PSYC1010 Development Lecture Slides PDF

+ PSYC1010 DEVELOPMENT + Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Question Developmental Psychology: branch of psychology looking at patterns of growth & change occurring throughout life. Challenged previous view of infancy a...

+ PSYC1010 DEVELOPMENT + Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Question Developmental Psychology: branch of psychology looking at patterns of growth & change occurring throughout life. Challenged previous view of infancy and adolescence as only interesting periods of growth and change! Examines the interaction between the unfolding of biologically predetermined patterns of behaviour and the changing, dynamic environment. Examines how our genetics influence our behaviour throughout our lives. + Nature and Nurture Rather than asking nature OR/VS. nurture, we now ask, how and to what degree do environment and heredity both produce their effects? Heredity = influences based on the genetic makeup of an individual that influence growth and development. Environment = influences of parents, siblings, friends, schooling, nutrition, and all other experiences to which a child is exposed. + Characteristics Most Affected by Heredity Physical Intellectual Emotional Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics and Disorders Height Memory Shyness Weight Intelligence Extraversion Age of language Obesity Emotionality acquisition Tone of voice Reading disability Neuroticism Blood pressure Intellectual disabilities Schizophrenia Tooth decay Anxiety Athletic ability Alcoholism Firmness of handshake Age of death Activity level + Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture: Twin Studies Twins are an important source of information about the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors. If identical twins (who share 100% of their genetics) display different patterns of development, those differences must be attributed to variations in the environment in which the twins were raised. The most useful data come from identical twins who are adopted at birth by different sets of adoptive parents and raised apart in differing environments. + Developmental Research Techniques Cross-sectional research compares people of different ages at the same point in time (snapshot) It provides information about differences in development between different age groups. Longitudinal research traces the behaviour of the same group of participants over time as they age. Assesses change in behaviour over time, unlike cross- sectional studies, which assess differences among groups of people at one time. Sequential research combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by taking a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time. Makes up for limitations in cross-sectional and longitudinal research.  Prenatal Development + From Conception to Birth + The Basics of Genetics Conception = when a sperm cell penetrates an egg cell. The one-cell entity established at conception contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (one set from the sperm & the other from the egg). Chromosomes = rod-shaped structures that contain the basic hereditary information. Each chromosome contains thousands of genes. Genes = parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted. Composed of sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), genes are the biological equivalent of “software” that programs the future development of all parts of the body’s hardware. + The Basics of Genetics The child’s biological sex is determined by a particular combination of genes. ** (assigned at birth) A child inherits an X chromosome from its mother and either an X or a Y chromosome from its father. When it receives an XX combination, it is a female; with an XY combination, it develops as a male. Male development is triggered by a single gene on the Y chromosome, and without the presence of that specific gene, the individual will develop as a female. + Earliest Development Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm at the time of conception. The germinal period = first 2 weeks after conception where the zygote increases to 100–150 cells within a week after fertilization. Embryo: developed zygote with heart, brain, other organs. Develops through an intricate, preprogrammed process of cell division during the embryonic period (week 2 through week 8). By week 4, it has a rudimentary beating heart, brain, intestinal tract, and several other organs. + Earliest Development Fetus is a developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth (the fetal period). Age of viability: point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely (about prenatal age of 22 weeks). If born at this age, it can open and close its eyes; suck; cry; look up, down, and around; and even grasp objects placed in its hands. Preterm infants are those who are born before week 38. Because they have not been able to develop fully, they are at higher risk for illness, future problems, and even death. + Critical Periods of Development Before birth, a fetus passes through several sensitive periods, which are times during development when specific events (or stimuli) have their greatest impact. Certain developing systems are vulnerable to a mother’s use of drugs, for instance, during certain sensitive periods before birth, and less so before or after that sensitive period. Teratogens = legal and illegal drugs, alcohol, and radiation can alter or harm the development of the unborn baby’s body or brain. Timing of exposure may determine the significance of the impact, and which bodily systems are affected. + Teratogens Explored Examples of major teratogens: Illness: Diseases that have a relatively minor effect on the mother can have devastating consequences for a fetus if they are contracted during the early part of a pregnancy. Drug