriptiveKPdescribestheperformanceover 2 PrescriptiveKP identifieserrorandprovidescorrectiveinformation Besttype ofverbalUPdependsonthestageoflearning beginnersbenefitfromperspective advancedperformers canselfcorrectusingdescriptiveKP VideoKP Effectiveness dependsonskilllevel theeffectivenessof avideoreplayonskillacquisitiondependsontheskillleveloftheperformer beginnersrequireanexpert evaluator tohighlightcriticalinformation informationbutmaybenefitfrom Advancedperformersmaynotneedthatextra anexpertsfeedback VideoreplayKPenhancesmotorlearningofthesecomponentswhichareeasilyobserved VideoreplayKPmaybenomoreeffectivethanverbalRPforthosecomponentsthat arenoteasilyseen Kinematic KP providesfeedbackabout some aspect ofthemovementthatis otherwisedifficulttoperceive Advantage ofkinematicKPdependsontheskillbeinglearned Skillswithcleartaskintrinsic orwellknowntasksmaynotbenefitfromtheextrainformationprovidedbykinematickP TypesofKP Biofeedback Biofeedback augmented formoftaskintrinsicfeedbackrelatedtotheactivity fordependence onbiofeedbackexists potential In general biofeedback iseffective in enhancingmotorlearning What shouldfeedback consist of Augmented feedback content providingfeedback aboutwhatwaswrong ismorehelpfulthanwhatwasright