use: Mothers who take illegal, physically addictive drugs run the risk of giving birth to babies who are similarly addicted. Alcohol use: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) effects range from mild to severe and include physical abnormalities, sensory integration variables, learning disabilities, and/or behavioural issues, which are incurable. There is no safe level of alcohol intake during pregnancy. Affects 9 out of 1000 babies born in Canada. + List of Environmental Influences Environmental Factor Possible Effect on Prenatal Development Rubella (German measles) Blindness, deafness, heart abnormalities, stillbirth Intellectual disability, physical deformities, maternal Syphilis miscarriage Low birth weight, addiction of infant to drug, with possible Addictive drugs death after birth from withdrawal Nicotine Premature birth, low birth weight and length Intellectual disability, lower-than-average birth weight, small Alcohol head, limb deformities Radiation from X-rays Physical deformities, intellectual disability Reduction in growth of brain, smaller-than-average weight Inadequate diet and length at birth Mother’s age—younger than 18 at birth Premature birth, increased incidence of Down syndrome of child Mother’s age—older than 35 at birth of Increased incidence of Down syndrome child Reproductive difficulties and increased incidence of genital DES (diethylstilbestrol) cancer in children of mothers who were given DES during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage Possible spread of AIDS virus to infant; facial deformities; AIDS growth failure Accutane Intellectual disability and physical deformities  Infancy & Childhood + 1. What are the major competencies of newborns? 2. What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood? 3. How does cognitive development proceed during childhood? + Reflexes Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli: Rooting reflex: Causes neonates to turn their heads toward things that touch their cheeks Sucking reflex: Prompts infant to suck at things that touch its lips. Gag reflex: Clearing of throat. Startle reflex: series of movements in which the infant flings out its arms, fans its fingers, and arches its back in response to a sudden noise. + Ages indicate the time when 50% of children can perform each skill. Varies considerably. (e.g., 25% of children can walk well at age 11 months; and by 15 months, 90% of children are walking well.) Development driven by biological maturation & enhanced by active exploration of environment, including cultural differences in activity levels. + What Do You Think? Q - What does it mean to be attached to someone? Q- What factors contribute to our attachment to another person? Q – What factors get in the way, or hinder our attachment to another person? + Attachment Attachment = emotional bonds with another evidenced by seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on separation. Evolutionary advantageous to bond with those who feed you, change your diapers, comfort you. Profound deprivation of attachment associated with cognitive and emotional impairment. Q - Is modern day life designed to support attachment? + Attachment: Lorenz’s Imprinting Earliest studies of attachment were carried out by animal ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1965). Focused on newborn goslings, who instinctively follow their mother, the first moving object to which they are exposed. Found goslings whose eggs were raised in an incubator and who viewed him immediately after hatching would follow his every movement, as if he were their mother. He labeled this process imprinting, behaviour that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed. + Harlow’s Monkeys: Food or Comfort? - Studied infant rhesus monkeys (our close genetic relatives) - Separated from their mothers only hours after birth. - Placed them in cage with two fake mothers: one wire mom, and one terrycloth mom. - Would feed from wire mom, preferred contact with cloth mom - When frightened, they sought out contact comfort of cloth mom. + Bowlby on Attachment Infants must be biologically programmed to emit behaviours that trigger affectionate responses from caregivers (e.g., crying, clinging). Adults/caregivers must be biologically programmed to respond to such behaviours with care and nurturance. The greater the responsiveness of the caregiver to the child’s signals, the more likely the child will become securely attached. The infant plays just as active a role as the caregiver forming bonds. Reciprocity builds attachment = Infants who respond positively to a caregiver produce more positive behaviour from caregiver, which in turn produces an even stronger + Bowlby’s Attachment Behavioural System + Assessing Attachment: The Strange Situation Used separation anxiety as a proxy or measure of attachment Sequence of events involving a child and their mother, where the child’s reactions to the experimental situation vary drastically, depending on their attachment to the mother: Securely attached: explore independently but returning to their mother occasionally, exhibit distress when she leaves, and go to her when she returns. Avoidant: do not cry when the mother leaves, avoid her when she returns, as if they were indifferent to her. Ambivalent: display anxiety before separation and are upset when the mother leaves, but they may show ambivalent reactions to her return. Disorganized-disoriented: show inconsistent, contradictory behaviour. + Strange Situation Task Stages + Assessing Attachment The nature of attachment between children and their primary caregivers has consequences for later development. Children who are securely attached at age 1: Tend to be more socially and emotionally competent, and others find them more cooperative, capable, and playful. Show fewer psychological difficulties when they grow older compared with avoidant and ambivalent youngsters. Tend to have more successful romantic relationships. + Adult Attachment Styles WHICH ONE OF THESE BEST DESCRIBES YOU? A. I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often, others want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being. B. I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me. C. I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to stay with me. I want to get very close to my partner, and this sometimes scares people away. + Hazan & Shaver: Adult Attachment Infant attachment relationships lead to internal working models about adult relationships. Securely attached children grow into well-adjusted adults with positive schemas about relationships, solid sense of self worth. e.g. set healthy boundaries & expectations, not codependent Insecurely attached children struggle with adult relationships, as their schemas are flawed, sense of self worth is inconsistent or absent. e.g., have porous boundaries, low expectations, have enmeshed or co-dependent relationships + Boundary Styles + Enmeshment in Families + Parenting Styles & Development Temperament = innate disposition that emerges early in life. A child’s temperament may in part bring about particular kinds of parent-child rearing strategies. Children vary in their degree of resilience, the ability to overcome circumstances that place them at high risk for psychological or even physical harm. A child’s upbringing results from an interaction between the parenting philosophy of parents, specific practices they use, and the nature of their own and their child’s personalities. Q – Dr. Gopnik refers to parents as gardeners & carpenters. Which type of parent(s) did you have?  STAGE THEORIES OF + DEVELOPMENT COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT + Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erikson viewed developmental changes occurring throughout life as a series of 8 stages of psychosocial development, of which 4 occur during childhood. Psychosocial development = changes in our interactions and understanding of one another as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society. Erikson suggests that passage through each of the stages necessitates the resolution of a crisis or conflict. Each crisis is never resolved entirely, but it has to be resolved sufficiently to equip us to deal with demands made in the next stage. Erikson’s Stage Theory Illustrated +  + Erikson’s Stages 1. Trust versus mistrust: (Birth to 1 ½ years) Infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust, based on interaction w/primary caregivers. 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt: (1 ½ to 3 years) Toddlers develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected. 3. Initiative versus guilt : (3 to 6 years) Children experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes-negative results of that action. 4. Industry versus inferiority: (6 to 12 years) Children may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel socially inadequate. + Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Children aren’t mini adults, nor passive recipients of experience. Development involves transitional periods (stages) that children must pass through on their way to more adult-like thinking. Children are motivated to match their experiences with their beliefs about the world (schemas) They engage in assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation: incorporating new experiences into current understanding. Schema remains unchanged, relatively low cognitive effort required. Accommodation: new experience forces adjustment/modification to the existing schemas. + Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget suggested that children around the world proceed through a series of four stages in a fixed order: Cognitive Stage Approximate Age Major Characteristics Range Development of object permanence, development of motor skills, little or Sensorimotor Birth–2 years no capacity for symbolic representation Development of language and Preoperational 2–7 years symbolic thinking, egocentric thinking Concrete Development of conservation, 7–12 years operational mastery of concept of reversibility Formal 12 years– Development of logical and abstract operational adulthood thinking + Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) Children’s understanding of the world is based primarily on touching, sucking, chewing, shaking, manipulating objects. Children have relatively very little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or symbols. Infants lack object permanence: the awareness that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out of sight. Object permanence is critical development during this stage. + Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) The most important development at this stage is use of language. Children develop internal representational systems that allow them to describe people, events, and and feelings. Use egocentric thought, a way of thinking in which the child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective. They think that everyone shares their own perspective and knowledge (theory of mind) They are unable to understand the principle of conservation: that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement/physical appearance of objects. + Test of Theory of Mind Illustration of Piaget’s Conservation Task + + Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 years) The beginning of this stage is marked by mastery of the principle of conservation. Some aspects of conservation (such as conservation of weight and volume) are not fully understood for several years. Children develop the ability to think in a more logical manner, begin to overcome some of the egocentrism. + Formal Operational Stage (12 years to Adulthood) This stage produces a new kind of thinking, which is abstract, formal, and logical. Thinking is no longer tied to just events that are observed in the environment, able to make use of logical techniques to resolve problems. Formal operational thought emerges during the teenage years but is only used infrequently. According to Piaget, many individuals never reach this stage at all (studies show that only 40 to 60% of college students and adults fully reach it, and as low as 25% in the general population). + Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development: Considering Culture Cognitive development occurs as a result of social interactions in which children work with others to solve problems. Through such interactions, children’s cognitive skills increase, and they gain the ability to function intellectually on their own. Children’s cognitive abilities increase when they encounter information that falls within their zone of proximal development ZPD = The level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own. When children receive information that falls within the ZPD, they can increase their understanding or master a new task. Achieved through use of scaffolding of learning. + Adolescence The so-called “Stormy Period” + Adolescence: Becoming an Adult Developmental stage between childhood and adulthood. Considerable biological change occurs as adolescents attain sexual and physical maturity. Puberty is the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, begins at about age 11 or 12 for females and 13 or 14 for males. For males, the onset of puberty is marked by their first ejaculation, known as spermarche (usually occurs around the age of 13). For females, the onset of puberty is marked by their first menstruation (as early as age 8 or 9 or as late as age 16). **At the same time, important social, emotional, and cognitive changes occur as adolescents strive for independence and move toward adulthood. + Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World “Who am I?” and “How do I fit into the world?” and “What is life all about?” These types of questions become significant particular during the teenage years, as adolescents seek to find their place in the broader social world. This quest takes adolescents along several routes, according to Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory.  + Erikson’s Stages 1. Identity versus role confusion (Adolescence) Adolescents try to determine their own identity (who they are, what their roles are, and what they are capable of). Confusion over the most appropriate role to follow in life can lead to lack of a stable identity, adoption of a peer group norms. 2. Intimacy versus isolation (post-adolescence to early 30s) This stage focuses on developing close relationships with others. Difficulties during this stage result in feelings of loneliness and a fear of such relationships vs. successful resolution results in forming intimate relationships.  + Erikson’s Stages 1. Generativity versus stagnation (Middle adulthood) Generativity = ability to contribute to one’s family, community, work, society, & assist the development of the younger generation. Success results in a person feeling positive about the continuity of life; difficulties lead a person to feeling inconsequential. 2. Ego-integrity versus despair (Late adulthood) At this stage, people reflect on their life’s successes and failures. Success is signified by a sense of ego-integrity, accomplishment; difficulties result in regret over failures, missed opportunities. + The New Adulthood Modern Day Realities + Adulthood Emerging adulthood: The period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-20s) During this period, people are no longer adolescents, but they haven’t fully taken on the responsibilities of adulthood either. Instead, they’re still engaged in determining who they are and what their life and career paths should be. Early adulthood begins around age 20 and lasts until age 40-45 Middle adulthood begins at 45 and continues until around age 65. + Adulthood: New Realities High school education is insufficient, need many years of education to compete in job market. Little job security, lower job satisfaction reported. Marrying later (and less, overall). Approximately 40% of first marriages in Canada end in divorce. Fewer women having children, and those women who are having them, are having them later in life. Q - What impact do these changes on the applicability of Erikson’s stages? + Critical Changes in Late Adulthood Intelligence Most older adults intelligence remains stable, but some declines during late adulthood do occur (fluid intelligence slowly declines, crystallized intelligence remains steady) Memory Major memory changes are NOY an inevitable part of aging, but when memory declines occur during late adulthood, they tend to be limited to episodic memories. Semantic and implicit memories are largely unaffected. + Social Changes in Late Adulthood Disengagement Theory: aging can produce a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels. Provides opportunity for increased reflection and decreased emotional investment in people beyond their immediate circle. Activity Theory: people who age most successful are those who maintain their interests, activities, and level of social interaction. Q - Putting on your critical lens, how are these dependent on social support and financial stability? + Reality Check: Older Adulthood in Canada Canadians are living longer than ever before (yay?) Extra time comes with physical, mental, and economic costs. Rates of poverty are increasing among older adults (esp. women) Many older adults live alone or with minimal support. Face ongoing bereavement as well as their own anxieties around end-of-life care. Q - Despite this, many older adults report more positive emotions & higher life satisfaction than younger adults. Why?